Unit 3 Optics and lasers 3.1 Interference Light waves are electromagnetic disturbances that travel through space. A vibrating electric charge sets up changing electric and magnetic fields around it which spread through space at the speed of light in the form of spherical waves oscillating transverse to the direction of travel. Enough “spherical” wavelets integrate to make a wavefront of any given shape ‘The description er the relationship between these electric and magnetic fields is given in Maxwell's fanvous Set Sf four equations, and from them it is possible to show that the velocity of light ¢ = 1/ fot, where fio is the magnetic permeability of space and ¢9 is the electric permeability of space Tepresenting the storing of energy in inductive or capacitative form ~ which is the basis of the cuuilation. Since they have a transverse wave form, for normal energies these waves can be Tinearly superimposed.Thus, for two waves travelling in opposite directions a standing wave may form, as in the laser cavity. If several beams of slightly differing frequency are collinear, this could create almost any wave form. Two waves travelling with the same frequency and di- rection but with different planes of polarisation will give rise to elliptical or circularly polarised beams. The addition or subtraction of waves is known as interference. Now let us consider, the electric field at any point due to a light wave propagating along the z direction is represented as (scalar form): E(z,t) = Acos(kz — wt), (3.1) where A is the amplitude of the light wave, w is the angular frequency (w = 2rf) and kis the wave number (k = 2r/). Here 2 is the wavelength. Thus Bq.(3.1) can also be written as Blz;t) = Acos [2n(z/2~ ft)] (3.2) ‘The term within the square brackets, called the phase of the wave, varies with respect to time ag well as with the distance along the z-axis from the origin of the light source. In a given medium with a refractive index ‘n’, the speed of light wave is v=c/n, (3:3) aud since its frequency remains unclauiged, its corresponding wavelength is An = A/n. (3.4) 85h Optics and lasers Ifa light wave traverses distance ‘d’ in such a medium, the equivalent optical path is pend. (3.5): When two light waves are superposed, the resultant intensity at any point depends on whether they added or cancelled each other. ‘This is the well-known phenomenon of interference. If the two waves are in phase, then they add together resulting in a larger amplitude. This is called as constructive interference (Fig.3.1) . If the waves are out of phase (exactly one have wavelength) with one another, then they cancel each other. This is called as destructive interference (Fig.3.2). If the waves differ in amplitude and are out of phase with one another, ‘then they add to give a partial cancellation or elimination. ‘This is referred to as partial cancellation interference(Fig.3.3). : -A | ot ANN -u -4 Figure 3.1: Constructive interference. : 4 : -4| Figure 3.2: Destructive interference. + ° Figure 3.3: Partial cancellation interferences. lie light waves are derived from a common source, so that they have the same phase at the origin, so during interference whatever the phase difference Ag exists due to an optical 863.2, AIRWEDGE : THIN FILM INTERFERENCE path difference only. i.e., AP =(A/2m)d¢, (3.6) or a time delay ap _(A ae (*) Ag. (3.7) If Ag, the phase difference between the two light beams varies linearly across the field of view, the intensity varies co-sinusoidally giving rise to alternating light and dark bands known as interference fringes (Fig.3.4). Briefly the interference of light can be defined as a phenomenon in which light + light = darkness. Cr O-W Figure 3.4: Formation of fringe pattern due to interference of light. Conditions: The following conditions must be met to sustain an interference pattern between ‘two sources of light. 1. The light sources must be coherent. They must maintain a constant phase with respect to each other. 2. The light source must have identical wavelengths. 3. The principle of superposition must apply. 3.2 Airwedge : Thin film interference Let us consider two glass plates of equal thickness are placed one atop the other. If a very thin piece of paper is placed between the plates at one edge to provide a thin wedge-shaped air film between the plates, If a sodium vapour lamp light (monochromatic, fixed wavelength 2) is used to illuminate the top surface of the glass plates, then if the eye or a detector is in a position to see the reflected image, it will be made up of dark and bright bands or fringes. ‘The cause of these bands is the interference between the light waves reflected from the glass on the top and bottom surfaces of the air-wedge as shown in Fig.3.5. The thickness of the air-film is maximum at the paper end and it is minimum at the place of contact of the two glass plates AB and CD. The light reflecting from point P comes to the eye or detector by two different paths. In one of these paths, the light is roflected from the top of the air-wedge, in other part it is reflected from the lower side. ‘These rays with respect to point P have travelled different distances and meet in phase or out of phase at the eye or detector, depending on the thickness of the air wedge. 87Optics and lasers to EYE or Detector Wave retlected from bottom surface of glass CD Wave reflected from upper surface of glass AB sure 3.5: Formation of Air-wedge. For the entire surface of the glass, alternate dark and bright fringes appear. For the dark portions, the air film thickness is just right to produce clestructive interference. For the bright portions, the air-film thickness is just right to produce constructive interference. Thus the dark and bright fringes are caused by the interference of light waves reflected from the two sides of the air-thin film. Let the n** bright fringe formed at Z, and the corresponding thickness of the film be th (see Fig.3.6). Then the condition for the bright fringe is (for normal incidence of light) Qty = (n+5) ay n=0,1,2,3, (3.8) Incident — incident light rays Tight ay v teae % a a Figure 3.6: Air-wedge X and Y are two incident light rays. X’ and Y’ are the reflected light rays by an air-film of thickness t, at point Z,. For the reflected light ray Y’, no phase change occurs but for the reflected light ray X’ phase change of 180° occurs. Ray X is reflected by the lower surface of the air-film and ray Y is reflected by the upper surface of the air-film. Here ray X’ undergoes a phase change of 180° with respect to the incident light ray X. Ray Y’ undergoes no phase change with respect to Y. Therefore ray X” is 180° out of phase with respect to ray Y’, a situation that is equivalent to a path difference of A/2. Ray X’ travels an extra distance in the air-film of 2t, before the light waves X’ and Y* recombine at the eye or detector. So the required film thickness tn, for constructive interference condition is given by Eq.(3.8). If the next bright fringe (n + 1)!" ocours at Zn41, then the thickness of the air film at this position is tn41. So for (n + 1)" bright fringe, Eq.(3.8) can be 883.3. MICHELSON'S INTERFEROMETER written as : Qtaat = (ntt4g)a= (n+3) 7 (3.9) Subtracting Eq.(3.8) from (3.9) results with 2llnat = tn) = (2.10a) or (3.10b) In an ait-wedge set-up, consider there are n - bright fringes are formed at positions 21, 22, 23, -. Zn Let t),ta, ty, .-tn be the corresponding thickness of the air film at these positions. Asn bright fringes are formed between the distances 2, and zo, then in t=n5, (3.11) tn = 0 (refer Fig.3.6). For small angle 8, then If the distance, z, — zo = L, then tan@ nd a 3.12) L oL’ (3.12) a the thickness of the paper, then (3.13) If §B" is the distance between two successive bright fringes, then it is known as fringe width. BHa-4 =m As (3.14) From Eq.(3.12), ; b= aH (3.15) From Eq.(3.13), oe B Wa/L) ~ 2d (3.16) (or) aL d= (3.17) ‘Thus, the thickness of the paper introduced in between the two glass plates is determined by using Eq.(3.17), by calculating the fringe width 8. 3.3 Michelson’s interferometer ‘An interferometer is an instrument in which the phenomenon of interference is used to make pre- cise measurements of wavelengths or distances. Michelson designed an ingenious interferometer which utilizes the thin film interference. 