896 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. 71, NO.

1, JANUARY 2024

Current Gain Enhancement at High-Temperature

Operation of Triple-Quantum-Well
Heterojunction Bipolar Light-Emitting
Transistor for Smart Thermal
Sensor Application
Mukul Kumar , Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Shu-Yun Ho , Graduate Student Member, IEEE,
Shu-Jui Hsu , Graduate Student Member, IEEE, Pin-Chia Li , Student Member, IEEE,
Shu-Wei Chang , Senior Member, IEEE, and Chao-Hsin Wu , Member, IEEE

Abstract— In this article, we present an investigation
into the amplification characteristics of triple-quantum-well
heterojunction bipolar light-emitting transistors (TQW-
Manuscript received 10 August 2023; revised 5 November 2023;
accepted 28 November 2023. Date of publication 19 December 2023;
date of current version 2 January 2024. This work was supported in
part by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, under Grant
110-2224-E-992-001, Grant 110-2622-8-002-021, Grant 110-2622-
8-A49-008-SB, Grant 111-3114-E-002-001, Grant 111-2119-M-002-
008, Grant 111-2119-M-002-009, Grant 111-2622-8-002-001, Grant
111-2221-E-002-051-MY3, Grant 111-2218-E-002-025, Grant 111-
2622-8-002-032, Grant 111-2622-8-002-021, Grant 112-2923-E-002-
008-MY3, Grant 112-2119-M-002-015, and Grant 112-2119-M-002-013;
in part by the National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology
under Grant NCSIST-ACOM-111-6712002 and Grant NCSIST-ACOM-
112-6712002; in part by AU Optronics, Hsinchu, Taiwan, under Grant
110HZT9B001; in part by the National Taiwan University System (NTUS)
Innovation Cooperation, Taiwan, under Grant 11112071002; in part
by National Taiwan University under Grant 112L7860; and in part by
the Center for Quantum Science and Engineering, National Taiwan
University. The work of Shu-Wei Chang was supported in part by the
Research Center for Applied Sciences, Academic Sinica, Taiwan; in
part by the Academic Sinica, Taiwan, through the Innovative Materials
and Analytical Technology Exploration (iMATE) Program under Grant
AS-iMATE-111-41; and in part by the National Science and Technology
Council, Taiwan, under Grant MOST-108-2221-E-001-018-MY3, Grant
MOST-110-2224-E-992-001, and Grant MOST-111-2221-E-001-008.
The review of this article was arranged by Editor Y. Xu. (Corresponding
author: Chao-Hsin Wu.)
Mukul Kumar and Pin-Chia Li are with the Graduate Institute of Pho-
tonics and Optoelectronics, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617,
Taiwan (e-mail: mukulkumar.research@gmail.com; r11941081@
ntu.edu.tw).
Shu-Yun Ho and Shu-Jui Hsu are with the Graduate Institute of Elec-
tronics Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
(e-mail: r11943069@ntu.edu.tw; r11943076@ntu.edu.tw).
Shu-Wei Chang is with the Research Center for Applied Sciences,
Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan, and also with the Department
of Photonics, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
(e-mail: swchang@sinica.edu.tw).
Chao-Hsin Wu is with the Graduate Institute of Photonics and Opto-
electronics, the Graduate Institute of Electronics Engineering, and the
Graduate School of Advanced Technology, National Taiwan University,
Taipei 10617, Taiwan (e-mail: chaohsinwu@ntu.edu.tw).
Color versions of one or more figures in this article are available at
https://doi.org/10.1109/TED.2023.3339084.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TED.2023.3339084
HBLETs or TQW-HBTs or TQW-LETs) at varying ambient
temperatures. Our analysis involves a modified
charge-control model that integrates the idea of thermionic
emission of electrons from the TQWs, which are strate-
gically positioned within the base region of HBTs. Both
experimental measurements and simulations demonstrate
that the minority carrier within the TQWs acquires greater
energy at higher operating temperatures, facilitating its
rapid escape from the TQWs due to a reduced escape time.
Interestingly, this phenomenon leads to a distinct aug-
mentation in the current gain, contrary to the conventional
behavior observed in HBTs. Specifically, we observed a
remarkable increase in current gain of approximately 200%,
when the operating temperature of TQW-HBTs is elevated
from 25 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. Notably, the experimental findings align
consistently with the outcomes obtained through simula-
tions. Consequently, our study presents a compelling case
for the application of light-emitting transistors (LETs) in the
design of cutting-edge smart thermal sensors, illustrating
their promising potential in the front end of such systems.
Index Terms— InGaP/GaAs, light-emitting transistors
(LETs), quantum-well single-heterojunction bipolar tran-
sistors (QW-HBTs), temperature, temperature-dependent
current gain, thermal sensor, triple-quantum-well (TQW),
TQW heterojunction bipolar light-emitting transistors
(TQW-HBLETs), TQW heterojunction bipolar transistors
(TQW-HBTs).
I. I NTRODUCTION
COMPREHENSIVE investigation has been conducted
A over the past few decades to explore the impact
of temperature on the electrical I –V characteristics of
InGaP/GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) [1], [2],
[3]. In emitter–base heterojunctions, the valance band energy
discontinuity 1E V efficiently prevents the back injection of
hole currents from the emitter side, resulting in a substantial
current gain. However, at elevated temperatures, 1E V between
the emitter and the base decreases, leading to a slight reduction
in the current gain of conventional HBTs due to increased
thermal energy [4].

