BIOLOGICAL MACROMOLECULES

Biological macromolecules, including carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins, exhibit diverse structures that determine
their properties and functions in living organisms.

Carbohydrates

 Structure: Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1. They can be simple sugars
(monosaccharides), double sugars (disaccharides), or complex sugars (polysaccharides). Monosaccharides like glucose
and fructose form the building blocks of more complex carbohydrates.
 Properties and Functions: Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source for cells, provide structural support (e.g.,
cellulose in plants), and facilitate cell recognition and signaling (e.g., glycoproteins).

Lipids:

 Structure: Lipids are hydrophobic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They include triglycerides
(fats and oils), phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. Fatty acids, the building blocks of lipids, vary in chain length and
degree of saturation.
 Properties and Functions: Lipids are crucial for energy storage, forming cellular membranes (phospholipids), serving as
signaling molecules (e.g., steroids like cholesterol), and providing insulation and protection.

Nucleic Acids:

 Structure: Nucleic acids, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are polymers composed of nucleotide
monomers. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine in DNA; adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil in RNA).
 Properties and Functions: DNA stores genetic information, providing instructions for the synthesis of proteins and the
regulation of cellular processes. RNA plays various roles including gene expression (mRNA), protein synthesis (tRNA),
and catalyzing biochemical reactions (ribozymes).

Proteins:

 Structure: Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. The sequence of amino acids determines the
protein's primary structure, which then folds into higher-order structures (secondary, tertiary, and quaternary) due to
interactions such as hydrogen bonds, disulfide bridges, hydrophobic interactions, and electrostatic attractions.
 Properties and Functions: Proteins exhibit diverse functions including catalysis of biochemical reactions (enzymes),
structural support (e.g., collagen), transport of molecules (e.g., hemoglobin), defense (e.g., antibodies), and regulation
of gene expression (e.g., transcription factors).

The structures of biological macromolecules determine their unique properties and enable them to perform specific functions essential for
the survival and proper functioning of living organisms.

*Ester bond -the bond that forms between the oxygen and carbon atoms