89Optics and lasers 3.3.1 Principle A beam of light from an extended source is divided into two colicrent beams of equal intensities by partial reflection and refraction, ‘These beams travel in two mutually perpendicular direc- tions and come together after reflection from plano mirrors. The beams overlap on each other and produce Interference fringes. ‘The fringes are circular if the reflecting mirrors are exactly Perpendicular to each other or straight if the mirrors are inclined at a small angle. 3.3.2. Construction The schematic of a simple Michelson interferometer is shown in Fig.3.7. It consists of a beam splitter Gy, a compensating plate Gz, and two plane mirrors M, and Mz. The beam splitter Gy is a partially silvered plane parallel glass plate and it has the property that it transmits half the incident light and reflects the rest. The compensating plate G2 is a simple plane parallel glass plate having the same thickness as G). The two plates G; and Gy are held parallel to each other and are inclined at an angle of 45° with respect to the mirror Mz. The mirror M, is mounted on a carriage and can be moved exactly parallel to itself with the help of a micrometer screw. The distance through which the mirror M, is moved can be read with the help of graduated drum D attached to the screw. Displacements of the order of 0.1 mm can be easily read. The plane mirrors M; and Mz can be made perfectly perpendicular with the help of the fine screws attached to them. The interference bands are observed in the field of view of the telescope T. Figure 3.7: 3.3.3. Working Monochromatic light from an extended source is rendered parallel by means of a collimating lens L and is made incident on the beam splitter G,. It is partly reflected at the back surface of Gy along AC and partly transmitted along AB. The beam AC travels normally towards the plane mirror M; and is reflected back along the same path and comes out along AT. The transmitted beam travels toward the mirror Mz and is reflected along the same path. It is reflected at the back surface of G; and proceeds along AT. The two beans received along AT 903.3. MICHELSON'S INTERFEROMETER ion of amplitude and are hence coherent. The are produced from a single source through d .¢ and produces interference fringes. superposition of these beams lends to interfere Flom the Pig.37 it is clenrly seen that n light ray starting from the source & and undergoing reflection at the mitror My passes through the gins plate G three times. On the other hand, in the absence of plate (2. the ry reflected at Mp travels through the glass plate Gs only once. For compensating this path difference, a compensating plate Gz of the same thickness as that of Gy is inserted into the path AB and is held exactly parallel to Gs. It we look into the instrument from 7, we see mirror My and image, Mj, of mirror Ma. Depending on the positions of the mirrors, of, or behind, or exactly coincident with mirror M, addition we see a virtual age My may be in front, 3.3.4 Optical path difference between the two waves at T: ‘The optical path of the wave that travelled along a LOWMAT = 26M, + 3+ 3 = 26d +A, The optical path of the wave that travelled along Ad LG MgP = 2G Ma + 3 +3 = 26M +>, ‘Therefore, the optical path difference between the two waves = 2(GyMy — GMa) = (a1 - 22) = 2d. (3.18) ‘The two beams interfere constructively if A = mA or destructively if A = (2m-+1 3 Anything that changes the optical path difference will cause a change in the relative phase of the two waves. As an example, if mirror M; is moved by a distance au the path difference changes by ‘and the fringe pattern will shift by one fringe. 3.3.5 Circular fringes ed with monochromatic light when the mirrors M, and Mz are Circular fringes are produc .¢ circular fringes can be understood as exactly perpendicular to cach other. The origin of th follows. If we look into the instrument from , we see mirror M; directly, and in addition we will sce the virtual image Mj of mirror Mz formed by reflection in the glass plate Gi. Tt means Tree one of the interfering beams come from M, aud the other beam appears to come from the virtual image Mj, ‘The situation is similar to an air film enclosed between micrors M, and 1M; with the difference that in case of a real film between two surfaces multiple reflections take place. Whereas in this case only two reflections take place. one looks towards M, through T,, one observes a virtual image of Mz in Gr, parallel to Mi, , say Mj, My and Mj act as two coherent sources formed by the thin film of thickness MM}. MyMj = GM - Gi. My = Gi Ma = (21 — #2). (3.19) 91Optics and lasers Figure 3.8: If the two arms of the interferometer are equal in length, and image Mj c My. If Mj and M do not coincide, the distance between them is finite, Mj My = (x, —x2 The effect is that of light from a point source $ falling on a uniformly thick film of air whose thickness is equal to d. Now, a light ray is reflected by both Mj and M, and the observer will see two virtual images - S, due to reflection at Mj and S due to reflection at Mj. The virtual images are separated by a distance 2d. If the observer looks into the system at an angle @, the path difference between the two beams will be 2dcos9. The light that comes from Mz and goes to T undergoes rare-to-dense reflection and therefore a 7-phase change occurs. In view of this, the total path difference between the two beams is given by ' A= 2dc0s0+ >. (3.20) The condition for obtaining brightness 2dcosd +2 = md, (3.21) where m = 0, 1,2, .. For a given mirror separation d, a given wavelength A and order m, angle @ is constant. ‘This means that the fringes are of circular shape. They are called fringes of equal inclination, In case the mirror My coincides with the virtual image Mj, d = 0, the optical path difference between the interfering beams will be \/2 (Refer to Eq.(3.20)). Consequently, we obtain a mini- snum at the coincidence position and the centre of the field will be dark, as shown in Fig.3.9 (a). Voe®@ @ () @) Figure 3.9: 923.3, MICHELSON'S INTERFEROMETER If one of the mirrors is now moved through a distance 4/4, the path difference changes by A/2 and therefore a maximum is obtained. By moving the mirror through another /4 fa minimum is obtained; moving it by another A/4 again a maximum is obtained and so on Therefore, a new ring appears in the centre of the field each time the mirror is moved through 2/2. As d increases new rings appear in the centre faster than rings already present disappear in the periphery; and the field becomes more crowded with thinner rings, Conversely, as d is made smaller, the rings contract and disappear in the centre. 3.3.6 Localized fringes ——= 1 ) AIM / N “ i Figure 3.10: When the two mirrors are tilted, they are not exactly perpendicular to each other and therefore the mirror M; and the virtual image Mj are not parallel. In this case the air path between them is wedge - shaped and the fringes appear to be straight. If one of the mirrors is moved, the fringes move across the field. The position of any particular bright fringe is taken up by the one next to it. The fringes can be counted as they pass a reference mark. If m fringes move across the field of view when M; moves through a distance d, then a d=m5, (3.22) or —- (3.23) m 3.3.7 Applications of Michelson interferometer Michelson interferometer can be used to determine (j) the wavelength of a given monochromatic source of light, (ii) the difference between the two neighbouring wavelengths. 93Optics and lasers Measurement of wavelength Michelson interferometer is used to determine the wavelength of light from a monochromatic source, The monochromatic source is kept at S. If the mirrors M, aud Mz are exactly per- pendicular, circular fringes arc obtained. If the mirror M, is moved forward or backward, the Circular fringes appear or disappear at the centre. Now, as the mirror is moved through a Known distance d and the number of fringes disappearing at the centre is counted. Suppose dy is the initial thickness of the air film between the mirror M, and the image of Mz corresponding to the bright fringe of order my and dz is the final thickness of the air film corresponding to a bright fringe of order ma, in the same position. Then, 2d, = mA, (3.24a) and 2dy = my (3.24b) By subtraction, we get 2(de — di) = (ma — m1) A 2d=Nd 2d =F (3.25) 3.4 Diffraction Diffraction usually describes how the superposition of different portions of a single wave front causes light to bend or spread after encountering an obstacle, such as a narrow slit or a hole. When the width of the hole is much grcater than the wavelength of the light, this diffraction is of little consequence, and the waves effectively propagate straight through the hole in a beam defined by the hole size. But when the hole size and wavelength are comparable, wavefronts emerging from the hole spread in a broad pattern. Thus diffraction, although it always occurs, is significant only on length scales comparable to or smaller than the wavelength. Diffraction ultimately limits our ability to image small objects and to focus light precisely. 