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KUMAR et al.: CURRENT GAIN ENHANCEMENT AT HIGH-TEMPERATURE OPERATION
InGaP/GaAs HBTs commonly encounter power dissipation
issues due to their high currents and relatively low thermal
conductivity of the GaAs substrate, which causes self-heating.
Previous literature indicates that the self-heating effect in
HBTs is primarily governed by the base–emitter junction volt-
age or forward bias voltage [5], [6], [7]. This thermoelectrical
property has found applications in various temperature sensors,
including thermistors, thermocouples, diode thermal sensors,
resistance temperature detectors, and transistor thermal sensors
based on CMOS (with advantages of small area and low
cost) and bipolar junction transistor (BJT) technology [8], [9],
[10]. Commercially, PIN diodes have long been employed as
temperature sensors due to their temperature-sensitive forward
bias I –V characteristics, operating within a temperature range
of 1.4–500 K [11]. These sensors exhibit high sensitivity (hun-
dreds of mV/K), generate high signal levels (ranging from hun-
dreds of millivolts to volts), and maintain exceptional stability
and reproducibility [12]. In addition, silicon-based transistors
excel as a temperature sensor, particularly when high stability,
low cost, and high sensitivity are required for a specific
temperature range of application (−55 ◦ C to −150 ◦ C) [13].
In 2004, Feng et al. [14], [15] presented a ground-breaking
innovation in the field of optoelectronics by introducing
a novel type of heterojunction bipolar light-emitting tran-
sistors (HBLETs), also known as light-emitting transistors
(LETs). This innovative device incorporates a quantum well
(QW) within its base region of HBT, setting it apart from
conventional transistors. This LET not only functions as a
QW single-HBTs (QW-HBTs) but also serves as an ultrafast
light source with three input ports (one electrical input, one
electrical output, and one optical output) for optical commu-
nication purposes, acting as a receiver or transceiver of optical
data [16].
This novel transistor class exhibits an extremely short
spontaneous recombination lifetime (in the range of tens
of picoseconds), allowing for rapid signal modulation at
frequencies up to 4.3 GHz by eliminating the slow carri-
ers [17]. By incorporating an optical cavity and confining
layer in the layer structure, the QW-HBT can be further
transformed into a transistor laser (TL) [18]. The LETs sen-
sitivity to ambient temperature can be significantly enhanced
by implementing specific layer structure designs that induce
strong thermionic emission within the QW [19] or multiple-
quantum-wells (MQWs) [20] of the HBTs base region.
Previous studies have primarily concentrated on the opti-
cal properties of the device, including optical modulation
and laser thermal characteristics while giving limited con-
sideration to its electrical characteristics [21], [22], [23].
In this research work, we introduce novel triple-quantum-
well HBLETs (TQW-HBLETs or TQW-LETs) or TQW-HBTs,
examining the temperature-dependent current–voltage (I –V )
characteristics of InGaP/GaAs TQW-HBTs. We conducted
both experimental and theoretical demonstrations showcasing
the influence of ambient temperature variations on the cur-
rent gain modulation. This finding emphasizes the potential
utilization of TQW-HBTs for designing highly sensitive and
temperature-dependent current–voltage (I –V ) characteristics
for future smart thermal sensors’ front-end components.
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897
Fig. 1. (a) Schematic epitaxial structure of the TQW-HBT. (b) Energy
band diagram of n-p-n InGaP/GaAs TQW-HBLET. (c) Device top
view layout of TQW-HBLET. The emitter cross-sectional area of the
TQW-HBLET is 40 µm × 40 µm.
II. D EVICE FABRICATION AND E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
In this article, we present our study on the epitaxial
structures of n-p-n TQW-HBTs, which were fabricated on
a semi-insulating (S.I.) GaAs substrate through the applica-
tion of metal–organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD)
process. The epitaxial layer stack comprised several layers.
It started with a heavily doped n-type GaAs buffer layer
with a thickness of 5000 Å, succeeded by bottom cladding
layers comprising a 634-Å-thick n-type Al0.40 Ga0.60 As layer,
an oxidizable layer of Al0.95 Ga0.05 As with a thickness of
5000 Å, and an oxide buffer layer of Al0.40 Ga0.60 As with
a thickness of 150 Å. The layer sequence continued with a
200-Å-thin subcollector layer of heavily doped n-type GaAs,
followed by a 120-Å etching stop layer of In0.49 Ga0.51 P,
and a 600-Å collector layer of undoped GaAs. The active
layer design comprised an 1120-Å GaAs base layer with an
average p-type doping concentration of 3 × 1019 cm−3 , and
it included three undoped 70-Å-thin InGaAs QWs (tailored
for a wavelength λ around 980 nm) positioned side by side
with a separation of 35 Å. The epitaxial TQW-HBT structure
was finalized by growing a 250-Å-wide-gap n-type layer com-
posed of In0.49 Ga0.51 P, serving as the emitter layer. Moreover,
the upper cladding layers replicated the composition of the
lower ones. Finally, a 1000-Å contact layer of heavily doped
n-type GaAs was added to cap the epitaxial structure of the
TQW-HBTs. Fig. 1(a) illustrates the finished device epitaxial
structure of the TQW-HBTs. During the fabrication process of
the TQW-HBT, wet etching was initially utilized to create the
emitter and the base mesas, and then, isolation etching was
carried out until reaching the S.I. GaAs substrate. Following
that, standard lithographic techniques and metallization were
employed to deposit the contacts of the emitter (E), base (B),
and collector (C). The fabrication process was completed with
planarization, via hole etching, and pad metallization. The
energy band diagram, as depicted in Fig. 1(b), represents a
TQW-HBLET with an n-type In0.49 Ga0.51 P/p+ -type GaAs/n-
type GaAs configuration. In addition, the top view of the
device is presented in Fig. 1(c).
To evaluate the device’s performance, it was placed on a
Peltier temperature-controlled stage. Approximately 20 min
were required for the Peltier stage to achieve a steady-state
temperature before stable temperature measurements were
taken. An Agilent E5270B was utilized to supply the electrical
898
Fig. 2. (a) Experimental characteristics: collector current IC versus
collector-to-voltage VCE of n-p-n TQW-HBT at varied base currents IB
from 0.2 to 1 mA, investigated at 25 ◦ C (solid line) and 85 ◦ C (dashed
line). (b) Experimental analysis: current gain (βTQW ) of TQW-HBT as a
function of externally controlled substrate temperature Text .
DC bias and current. During the parameter sweep, the base
current I B was systematically varied from 0.2 to 1 mA in
0.20 mA increments, while increasing the collector–emitter
voltage VCE from 0 to 2 V. The TQW-HBTs collector current
IC versus collector-to-emitter voltage VCE characteristics were
measured for different bias currents I B at substrate temper-
atures Text of 25 ◦ C and 85 ◦ C, as depicted in Fig. 2(a).
When biased at I B = 1 mA and VCE = 2 V, the collector
current IC increased from 0.210 to 0.631 mA at Text = 25 ◦ C
and Text = 85 ◦ C, respectively, in the forward-active region.
This unique temperature-dependent collector current is a key
parameter in designing a smart thermal sensor based on the
IC (T) characteristics for temperature sensing. Moreover, it was
observed that under the same bias conditions of I B and VCE ,
the collector-to-emitter offset voltage decreased from 0.64 to
0.56 V at Text = 25 ◦ C and Text = 85 ◦ C, respectively, indicat-
ing the presence of intrinsic carrier surges as the temperature
increased.
Fig. 2(b) illustrates the unique thermally enhanced current
gain of TQW-HBT, displaying the relationship βTQW and
controlled temperature Text for different base currents I B
ranging from 25 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. The current gain of the LETs
increased with higher temperature Text or base current I B . The
QW conduction band offset played a crucial role in confining
the electron, causing those injected into the base region to
be localized or attracted around the QWs. Higher tempera-
tures led to increased thermal energy in the QWs reservoir,
enabling electrons in the base to acquire the necessary energy
to overcome the quantum well barrier (QWB) and escape
from the QW reservoir. As a result, a considerable number
of minority carriers rejoined the diffusion flow toward the
collector, reducing the effect of carrier capture into the QW
at elevated temperatures. This led to an enhanced current
gain under reverse bias, as more electrons were collected by
the base–collector junction. In addition, the higher current
gain βTQW observed with an increased base current I B might
potentially be linked to the thermal effect, as the injection of
current could elevate the internal temperature of the device.
III. M ODIFIED C HARGE -C ONTROL M ODEL
A. Triple-Quantum-Well Base Region Current Gain in
HBTs
QW-HBTs exhibit distinct behavior compared with separate
confinement heterojunction (SCH) due to the tilting of the
minority carrier distribution during forward-active operation.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. 71, NO. 1, JANUARY 2024
Fig. 3. Schematic of minority charge distribution (ρ) in the base region
of the TQW-HBT.
Applying reverse bias to the base–collector junction creates
a high electric field that drives electrons into the collector,
resulting in a near-zero electron density at the collector. The
basic charge-control model of LET was previously reported
by Feng et al. [24]. In addition, our research team conducted
further modifications to the charge control of HBLET and
investigated its thermal characteristics in 2019 [25]. This
research work focuses on analyzing the behavior of elec-
trons surrounding the TQWs and the temperature-dependent
behaviors of current gain in TQW-HBT. Consequently, we pri-
oritize analytical formulations that explicitly account for the
time-dependent parameters in our research.
Fig. 3 presents the charge control model for the distribution
of minority charges (ρ) within the base region of TQW-HBT.
The base charge distribution of TQW-HBT can be modeled as
a combination of four triangular charge populations referred
to as Q 0 , Q 1 , Q 2 , and Q 3 . Within the base, the total volume
charge density of minority carriers comprises seven compo-
nents: Q 0 , Q 1 , Q 2 , Q 3 , Q QW1 , Q QW2 , and Q QW3 . Among
these, Q 1 , Q 2 , and Q 3 account for the electrons that diffuse
from the emitter to QW1 , QW2 , and QW3 , respectively, for
spontaneous or stimulated recombination. Q 0 maintains the
diffusion of electrons toward the B–C electrical collector,
thereby forming the collector current (IC ). In addition, Q QW1 ,
Q QW2 , and Q QW3 are associated with the capture of minority
carriers by QW1 , QW2 , and QW3 , respectively.
Expanding upon our prior derivation for the current gain
of MQW-HBLETs, we extend our investigation to assess the
impact of temperature on the current gain of TQW-HBT
using (18) as referenced in [26]. In this analysis, we delib-
erately omit consideration of quantum-well coupling and
quantum-tunneling current, given their relatively minor influ-
ence on current gain in contrast to the significant role played
by thermionic emission. The current gain of TQW-HBTs,
denoted by βTQW , can be determined using [26, eq. (18)], with
N set to 3, resulting in the following expression:
βEC
βTQW ≈ . (1)
1 + (1 + βEC )(V1 + V2 + V3 )
Here, βEC = τb /τt,EC represents the current gain corresponding
to fictitious HBTs with the base width W B . τb denotes the
KUMAR et al.: CURRENT GAIN ENHANCEMENT AT HIGH-TEMPERATURE OPERATION 899