3.4.1 Compact disc as a diffraction grating A diffraction grating, also known simply as a grating, is a device that has a large number of slits called rulings. Often diffraction gratings have thousands of rulings per millimeter. Likewise a compact disc (CD) or a digital video disc (DVD) can be used as a diffraction grating as each disc contains a spiral track that holds the information, which is detected using a loser beam that reflects from the bottom of the disc, as Figure 3.11 illustrates. 943.4. DIFFRACTION incigent on Fy bottom si Figure 3.11: The bottom surface of a compact disc (CD) or digital video disc (DVD) carries information in the form of raised areas (“pits”) and flat areas (“land”) along a spiral track. A CD or DVD is played by using a laser beam that strikes the bottom surface and reflects from it. ‘The sequence of information bits, called the channel bit stream, is recorded on a CD as long spiral track starting at the inside edge of the program band and running toward the outside edge. A more accurate estimate of the storage capacity is calculated from the total length of the spiral track and the number of bits that can be coded per Airy disk diameter. The spiral track structure stamped into a CD is composed of a sequence of lands and pits which contain the coded information. The tracks are spaced at regular intervals in the radial direction and define a constant track pitch. A small region of a CD, perhaps 1-2 mm in diameter and containing approximately 1000 tracks, resembles, and behaves like, a one-dimensional diffraction grating. Ifa small region of the CD is illuminated with coherent light, the resulting diffraction pattern is easily analyzed to determine track pitch. The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig.3.12. ‘The disc is illuminated with a Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser beam and the zeroth- and first-order diffracted beams are shown incident on a viewing screen. ‘The ungle between any two of the diffracted beams is measured and then employed in the grating equation to calculate the track pitch. If the CD is positioned such that the beam is almost normally incident, then the grating equation for normal incidence can be used: Arsin 8, = mA, (3.26) where 6,, is the angle subtended by the mth-order diffracted beam, 2 is the illuminating laser wavelength and Ar is the track pitch or rulings. 95Optics and lasers Reflection He-Ne Laser Diffraction . Grating (CO) Figure 3.12: Illuminating the CD with He-Ne laser light and applying the grating equation. If m= 1, then Ar = a itch is 1. Sa The nominal track pitch is 1.6um, A measured value correct to within a few percent of the nominal pitch of 1.6m is easily calculated (some disc manufactures employ a subnominal track pitch in order to store additional information). The experimentally determined track pitch and the physical dimensions of the program band are used to calculate the length of the spiral track and estimate the storage capacity of the CD or DVD. 3.5 Polarization ‘The plane of the electric field vector E and the Poynting vector S (the direction of propa- gation) is called the plane of polarization of an electromoguetic wave. Figure.3.13 shows two electromagnetic waves moving along the x — azis. The electric field in Figure Fig.3.13(a) os- cillates vertically, so we would say that this wave is vertically polarized. Similarly the wave in Figure Fig.3.13(b) is horizontally polarized. Other polarizations are possible, such as a wave polarized 30° away from horizontal. Some wave sources, such as lasers and radio antennas, emit polarized electro-magnetic waves with a well-defined plane of polarization. By contrast, ‘most natural sources of electromagnetic radiation are unpolatized, emitting waves whose elec- tric fields oscillate randomly with all possible orientations. (Vera poaetion (@) Hosea pletion Figure 3.13: The plane of polar ation is the plane in which the electric field vector oscillates. 963.6. LASERS, 3.5.1 Polarizers of artificially gonerating polarized visible light is to send unpolarized Tight through « polarizing filter or polarizer ‘Phe first widely used polarizing filter was in- vented by Edwin Land in 1928 and in 1938) the polaroid. Polaroid or a polarizer, as shown jn Figure.3.14, is 0 plnslic sheet containing very Tong Ore molecules known as polymers. The sheets are formed in such a way that the polymers 478 ‘all aligned to form a grid. The gheet ig then chemically treated to make the polymer molecules somewhat conducting. As a Tight wave travels through Polarizer, the component Of the electric field oscillating, parallel to the polymer grid drives the conduction electrons up ‘and down the molecules. The electrons Stearb energy from the light wave, s0 the parallel component of FB is absorbed in the filter. But the conduction electrons can’t oscillate perpendicular to the molecules, so the component of B perpendicular to the polymer grid pasges through without absorption. Thus the light wave emerging from a polarizing filter is polarized perpendicular to the polymer grid. The direction Sf the transmitted polarization is called the polarizer axis. ‘The most common w Polarizer axis Only the component of E parallel to the axis, is transmitted. Unpolarized light consists of waves. possible directions. Figure 3.14: A polarizing filter or @ polarizer. 3.6 Lasers Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The theo- vafeal explanation for laser oscillation was given by A. L. Schawlow and C. H, Townes in the ear 1958. The first laser, namely, ruby laser was demonstrated by 7 H. Maiman, in the year ToD. The discovery of laser made an enormous impact in the scientific world and showed that the function of optics was very much alive. ‘The laser beam has the properties given of light. (j) Directionality The light beam can travel as a parallel beam up to a distance of d?/A, where dis the diameter of the aperture through ‘which the light is passing and A the wavelength of the light used. After traveling the distance a?/, the light beam spreads radially. In an ordinary i ' a light beam, the angular spread is given by AU = 7. For a typical laser beam, the angular below which distinguish it from an ordinary beam 97Optics and lasers spread is 1 mm per 1 m, but for an ordinary source of light, the angular spread is 1 m per 1 m This shows the directionality of the Inser beam. For example, the laser beam can be focused to ‘moon from the earth with an angular sprend of n fow kilometres. (ii) Intensity The intensity of the Inscr beam is very high. If'a person is allowed to observe an ordinary light, emitted by a 100 11” bulb nt a distance 1 foot from the source, he ean perceive only one thovsandth watt of light, While, if the person is allowed to observe the laser beam from the same distance, the entire laser beam penetrates through his oye. It will damage the eyes of the observer. This shows the high intensity of the laser beam. (iii) Monochromaticity The laser heam is strictly monochromatie (single frequency) than any other conventional monochromatic source. The bandwidth (Av = 0) of the laser beam is narrow, while ordinary light spreads over a wide range of frequencies. Obtaining absolute monochromaticity is difficult, however, one can get a high degree of monochromaticity in a Taser beam with very small bandwidth of about one kilocycle per second. For example, the line width Ad emitted by ruby laser is 5 x 10°4, (i) Coherence The degree of coherence of laser beam is very high than the other sources. The coherence of laser emission results in extremely high power (5 x 10? W cm~*). The light from a laser source consists of wave trains that are identical in phase and directions of propagation. Further, it can be focused to a very small area of 0.7 ym thickness. tis, indeed, these properties, that differentiate the laser beam from other conventional light beams. Let us discuss the principle, generation and application of the laser in this chapter in detail. 3.6.1 Principle of LASER. From the theory of interaction of radiation with matter, we can get an idea regarding the working of laser. Consider an atom that has only two energy levels, Ey and Ez. When it is exposed to radiation having a stream of photons, each with energy hv, three distinct processes can take place. (i) Absorption (i) Spontaneous emission and (iii) Stimulated emission. (i) Absorption An atom or molecule in the ground state E, can absorbs a photon of energy hy and go to the higher energy state Ey. This process is known as absorption and is illustrated in Fig.3.15. 77 Ey hy SLIu Photon £, ———_O0————_ cy Before absorption After absorption Figure 3.15: Absorption 983.6, LASERS. : ‘The rate of upward transition Jy from ground state By to excited state Ly is proportional to the population of the lower energy level My (number of atoms per unit volume) and to the energy density of radiation py, Ria 0 py «M R= Bap (3.27) where Bia is the probability of absorption per unit time. Normally, the higher energy state is an unstable slate and hence, the atorns transition back to the lower energy state with the emission of a photon, Such an emission can take place by one of the two methods given below. (ii) Spontancous Emission In spontaneous emission, the atoms or molecules in the hig! energy state 2 eventually return to the ground state by emitting their excess energy spon- taneously. This process is independent of external radiation. The rate of the spontaneous emission is directly proportional to the population of the energy level B2, Ml make a Rar(SP) x No Ra(SP) = AnNo (3.28) where Az; is the probability per unit time that the atoms will spontaneously fall to the ground state and N2 the number of atoms per unit volume in the state Z2. This process is illustrated in Fig.3.16. SL bv Figure 3.16: Spontaneous emission (ii) Stimulated Emission In stimulated emission, a photon having energy E, equal to the difference in energy between the two levels Ez and By, stimulates an atom in the higher state to make a transition to the lower state with the creation of a second photon as shown in Fig.3.17, 99lw Optics and lasers Ey DIY liv SLI bv Figure 3.17: Stimulated emission The rate of stimulated emission Ray(ST) is given as, Ra(ST) = BupuNa (3.29) where Bz: is the probability per unit time that the atoms undergo transition from higher energy state to lower state by stimulated emission Distinction between spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation : ‘Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission Tt takes place when an atom in a higher en- ergy state transits to a lower energy state by itself. Tt takes place when an atom in a hi, ergy state gets stimulated by the incident photon and transits to a lower cnergy state. It is independent of incident radiation den- sity. Tt depends upon the incident radiation den- sity. Tt takes place after 10-* second. Tt takes place within a time of 10-* second. Tris a slower process as compared to stimu- lated emission. Tt is a faster process as compared to sponta ncous emission ‘An is the Einstein’s coefficient of sponta- neous emission. By is the Einstein's coefficient of stimulated emission. Characteristics of lasers ‘The important characteristics of lasers are as follows: # Laser beam are highly directional and hence angular spread is very minimum. Therefore it can he focused to a long distance without energy loss. + The intensity of the laser beam is very high. « The laser beam is strictly monochromatic i.e., of single frequency. + The degree of coherence is very high. 3.7 Einstein’s theory of stimulated emission In 1917, Einstein proposed a mathematical expression for the existence of stimulated emission of light. This expression is known as Einstein's expression. 1003.7. EINSTEIN'S THEORY OF STIMULATED EMISSION Consider a two - lovel energy system (21 and £3). Let NM; and Nz be the number of atoms in the ground state and excited state, respectively. Let us assume that only the spontaneous emission is present and there is no stimulated emission of light, ‘At thermal equilibrium condition, the rate of absorption = the rate of emission of light. From Bgs.(3.27) and (3.28), we can write, Pv X BN = AnNe An No Dy = + (3.30) e* BaM ; According to Boltzmann's distribution function, Une population of atoms in the upper and lower energy levels are related by, % = (3.31) i Substituting N2/N, in Eq.(3.30), we get, Aa .-(6- Esk Pv Ba ‘e Au _1 i = Bent (3.32) According to black-body radiation, the energy density oa Bah’ 1 (3.33) be = TT where h is the Planck's constant and c the velocity of light. Comparing the above two equations [Eqs (3.32) and (3.33)}, one can observe that they are not in agreement. ‘To rectify this discrepancy, Einstein proposed another kind of emission known as stimu- lated emission of radiation. Therefore, the total emission is the sum of the spontaneous and stimulated emissions of radiation. ‘At thermal equilibrium condition, the rate of absorption = the rate of emissi From Eqs. (3.27), (3.28) and (3.29), By2Nipy = AniNo + Bar Nopy AaNo Porc 3.34 fo = Bal = Bae ea Dividing each and every term on R.H.S. of Bq.(3.31) by Na, we get, oe * Bra(Mi/N2) = Bar" Substituting for V;/No from Eq.(3.31), we get, one e Pe = Be BNT] — By’ We know that By — Ey = hy 7 pace eee 3.3 Pe = Baler] — Bar oe 101Optics and lasers are known ns Einstein's coefficients. Comparing the above ‘The coefficients Az, Bia and Bay equation with Eq.(3.33), we get, By = Ba (3.36) and Al Au _ Bahu! (3.37) By Oo From Fqs.(3.83) and (9.35), the ratio of the stimulated emission to spontaneous emission is given by, S" 1 Ra(ST) _ BaNape | (3.38) Ra(SP) Any ~ TT From £q.(3.38), Einstein proved the existence of the stimulated emission of radiation. ‘The spontaneous emission produces incoherent light, while the stimulated emission produces coherent light. In an ordinary conventional light source, the spontaneous emission is dominant. For laser action, stimulated emission should be predominant over spontaneous emission and absorption. To achieve this, an artificial condition, known as population inversion, is required. 3.8 Population inversion Consider a two-level energy system (E; and E;). Suppose a photon of energy cqual to the energy difference between the two levels is incident on the system, then which event is more likely to take place: absorption or stimulated emission? Einstein showed that under normal circumstances, both the processes are equally probable. In a system containing a very large number of atoms, the dominant process will depend on the virtual number of atoms in the upper and lower states. A large population in the upper level (Nj, < N2) will result in stimulated emission dominating over the absorption. If there are more number of atoms in the lower level, i., ground state (/M; > No), there will be more absorption than stimulated etnission Under conditions of thermal equilibrium, Boltzmann’s distribution function relating Ny and Np given by Eq.(3.31) is obeyed. Ne _ o-tme-myer > tiene (3.39) i : (3.39) where k and T are the Boltzmann’s constant and the absolute temperature, respectively. For stimulated emission to dominate, it is necessary to increase the population of the upper energy level, so that it is greater than that of the lower energy level. This is known as population inversion, . In the above equation, if T is negative, then stimulated emission would dominate over absorption. Such a condition is practically not possible. The population inversion can be obtained even at room temperature by several methods discussed in the following section. 