bulk recombination lifetime of electrons in the base, and τt,EC B. Modified Thermionic Emission Model
represents the transit time of electrons through the GaAs base The investigation into the escape time of electrons from
region of the transistor. A notable observation is that increasing the QWs was carried out using the classical thermionic
the number of QWs in the base region of HBTs results in theory by Schneider and Klitzing [27] and Nagarajan [28].
a reduced current gain, attributed to the accelerated carrier According to this model, the distribution of carriers in the
recombination within the TQWs. Alternatively, if the TQWs QW follows Boltzmann-like statistics, and escape currents
are absent (V1 +V2 +V3 = 0), the current gain simply becomes are related to the carrier distribution tail located at the top
βEC of the HBT with the same base width W B . In addition, of the energy barrier. However, this method for estimating
V1 = F1 /F0 , V2 = F2 /F0 , and V3 = F3 /F0 are calculated the escape time is limited to QW widths of a few hundred
using the relation Vl = F l /F0 from [26, eq. (15)], where Angstroms. In our experimental device, we have three QWs,
Fl is obtained from [26, eq. (13)]. In Fig. 3, the terms F0 , each with a width of 70 Å. To address this, we utilize a mod-
F1 , F2 , and F3 represent the charge flux of minority carriers ified expression for the thermionic emission lifetime proposed
corresponding to Q 0 , Q 1 , Q 2 , and Q 3 , respectively. by Nelson et al. [29], which takes into account thermionic
With [26, eq. (13)], we may represent the terms F1 , F2 , and emission, thermally assisted tunneling, and direct tunneling
F3 as follows: in the QW. In our study, we employ a comparable approach,
as described in [29], to estimate the escape time of electrons.
F1 ∼
= U1C F0 (2a) The first step involves calculating the injection current density
∼ U2C F0 + U21 F1
F2 = (2b) (Je ) by integrating the product of carrier concentration in the
= U3C F0 + U31 F1 + U32 F2 .
F3 ∼ (2c) QW, transmission probability, and carrier escape velocity over
the energy range. Next, we integrate the carrier population
Now, with [26, eq. (12)], the above terms U1C , U2C , U3C , U21 , present in the confined states of different sub-bands and the
U31 , and U32 are defined as follows: unconfined states on the top QW. Finally, we evaluated the
thermionic emission lifetime using the following equation:
1
1 + β1E1
!
τb τcap,1 1 d1 ne d
U1C =
τQW,1 τ 1 + τ 1 1 β W1C

(3a) τesc
te
= . (4)
QW,1 esc,1
1 + βEC 1C 2 Je
1
1 + β1E2
!
τb τcap,2 1 d2 In thermionic emission lifetime calculations, the classical
U2C = (3b) Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution is selected for its simplicity,
τQW,2 τ 1 + τ 1 1 β W2C


1 + βEC 2C 2
QW,2 esc,2 making it suitable for analyzing macroscopic systems at ele-
1
1 + β1E3
!
τb τcap,3 1 d3 vated temperatures. However, it is important to acknowledge
U3C = (3c) that its accuracy may decrease as quantum effects become
τQW,3 τ 1
+ τesc,3 1 + βEC β3C W23C
1 1


QW,3 more pronounced. As an alternative approach, we employ the
1
1 + β1E2
!
τb τcap,2 1 d2 classical Boltzmann distribution instead of the Fermi–Dirac
U21 = (3d) distribution to reformulate the expression for thermionic emis-
τQW,2 τ 1
+ τesc,2 1 + β E1 β21 W221
1 1


QW,2
sion lifetime, as detailed in (4), resulting in the following
1
1 + β1E3
!
τb τcap,3 1 d3 analytical expression:
U31 = (3e)
τQW,3 τ 1 + τ 1 1 β W31


1 + 31  Nb ( E −E )
β E1 2π m ∗ 2m ∗ k B T −1 X

QW,3 esc,3 2 c,b i
1 τesc =
te
e kB T
1 + β1E3
!
τb τcap,3 1 d3 ℏ ℏ2
U32 =
. (3f) i=1
τQW,3 τ 1
+τ 1
1+ β 1 β32 W232 m ∗ d 2m ∗ 1E B −1/2
 