3.8.1 Methods of achieving population inversion ‘There are several methods for achieving the condition of population inversion necessary for the laser action to takes place. Some of the most commonly used methods are as follows: (i) Optical pumping In case of optical pumping, an external optical source like xenon flash lamp is employed to produce a high population in the higher energy level of the laser medium, This method of excitation, shown in Fig.3.18a, is used in solid state lasers of which the ruby laser is a prototype. 1023.8. POPULATION INVERSION (ii) Direct electron excitation ‘The direct electron excitation in a gaseous discharge may be used to produce the desired inversion. ‘This method is used in some of the gaseous ion lasers, such as an argon laser. In this type of excitation, as shown in Pig,3.18b, the laser medium itself carries the discharge current under suitable conditions of pressure and temperature. In this method, the electrons dire }¢ the active ators to achieve higher population in certain higher energy levels ve & fb & Laser transition Photon a A 4 Ww oo Fo £0 Eo Atom A ‘Atom B (a) Optical pumping (®) Direct electron (C) Inelastic atom-atom excitation collisions Figure 3.18: Population inversion—different-methods of production (iii) Inelastic Atom-Atom Collisions Here, electric discharge method is employed to cause collision and excitation of the atom. In this method, a combination of two types of gases is used, say A and B, both having the same excited state A* and B* that coincide or nearly coincide. In the first step, during electric discharge, A gets excited to A’ (metastable) due to collision with electrons. AteA +e, ATE BY A+B (3.40) The excited A* atoms now collide with B atoms so that the latter atom gets excited to higher energy B*. This type of transition is used in the He-Ne laser. (iii) Chemical reactions In this method, the molecules undergo chemical changes in which ‘one of the products of the reaction is a molecule or an atom that is left in an excited state under appropriate conditions. Under such conditions, population inversion can occur. An example for this type of lasers is hydrogen fluoride chemical laser, in which hydrogen fluoride molecules in the excited state result from the following chemical reaction: H+ Fy — 2HF. (3.41) 3.8.2 Metastable states It is important to understand that, population inversion can only be created if the atoms have an available metastable state above their ground state. An atom can exist in a metastable state for a relatively long time because the transition to a lower state has a very low prob- ability. An atom in a normal energy state may exist in that state for roughly 10°s before spontaneous emission occurs, but an atom in a metastable state can remain in that state for orders of magnitude longer making it available for stimulated emission to cause it to transition to a lower energy state. 103Optics and lasers 3.8.3 Optical feedback A laser is an optical frequency oscillator constructed from an optical frequency amplifier with positive optical feedbnck, as shown in Pig3.19. Light waves tha? ‘become ainplified on traversing the amplifier are returned through the amplifiers by the reflectors (M) and grown in intensity. The arrangement of mirrors which provides the feedback is rally referred to as the laser cavity or resonator, ‘The typical optical frequencies range [Font 10!'//s to beyond 10'9H=. If the length of the resonant cavity that proviles feedback is 4 then for L >> A, where A is the twavolength at which oeillation occurs, then we have a Inser output. Whenever, the optical signal got reflected by the mirrors, it undergoes a 180? phase-shift at each mirror. Thus for A round-trip, net phase-shift introduced is 0 or 360%. Also due to multiple reflections at the dnivrors, the optical signal's intensity got attenuated. Ifa balancing gain is compensated to the Teffected optical signals by the amplifier, then, the laser oscillations occur. Lo Cavity Figure 3.19: Schematic diagram of a basic laser system with an optical amplifying medium and two optical feedback mirrors (M). One mirror is having 100% reflectivity and another one is having partial reflectivity. 3.9 Semiconductor laser (Semiconductor diode laser) ‘The most compact of all lasers is the semiconductor diode laser, also called the Injection laser. Tita simplest form, the diode laser consists of a p’n junetion doped in @ single crystal of a suitable semiconductor such as gallium- arsenide, Principle When © forward bias is applied to the diode, the holes are injected into the p-side of the junction and electrons are injected into the side, The recombination of holes and electrons shin the junction region results in recombination radiation, Tf the junction current density is large enough, a population inversion can be obtained between the electron levels and hole sacle Stimulated emission can be obtained for laser action when the optical gain exceeds the joss in the junction layer. In a diode laser, this layer is very thin, typically of the order of fear microns and the end faces of the crystal are inade partially reflecting to form an optical resonator. “To produce laser action, the following conditions should be satisfied. (i) Population inversion 104SEMICONDUCTOR LASER (SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE LASER) —________ (ii) Stimulated emission, and (ii) Cavity resonator ‘The laser transition is possible only in direct band gap semniconductors. Therefore, the direct band gap semiconducting materials like Ga-As are used for laser action. Since Si and Ge are said to be indirect band gap semiconductors, they are not used for laser action. Ga-As Laser Tt is a p'n junction diode with the p-type and n-type regions heavily doped applied forward bias, electrons and holes ate injected into and across the tran considerable concentration. As a result, the region around the junction contains Grelectrons within the conduction band and a large number of holes within the valence band When the poptilation density is high enough, a condition of population inversion is achieved and recombination may be stimulated resulting in laser action, If the emission is not stinulated the device is called a light emitting diode. To convert au LED into a laser diode, a high current is required to achieve the population inversion and mirrors ar used to cause a feedback. In case of semiconductor laser, there is no need of external mirrors. In a germanium or silicon semiconductor, due to such a recombination, only heat is generated. ‘The Ga-As laser-was constructed by Hall. A typical Ga~As semic in Fig.3.20. Under large ion region in a large number onductor laser is as shown Laser beam LEA Upper electrode MH Laser beam 1mm Lower electrode Figure 3.20: Ga-As laser In case of gallium-arsenide, we get a light radiation in the infrared region. Thus, a GaAs laser convert electricity into light. The efficiency can go up to 100% when the temperature is reduced to 100 K’. The operating current is supplied from a pulse generator up to 5°20ys. The energy separation between the conduction band and the valence band is 1.4 eV and henee, the wavelength of light emitted is 8874 at room temperature. 3.9.1 Advantages * The efficiency is more than 10% and it can be increased by decreasing the temperature alone. 105Optics and lasers yous wave output or pulsed output Tt can have a conti ‘+ The modulation of the output is possible. Tuning the output is easily possible by applying a magnetic field or mechanical pressure. It is highly economical, and further, the arrangement is compact. 3.9.2 Disadvantages + The spatial and temporal coherences are very poor. 3.9.3 Applications of semiconductor laser «+ It is used in optical fibre communications. © It is used in commercial CD printing and writing It is used as a pain killer. It is used to heal wounds by IR. 3.10 Nd:YAG Laser ‘The Nd:YAG laser (YAG stands for yttrium aluminum garnet which is YsAlsQ,2) is a very important solid-state laser systems in which the energy levels of the neodymium ion take part in laser emission. It corresponds to a four-level laser. Using ncodymium ions in a YAG host has specific advantages and applications. * YAG is a crystalline material and the corresponding linewidth is much smaller which implies much over thresholds for laser oscillation. ‘The Nd:YAG laser is a four-level laser and the energy level diagram of the neodymium ion is shown in Fig.3.21. The laser emission ocours at 2 © 1.06ym. Since the energy difference between the lower laser level and the ground level is ~ 0.26°eV, the ratio of its population to that of the ground state at room temperature is « 1. Thus the lower laser level is almost unpopulated and hence inversion is easy to achieve. The main pump bands for excitation of the neodymium ions are in the 0.81 and 0.75 zm wavelength regions and pumping is done using arc lamps (e.g., the Krypton arc lamp). Typical neodymium ion concentrations used are ~ 1.38 x 10°cm~S. The spontaneous lifetime corresponding to the laser transition is 5505 1063.10. ND:YAG LASER Pump band ll Upper laser level Laser transition y — = 1.06 um Lower laser level + ¢~30ns Ground level i Figure 3.21: The energy levels of neodymium ion in the Nd:YAG laser. Nd:YAG lasers can be flashlamp, diode, or laser pumped and can be continuous or pulsed. In the pulsed mode, they are typically operated by pumping the laser until an extreme pop- ulation inversion is reached and then suddenly the output pathway for transmission of light is opened allowing the majority of cavity-stored energy to be dumped out at once. This pro” cess is known as Q-switching and is usually accomplished with some sort of nonlinear optical switching component. With the availability of high-power compact and efficient semiconduc- tor lasers, efficient pumping of Nd ions to upper laser level can be accomplished using laser diodes. This leads to very compact diode pumped Nd-based lasers. Diode laser pumping is simpler than lamp pumping and also produces much less heat in the laser medium leading to increased overall efficiency. Since the laser diode output'is narrow band unlike a normal lamp, the output at 808 nm can be efficiently used for pumping. Typical output powers of 150 W are commercially available. In fact an intracavity second-harmonic generator can efficiently convert the laser wavelength to 532 nm (the second harmonic of 1064 nm of Nd:YAG, as lasing occurs in the infrared region) leading to very efficient green lasers. Figure 3.22 shows the schematic diagram of a Nd:YAG laser. 107Optics and lasers High voltage Pulse Forming Power Supply, 100% Reflective Mirror Flashlamp ground Partially = Reflective ‘Output Mirror Figure 3.22: Schematic diagram of the Nd:YAG laser. Na:YAG lasers find many applications in range finders, illuminators with Q-switched oper- ation. They also find applications in resistor trimming, scribing, micromachining operations a5 well as welding, hole drilling, ete. 3.11 Carbon dioxide lasers (CO2) It is the first molecular laser.and it was developed by C. K. N. Patel Principle In order to understand the working of this laser, one has to recall the rotational and vibra- tional spectrum of COz molecules. The three atoms can be considered as a ring over a straight line, the outer atom being O with a carbon atom C at the centre. There are three modes of vibrations and in each mode the centre of gravity remains fixed. (1) As shown in Fig.3.23a, the carbon atom is fixed-in its position and each oxygen atom can Vibrate in the opposite direction symmetrical to the carbon atom with each other along a straight line and is known as the symmetric mode of vibration. The corresponding frequency is called symmetric stretching frequency. (2) As shown in Fig,3.23b, the oxygen atom and the carbon atom may vibrate at right angles to the line passing through the centre of gravity. This is known as the bending mode and the corresponding frequency is bending frequency. (3) As shown in Fig.3.28e, in the asymmetric mode of operation, the two oxygen atoms may vibrate about the central C atom asymmetrically, and at the same time, the carbon atom also vibrates from its mean position.The corresponding frequency is called as asymmetric stretching fequency. 1083.11. CARBON DIOXIDE LASERS (C02) _ G-0-© L\,¢ GOD (a) Symmetric mode (0) Bending mode a Asymmetric mode Figure 3.23: CO, molecules—different modes of vibrations .« vibrational modes, the molecule can also rotate and therefore, Is are also possible, pictured in an energy level diagram as shown in In addition to these tI quantised rotational energy level ‘The frequency of the CO; laser can be p Fig.3.24. Asymmetric gg 2349 em! 001 3000 | Symmetric Bending 2000 1000 v“=0 Nitrogen Figure 3.24: s s COr ‘Vacuum Laser ( se NaCl window Mirror Figure 3.25: CQ, laser ‘The laser is powered with an ac supply of frequency 60 cycles or de supply. In order to get employed for proper reflection. The lasers ‘a high power output, a metallic mirror of gold 109= Optics and lasers sney of the COz Inner is about 30%. The gas into the gas dincharge tube are either water-cooled or air-cooled, 1 mixture ean be pumped either longitudinally or trans Working Principle The CO; laser generally uses two additional gases, Nz and He. The nitrogen plays a similar role as that of the He in case of He-Ne Inser. The Np molecules go into an excited state by collision of the first kind with the electrons, Na +e) —) Np +e (3.42) Since the 0 0 1 energy level of CO is very close to the excited level of Nz atom, the population of 0 0 1 level of CO2 increases rapidly than the other lower energy levels 1 00 or 0 10. Thus, the population inversion between 0 0 1 level and the lower levels 0 20 and 1 0 0 is achieved resulting in output radiations of 9.6 and 10.6 jm. Due to various factors, the most powerful transition in C’O2 laser at normal operating tem- perature occurs at 10.6um. The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the output power of the laser. The contamination ‘of carbon monoxide and oxygen will also have some effect on the laser action. The unused gases can be pumped out and fresh CO2 must be pumped in, The temperature can be reduced by restricting the tube diameter and also the addition of helium to the mixture of Np and He. The helium serves not only to improve the conductivity of heat to the walls of the tube, but also in decreasing the population in the lower levels. The power output coming from this laser is 10 AI 3.11.1 Applications of lasers Lasers find applications in various fields of science and technology. Some of the applications are outlined below: In communications, « Lasers are used in optical fibre communications. In optical fiber communications, lasers ‘are used as light source to transmit audio, video signals and data to long distances without attenuation and distortion. « Lasers are used in optical signal processing, information storage and computer pi In Industries, é « Lasers are used in metal cutting, welding, surface treatment and hole drilling. In Medical field, « Lasers are used in different types of surgery. Also, lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy. In addition, Lasers are used in endoscopes to detect hidden parts and laser doppler velocimetry is used to measure blood velocity in the blood vessels. In Military, # LIDAR [Light Detecting And Ranging|’ LIDAR is used to estimate the size and shape of distant objects or war weapons. 03.12. OPTICAL FIBERS 3.12 Optical Fibers Optical fibers are fine transparent glass or plastic fibers which can propagate light. An optical fiber (looks like n waveguide) is a very thin long cylinder that consists of two circularly symmet- ric coaxial elements—the inner one (the core) is made of glass material having relatively higher roftactive index and the outer one (cladding) is made of either glass or plastic material having relatively lower refractive index. ‘The light rays (optical signals) are launched into the cylin- arical fiber which can be automatically guided over long distance by an optical phenomenon Known as total internal reflection. 