QW,3 esc,3 E2
+
ℏ ℏ2
Here, we consider several key parameters related to the
N
πℏ X π ℏd 2m 1E B 1/2
b    ∗ 
recombination and carrier dynamics in the TQW-HBT. The E c,b − E i
≈ exp +
recombination lifetime of electrons in each QW is denoted k B T i=1 kB T 2π 1E B ℏ2
by τQW,1 , τQW,2 , and τQW,3 for QW1 , QW2 , and QW3 ,
(5)
respectively. The density of minority carriers in the virtual
conduction states of each QW is represented as n VS,1 , n VS,2 , where the effective barrier height E B is determined by the
and n VS,3 for QW1 , QW2 , and QW3 , respectively. Furthermore, difference in band edge energies between the conduction band
the capture time of minority carriers transitioning from their in the GaAs barrier (E c,b ) and the first sub-band of the InGaAs
respective virtual states to the bound states in each QW QW (E 1 ). The width of the QW is denoted by d, while
is denoted as τcap,1 , τcap,2 , and τcap,3 for QW1 , QW2 , and m ∗ represents the effective mass of electrons. The Boltzmann
QW3 , respectively. In addition, τesc,1 , τesc,2 , and τesc,3 represent constant is represented as k B , and T denotes the temperature
the escape time of electrons from QW1 , QW2 , and QW3 , in kelvins. [ℏ2 /2m ∗ 1E B ]1/2 is the length scale determined
respectively, into the doped base region. It is important to by 1E B . Nb represents the number of bound sub-bands, and
note that the width of each QW in our fabricated TQW-HBTs E i denotes the band edge energy of the ith bound sub-
device is kept the same (d1 = d2 = d3 = d). The remaining band. In this modified thermionic emission model, we also
terms, such as β E3 , β E2 , β E1 , β32 , β31 , β3C , β2C , β1C , and β21 , consider the effect of the carrier-longitudinal optical (LO)
are calculated using the formulation proved in [26, eq. (10)]. phonon interaction due to polar scattering on the escape rate.

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900 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. 71, NO. 1, JANUARY 2024

Fig. 4. Temperature-dependent escape times for different base currents from the QW in TQW-HBT. (a) Escape time from QW3 (τesc,3 ). (b) Escape
time from QW2 (τesc,2 ). (c) Escape time from QW1 (τesc,1 ). (d) Capture time τcap versus temperature T for various base currents ranging from 0.2 to
1 mA. (e) Recombination lifetime τQW versus temperature T for different base currents ranging from 0.2 to 1 mA. Note: (d) and (e) assume almost
equal capture (τcap,3 ≈ τcap,2 ≈ τcap,1 ) and recombination (τQW,3 ≈ τQW,2 ≈ τQW,1 ) times in all the QWs. (f) Base transit time (τt,EC , black solid line)
and bulk recombination lifetime (τb , red solid line) as a function of temperature T. The inset of (a)–(c) illustrates the position of sub-band energy in
the TQW.

At elevated temperatures, electrons can readily escape from the
QW through the absorption of an LO phonon. To account for
this effect, we include the additional temperature-dependent
term [exp(ℏωLO /k B T ) − 1]−1 in the escape rate, known as the
Bose–Einstein distribution function [30], [31]. Consequently,
the escape time due to thermionic emission can be expressed
as follows:
 −1
1 1 1 different base currents, as shown in Fig. 4(e). In comparison to
τesc ≈  te +  . (6)
τesc τLO exp ℏωLO − 1
 
kB T
Here, τLO represents the electron escape time from the bound
states to the unconfined state caused by the absorption of LO
phonons, and ℏωLO is the energy of LO phonons.
We extracted the capture time (τcap ), escape time (τesc ),
and recombination time (τQW ) as functions of temperature
at different base currents I B by fitting the experimental cur-
rent gain to the theoretical current gain (βTQW ) from (1)
for TQW-HBT. These results are illustrated in Fig. 4(a)–(e).
As the device’s electron temperature rises, the extensive carrier
distribution over the QW is impacted by the band filling
effect. As a result, the escape time decreases exponentially
with increasing temperature and base current, as depicted in
Fig. 4(a)–(c). The escape time differs for QW1 , QW2 , and
QW3 due to their distinct first sub-band energy level in the
QW, resulting from the specific layer structure of TQW-HBT.
We have also incorporated self-heating effects, which indicate
that the junction temperature in our TQW-HBTs is lower than
that in conventional HBT. However, as the base current and
temperature increase, the capture time substantially increases
because carriers transitioning from bulk states to the quantum
well states become blocked at the accessible states. In addition,
the capture time is also influenced by the operating current–
voltage. With an increase in the base current, the scattering rate
decreases, leading to an increase in capture time due to the
increased Fermi wavevector, as depicted in Fig. 4(d). We also
extracted the QW lifetime as a function of temperature at
the three timescales, the QW recombination time and capture
time exhibit less sensitivity to temperature changes than the
escape time in the QW. Furthermore, the escape time τesc
varies more significantly than the bulk recombination time τb
and transit time τt,EC as the temperature increases.
C. Recombination and Transit Time of Carriers for
TQW-HBTs
Carrier recombination and transit time play crucial roles
in the performance of TQW-HBTs. The base region of
TQW-HBTs is heavily doped with a p-type dopant concen-
tration of approximately 3 × 1019 cm−3 . As a consequence,
p
the minority carrier mobility µe is primarily influenced by
ionized impurities. However, its influence on carrier scatter-
ing becomes negligible. The influence of lattice scattering,
attributed to phonon scattering, is proportional to the tem-
perature. Therefore, the minority carrier mobility decreases
with increasing temperatures, albeit with less influence at
higher temperatures [32], [33]. To analyze the base transit
time τt,EC as a function of temperature, we employ Einstein’s