3.12.1 Total internal reflection Definition of total internal reflection: When a ray of light travels from a medium with a higher refractive inclex (stich as fiber core) to another medium with a lower refractive index (such as fiber cladding) and it happens to strike (incident) the core-cladding intersection at more than the known critical angle of incidence (at which the angle of refraction is 90°), then total light will be reflected back to the medium of incidence (i.e., the fiber core). This particular phenomenon is known as Total Internal Reflection. Let us consider a glass slab of length L as shown in Fig.3.26. The refractive index of the glass in ng is higher than that of the surrounding medium air na. #.e.,ng > tt. According to Fig.3.26, the glass slab is having four air - glass interfaces or boundaries AB, CD, AC and BD. Refracted ray Glass, ng ~ Reflected ray .0) i . ——_I Figure 3.26: If a light ray © meets the boundary AC and makes an angle of incidence 8, then it got refracted by an angle ¢ with respect to the normal XY. Thus nasin9 = nesing, (according to Snell’s law). This transmitted ray meets the boundary AB and makes an angle of incidence 0;, with respect to the normal. At the boundary AB two light rays result, in which one is partially reflected within the glass medium and another one is refracted to air. However, at some critical angle of incidence @., the refracted ray emerges parallel to the boundary AB as shown in Fig.3.27. ulOptics and lasers Figure 3.27: For any angle of incidence greater than 0, the light is totally reflected back into the glass medium. This is called total internal reflection as shown in Fig.3.28. Figure 3.28: Total internal reflection. No refracted ray into air medium. Here 1 > 8. ‘The critical angle 9, can be calculated in terms of nq and ng by solving the following equation: ngsin 6, = na sin > (3.43) As from the Fig.3.28, 8 = 90°, so : ng sin 8 = nay (3.44a) or sing. = “A, (3.44b) ng or ot (2) . (3.44e) This is the condition for critical angle for the total internal reflection and it is an essential condition under which no part of the incident light will propagate in the cladding material. It means that the propagation of light takes place within the optical fiber core only (with very Jow Joss of propagating optical signal), Thus, it is certainly the phenomenon of total internal reflection which keeps light propagating within an optical fiber. This is the essence of optical fiber communications. 3.12.2 Acceptance angle Definition of acceptance angle: It is defined as the maximum (not minimum) external angle of incidence at which the external light rays must strike the air/gloss (fiber core) intersection anc 112342, OPTICALFIBERS enters the fiber core and propagate within naximum angle that external li ht rays that strikes: ate down the fiber is From Fig.3.29, it can be seen that the the air/glass intersection and subsequently enter the core and propa mary = sin! ( ) (3.45) where, Bintmaz) acceptance angle (in degrees) Oa, m1 refractive index of glass fiber core (di- mensionless, typical value = 1.5), tig = refractive index of quartz fiber cladding (dimensionless typical value = 1.46), ng = refractive index of air (dimensionless, typical value = 1.0) 0. = sin”! (via - 4) A (3.46) 0, (a) (b) (c) Figure 3.29: (a) Geometrical relationship,(b)Acceptance cone,(c) Relationship between accep- tance angle and critical angle Rotating the acceptance angle around the fiber core axis describes the cone of acceptance at the input of the fiber. Fig.3.29(b) depicts the acceptance cone. Any light entering the cone of acceptance illustrated will be reflected internally and may propagate along the fiber length Light entering from outside the cone of acceptance ix merely refracted into the cladding and will not propagate at all. Fig.3.29(c) depicts the relationship between the critical incidence angle and the acceptance angle for total internal reflection to take place in optical fiber cable « Note: Light rays launched into the optical fiber core at angles less than an acceptance angle are guided, wheress light rays launched at augles greater than the acceptance angle are refracted towards the cladding and thereby lost. 3.12.3 Numerical Aperture Definition: The numerical aperture (NA) is expressed as the sine (sinusoidal) of the maximum tangle which a light ray (being launched into the optical fiber) can make with the central azis of the fiber core and can travel through the fiber using the principle of total internal reftection. 3Optics and lasers, Numerical aperture is the figure of merit. which is used to describe the capability of an optical fiber to gather the light efficiently. ‘This parameter is closely associated with the acceptance angle. In fact, the value of numerical aperture ean be used to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle. Consider a light ray that enters from one end of the fiber from air and is incident on the axis of the fiber core at a particular angle, as shown in th 0, Meridional Ray LL YELL Optical Fiber Figure 3.30: Optical ray propagation in an optical fiber Assuming, 6 < 6,, at the intersection of air and fiber core, as per the Suell’s law: osin®y = ny sin 82 . From Fig.3.30, $ = (1/2) — 03; and 6, = (n/2) — 9, where, ¢ > ¢, at the intersection of fiber core and cladding of the optical fiber cable for total internal reflection to take place which is necessary for propagation of light through optical fiber cable, nisin G a ¢) = nj cod = nyy/1 — sin. (3.47) In the limiting case, ¢ = d, and 4; = 4, 80 ng sin, = miy/1— sin? $e. (3.48) Asm sing, = ngsin 90° = na, then 7 : omgsind, = ny 1-(2) a ae (3.49) Vit — ah. As nig=1.0 (for air medium), s0, sin, = /nt =n. np sin 8, Hence, the numerical aperture (NA) for light rays that ciiter the glass fiber core from an external air can be described as NA= ut —18. (3.50) Note that. the numerical aperture is a dimensionless quantity. ‘Typically, the value of NA is less than unity (usually between 0.1 and 0.5). 149.12, OPTICAL FIBERS .e or fractional change in Numerical aperture can also be related with the relative difference Let us define the refractive index of the fiber core and the cladding of the optical fiber cable another term known as relative refractive index difference, A as So, B9.(3.49) becomes, NA = abn = mV2K. Thus, numerical aperture can be calcu- lated from the given values of refractive index of the fiber core and cladding used in the optical fiber cable. It may be noted that it is independent of the diameter of the fiber core, * Example: An optical fiber cable has values of refractive index of 1.46 for the fiber core If the fractional change in the index of refraction of the optical fiber is specified as 0.01, then find its numerical aperture. Answer: NA = 0.2. . Example: An optical fiber cable has specified refractive index values of 1.6 and 1.4 for the fiber core and cladding, respectively. Determine the numerical aperture and the total width of the acceptance cone. Answer: NA = 0.775, 83 2x50.8° = 101.6°. 0.8" and the total width of the cone of acceptance 3.12.4 Fiber optic communication ‘A basic communications system consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and an information car- tying channel. At the transmitter, the message is generated and put into a form suitable for transfer over the information carrying channel. The information travels from the transmitter to the receiver over this channel. The receiver will decodes the information obtained from the channel in to a suitable form. If the information channel is a guided, channel, like an optical fiber, then a generalized fiber optic communication system can be constructed as shown in Fig.3.31. The main elements of a fiber optic communication system is the transmitter consists ‘a modulator, carrier source and a channel coupler. The information channel is made up with optical amplifiers and optical fiber. Finally. the receiver part consists of a detector. amplifier and a processing unit. As per Fig.3.31, the brief details of various elements are U5Optics and lasers TRANSMITTER sussact I, CARRIER CHANNEL origin’ | MODULATOR source courier rr INFORMATION Channtt ras nce cortical REPEATER corticat AMPLIFIER OR OPTICAL AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER smc oencron +f wrcnen F-+[ mocasne Le ees RECEIVER Figure 3.31: A generalized fiber optic communications system. + Message origin: It is a transducer or a sensor converts a nonelectrical signal message into an electrical signal. Modulator: The modulator converts the clectrical message into the proper format. Then it impresses this signal onto the wave generated by the carrier source * Carrier source: The carrier source generates the wave on which the information is transmitted. This wave is called the carrier. A laser diode or a light emitting diode is used. These optical oscillators have been constructed that radiate at frequencies where glass fibers are efficient transmitters of light. Channel coupler: It feeds power into the information channel in which efficient transfer of the modulated light beam from the source to the optical fiber is done. * Information channel: The information channel refers to the path between the trans- miter and receiver. In fiber optic communications, a glass fiber is the channel. Further optical amplificrs and repeaters are employed to boust the power levels of weak signals. * Detector: The information being transmitted must now be taken off the carrier wave. In an electronic system, this is the process of demodulating the signal. A suitable semicon- ductor photodiodes are used for developing current from the optic wave, This detector ‘output current contains the information. * Signal processor: For analog transmission, the signal processor includes amplification and filtering of the signal. For digital system, the signal processor can include decision circuits in addition to amplifiers and filters. nal processor Message output: The clectrical form of the message emerging from the is directly usable hy using computers or other machines connected. The main advantage of fiber optics is faster speed and longer «listance communications. 1163.12. OPTICAL FIBERS 3.12.5 Fiber optic sensors Recent advances int fiber optic technology and optoclectronic devices led to emergence of fiber optic sensors. With te availability of highly sensitive detectors and materials, it is possible to sense even slight variations in intensity level, phase shift and wavelength from external dis- tresses on the optical fiber itself. The primary function of a fiber optic sensor is to measure or monitor # physical quantity such as temperature, pressure, corrosion, humidity, and similar environmental factors. The basis of measurement is the net effect on its intensity modulation, operating wavelength, phase angle of the incident optical ray, or polarization of the light prop- agating through the optical fiber A simple fiber optic sensor system comprises of an appropriate sensing element having capa- bility of converting the measurand quantity into an equivalent optical signal, an optical source such as an LED or an Injection Laser Didde, an optical fiber for transmission of optical signal from source to destination, au optical detector such as photodiode, and measuring instruments such as an optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) or an analog/dligital oscilloscope. ‘The main principle of working of an optical fiber sensor is that the output. of the physi- cal sensing element is used to modulate light intensity, phase angle, operating wavelength, or polarization of the optical signal. This results into a corresponding change in the operational characteristics of the optical signal received at the optical detector after traveling through opti- cal fiber. Optic fibre sensors can be divided into two types, they are: (i) Active sensors and ( Passive sensors. In active sensors, the quantity to be measured acts directly on the fiber and modifies the radiation passing down the fiber However, in passive sensors, the modulation takes place outside the fiber using a separate external sensor. The fiber acts merely as a convenient trausinission channel for light. For example; a simple fiber optic sensor is the microbend fiber optic sensor or pressure sensor. It basically comprises of au optical fiber passing through two grooved plates. The periodic mechanical microbends results in attenuation of the optical signal due to coupling of the energy of the guided modes with the radiation modes. Because of exerting pressure on the upper plate, there is a slight movement which in turn can bend the fiber radius more than the critical angle. Thus, the light cannot remain confined within the core area that means it may leak into the cladding area. As a result, an intensity modulation takes place within the optical fiber. Likewise many different optical fiber sensors are available: * Intensity modulated sensors are based on the change in refractive index, temperature, absorption, etc. Phase-modulated sensors involve the interference between the signal aud reference in the interferometer. This leads to a shift in the interference fringes by the variable. Polarization-modulated sensors inake use of a change in polarization state of the guided ignal by the variable takes place. Wavelength-modulated sensors exploit the spectral dependent variation of absorption and emission by the variable takes place. CHECK: How fiber optic sensors are used to measure displacement, temperature and the presence of gas? uzOptics and lasers 3.12.6 The fiber laser solid-state laser that uses specially doped fiber optic cable as the The fiber is typically doped with rare-earth elements such as erbium, ytterbium, nevdymium, dysprosium, praseodymium, Uuliun, and holmium. These lasers are much like the Nd:YAG solid-state laser only instead of a host rod material there is a host fiber material. Also, the fiber is typically “end-pumped” with diode lasers, so, population inversion between two of the energy levels is achieved, thus providing optical amplification. By providing an optical feedback using mirrors at the end of the amplifying fiber, it is possible to achieve laser ascillation leading to a fiber lasing action. Figure 3.52 shows a typical configuration for a A fiber laser is a type of active gain mesh fiber laser. Active Fiber Output Coupler laser beam Figure 3.32: Schematic of a fiber laser system. Here diode lasers are used for pumping. Multiple diode lasers provide pump light into the larger and much longer spool of active fiber. There is typically some type of output coupling and collimating optical system often referred to as the “laser head” where the beam exits. Fiber lasers are very scalable in power output. More diode pump lasers can be added and longer or parallel active fiber spools can be added. Multiple active fiber spools can then be combined into one larger fiber output system. Many kilowatts of output power can he achieved with these types of lasers. In fact, these types of lasers are used for industrial lascr welding systems and experimental laser weapon systems. 3.13 Unit (iii) : Exercises (1) A ray travelling iu a trausparent medium suffer total interual reflection at its interface with water (n = 1.33). The critical angle is 68°. What is the speed of light in the medium’? Answer: 2 asin 2.1 x 10° m/s. 1.52) that is coated with a film of MgF2 (2) White light is incident normally on a lens (a 183.13. UNIT (Ill) : EXERCISES 1088 of Uhe fil will yellow light of wavelength 550-nin (2 = 1.38). For what minimum th er: 99.6 nm). (in air) be missing the reflected light’? (A (3) A wedge-shaped film of air is produced by placing a fine wire of diameter D between the ends of two flat glass plates of length L=20 em, When the air film is illuminated with light of wavelength A=550-nm, there are 12 dark fringes per centimeter. Find D. Answer: D=66 x 10-m. (4) When one mirror of a Michelson interferometer moves 0.08-mm, the pattern shifts by 240 dark fringes. What is the wavelength of light?) Answer: 2At = AmA = 240A. So, A= 667nm. (5) What is the source of the color seen on the surface of CD? (6) How would you test whether a pair of tinted sunglasses is made of a Polaroid shect? (7) The wavelength of the laser beam used in a compact disc player is 780 nm. Suppose that a diffraction grating produces first-order tracking beams that are 1.2 mm apart at a distance of 3.0 mm from the grating. Estimate the spacing between the slits of the grating. Answer: tand = y/L = 0.60/3.0 = 0.20 or @=11.3°, As m=1,d = mA/sind = 4.0 x 10-*m. (8) A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray theory anal- ysis has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47. Determine: (a) the critical angle at the core-cladding interface; (b) the NA for the fiber; (c) the ac- ceptance angle in air for the fiber. Answer: The critical angle, @ = 78.59; NA=0.30; acceptance angle, #, = 17.4°. ugBibliography [1] Bugene Hecht, Optics, Pearson Higher Education,(2017) 2] Charles A. DiMarzio Optics for Engineers, CRC Press, Boca Raton (2012) [3] K. Thyagarajan and Ajoy Ghatak, Lasers Fundamentals and Applications, Springer, Heilderberg (2010) [4] Karl P. Renk Basics of Laser Physics, Springer. Heilderberg (2012) [5] John M Senior, Optical Fiber Couununicatious Principles and Practice, Pearson. England (2009). 121