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KUMAR et al.: CURRENT GAIN ENHANCEMENT AT HIGH-TEMPERATURE OPERATION 901

p
relationship (Dn = µe k B T /q) and consider the temperature
p
dependence of minority carrier mobility µe . In Fig. 4(f) (black
solid line), we observe that the transit time reduces by 23.25%
as the temperature rises from 300 to 400 K, indicating a weak
p
dependency of minority carrier mobility µe on temperatures.
Next, we investigate the changes in the bulk recombination
time within a heavily p-doped base with respect to tem-
perature T, as illustrated in Fig. 4(f) (red solid line). The
lifetime can be described through the models of Shockley–
Read–Hall (SRH) recombination, radiative recombination, and
Auger recombination, outlined as follows:
 −1
1 1 1
−1
τrec = + + = A0 + B0 P + C0 P 2 .
τSRH τrad τAuger
(7)
Here, P denotes the doping concentration in the base region;
A0 , B0 , and C0 are the SRH, spontaneous, and auger recom- Fig. 5. Theoretical simulation of the temperature-dependent ratios
based on [26, eqs. (22) and (23)]. (a) Ratio of QQW3 −Q0 , (b) QQW2 −Q0 ,
bination coefficient, respectively; τSRH , τrad , and τAuger are the (c) QQW1 − Q0 , and (d) Q(QW3 +QW2 +QW1 ) − Q0 . The total electron stored
SRH, radiative, and Auger recombination times respectively. in the TQWs is denoted by Q(QW3 +QW2 +QW1 ) .
In a heavily doped GaAs semiconductor, recombination caused
by the Auger is a significant issue due to the high impurity
density and carrier density. The threshold kinetic energy E th
of high-energy electrons in the nondegenerate semiconduc-
tor is significantly influenced by temperature, especially in
the context of band-to-band Auger recombination. At higher
temperatures, the energy bandgap E g shrinks, leading to a
decrease in the threshold kinetic energy E th of high-energy
electrons and potentially increasing the Auger recombination
coefficient C0 [34]. On the other hand, at room temperature,
the recombination process is mainly governed by band-to-
band radiative recombination of the direct band gap GaAs,
rather than the exciton process. The lifetime of radiative
recombination τrad is linked to the spontaneous emission
coefficient B0 , which is proportionally related to T −3/2 for
the bulk materials with parabolic bands; and T −1 for quantum
wells with separated bands [35], [36]. In general, the SRH
recombination time τSRH is significantly longer than that of Fig. 6. Temperature dependence of current gain βTQW in TQW-HBT
for varied base currents (0.2–1 mA): experimental (star solid) and
radiative and Auger recombination. As B0 is treated as a simulation (solid line) results.
constant in our temperature-dependent charge-control model,
the bulk lifetime τb varies by approximately 41.55% when because it is closer to the emitter side than other QWs.
the temperature T rises from 300 to 400 K, as depicted in As the temperature increases, electrons gain sufficient energy
Fig. 4(f) (red solid line). These findings suggest that auger to escape more readily from the QW, and these additional
recombination dominates over bulk recombination lifetime at escaping electrons contribute to the base charge region Q 0 .
higher temperatures. Our theoretical simulation results are shown in Fig. 5(a)–(d)
using the same simulation parameters as shown in Fig. 6.
D. Charge Analysis in the Quantum Well and Base These simulations demonstrate that the ratio of Q QW3 –Q 0 ;
Region Q QW2 –Q 0 ; Q QW1 –Q 0 ; and Q (QW3 +QW2 +QW1 ) –Q 0 , all decrease
with increasing temperature and base current. Consequently,
The existing formula used for the theoretical calcula-
at higher temperature T, a larger number of carriers escape
tion of temperature-dependent charge analysis, as presented
from the QW, moving toward the collector, which results in an
in [26, eqs. (22) and (23)], seems to underestimate the charge
amplified current gain. The amplified current gain is attributed
analysis in the TQWs and base region. The ratio of total charge
to the higher electron escape rate, leading to a consequential
stored in the TQWs to Q 0 defined a follows:
impact on the base charge region Q 0 .
Q (QW3 +QW2 +QW1 ) Q QW3 Q QW2 Q QW1
= + + . (8)
Q0 Q0 Q0 Q0 IV. S IMULATION R ESULTS AND D ISCUSSION
In our fabricated TQW-HBT, QW3 captures a higher num- In our fabricated TQW-HBT device, the three QWs could be
ber of electrons compared with QW2 and QW1 , primarily considered as a bucket that captures electrons transmitted from

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902
TABLE I
A NALYZING THE C URRENT G AIN (βTQW ) AT 300 K W ITH
THE F OLLOWING PARAMETERS
the emitter to the collector side. As the temperature increases,
the escape time τesc diminishes exponentially with 1/k B T ,
causing the electrons stored in the TQW to gain sufficient
energy for escaping. Consequently, at higher temperatures,
these escaping electrons contribute to the base charge Q 0 .
Under the influence of B–C reverse bias, they are swept to the
collector, leading to an increase in both the collector current
IC = AQ0 /τt,EC and the current gain βTQW . This results in
a notable temperature variation in the current gain and the
collector current IC . Fig. 6 displays the experimental current
gain as a function of temperature T, represented by family
curves at VBC = 0, and compares it with the corresponding
simulated results at various base currents. The simulation
trends of temperature-dependent current gain for TQW-HBTs
at a base current of I B = 0.2 mA closely matches the exper-
imental data. Table I presents the corresponding parameters
used in the simulation at a temperature of 300 K.
Moreover, we made efforts to fit the experimental measure-
ment data at various base currents, not limited to 0.2 mA,
by adjusting specific parameters that linearly change with
base current and temperature. However, due to the internal
heat-up of the device at higher base currents, a more metic-
ulous experimental calibration was necessary to achieve a
theoretical fit with the experimental current gain. Nonetheless,
the simulation results were still satisfactory. Notably, as the
electrons thermionically escape from the TQWs, the current
gain at I B = 1 mA increases by approximately 200% with the
temperature rising from 25 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. This indicates that
at higher temperature T, more carriers are released from the
QWs and reach the collector, ultimately increasing the current
gain. The sensitivity of TQW-HBTs is defined as the change in
the collector current with respect to temperature (1I C /1T ),
which distinguishes it from the sensitivity (change in voltage
with respect to temperature, 1V /1T ) typically defined in
conventional BJT or PIN diode-based thermal sensors. In our
future work, we are planning to design more complex circuits
incorporating passive components. This will enable us to
redefine the sensitivity as 1V /1T , allowing for a more
meaningful comparison with existing technology. Notably,
the average current-to-temperature signal of TQW-HBLET
is 7 µA/◦ C. This substantial current-to-temperature signal
holds great promise of achieving high-resolution temperature
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ELECTRON DEVICES, VOL. 71, NO. 1, JANUARY 2024
sensing when integrated into optoelectronic integrated circuits
(OEICs) in the near future.
V. C ONCLUSION
In conclusion, this research work successfully demonstrates,
both experimentally and through simulations, that the cur-
rent gain of TQW-HBTs exhibits an increase with operating
substrate temperature. The incorporation of InGaAs triple-
quantum-wells into the transistor base region renders the tran-
sistor’s current gain temperature sensitive. Notably, the current
gain is remarkably enhanced by approximately 200% by
designing a specific TQW-HBTs layer structure and increasing
the temperature from 25 ◦ C to 85 ◦ C. Our analysis thoroughly
considers the impact of TQWs and provides an explanation
for the phenomenon of thermoelectric enhancement of current
gain using our developed temperature-dependent modified
charge-control model based on thermionic emission theory.
The theoretical calculations align well with the experimental
trend of current gain in TQW-HBTs, validating the accuracy
of our approach. This TQW-HBT is a strong candidate for
designing a high-resolution temperature sensor as a front-end
component due to its strong high current-to-temperature signal.
Finally, this work sheds light on the potential of TQW-HBTs as
promising devices with enhanced thermal characteristics and
lays the foundation for further advancements in the field of
OEICs and temperature sensing technologies.
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