B.A.

Political Science (Semester - III)

BSO-211: Comparative political Institutions-I
PYQ bank with answers.
1. Explain the principle of ‘Rule of Law’ and examine
its practice in the UK. [2019]
The principle of Rule of Law refers to a system where laws are supreme,
and everyone, including the government, is subject to them. It is the
fundamental basis of a just and democratic society, ensuring that
individuals have equal rights, and the government is accountable to its
citizens. The Rule of Law has three main components:
1. The supremacy of the law.
2. Equality before the law.
3. The right to a fair trial.

The supremacy of the law means that no one, including the

government, is above the law. All laws must be clear, predictable, and
applied equally to all citizens.
The principle of equality before the law ensures that everyone is subject
to the same laws and procedures, without discrimination.
The right to a fair trial includes the right to legal representation, the
right to be heard, and the right to an impartial and independent
judiciary.

The Rule of Law is a central feature of the United Kingdom's

constitutional framework, which is based on common law and the
principle of parliamentary sovereignty. The UK has a robust legal system,
with an independent judiciary, a well-established legal profession, and a
codified body of laws. The judiciary is responsible for interpreting and
applying the law, and it is not subject to political interference. The UK
also has a strong tradition of upholding individual rights and freedoms,
such as the right to a fair trial, freedom of speech, and freedom of
assembly.
 However, the UK's adherence to the Rule of Law has come under
scrutiny in recent years. Critics have pointed to the government's
attempts to undermine the independence of the judiciary, such as its
controversial prorogation of parliament in 2019, and its attempts to
curtail the powers of the Human Rights Act. The UK's exit from the
European Union has also raised concerns about the erosion of individual
rights and the Rule of Law, as the UK will no longer be subject to EU law
and the jurisdiction of the European Court of Justice.

In conclusion, the Rule of Law is a fundamental principle of a democratic

society, ensuring that everyone is subject to the same laws and
procedures, without discrimination. The UK has a robust legal system
and a strong tradition of upholding individual rights and freedoms.
However, recent challenges to the independence of the judiciary and the
UK's departure from the EU have raised concerns about the future of the
Rule of Law in the country.

2. Describe the nature and determining factors of

Constitutionalism. [2019,18]
Intro: Constitutionalism refers to a political philosophy that emphasizes
the importance of a written constitution that outlines the powers and
limitations of government. It is a system of government that limits the
power of the government by imposing legal constraints on it.
Constitutionalism is based on the belief that power should be limited
and that government should be held accountable to the people.

The nature of constitutionalism can be understood by examining its

basic principles.
Firstly, it is based on the idea that the constitution is the supreme law of
the land, and all laws and government actions must conform to it.
Secondly, constitutionalism recognizes the importance of the separation
of powers, where the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of
government are separate and have distinct roles and responsibilities.
Thirdly, constitutionalism stresses the importance of individual rights
and freedoms, which are protected by the constitution. Fourthly,
constitutionalism emphasizes the importance of democracy and the rule
of law.

There are several factors that determine the nature of

constitutionalism.
Firstly, historical and cultural factors play a crucial role in shaping the
constitutional principles of a country. For example, the United States
Constitution was heavily influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment
thinkers such as John Locke, who believed in the importance of limited
government and individual rights. Similarly, the British constitution is
heavily influenced by its long history of parliamentary democracy.

Secondly, the form of government and the political system also

determine the nature of constitutionalism. A presidential system, where
the president has significant powers, will have a different type of
constitution than a parliamentary system, where the prime minister is
more accountable to the legislature. Similarly, a federal system, where
power is divided between the central government and the states, will
have a different type of constitution than a unitary system.

Thirdly, the political culture of a country also plays a role in shaping the
nature of constitutionalism. For example, a country with a strong
tradition of individualism and a suspicion of government will have a
different type of constitution than a country with a more collectivist
culture.

Fourthly, external factors such as international law and globalization can

also influence the nature of constitutionalism. For example, the
adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights has influenced the
inclusion of human rights provisions in many modern constitutions.
Similarly, the growth of international trade and the increasing
interconnectedness of countries have led to the adoption of more
globalized constitutional provisions.

In conclusion, constitutionalism is a political philosophy that emphasizes

the importance of a written constitution that outlines the powers and
 limitations of government. The nature of constitutionalism is
determined by historical and cultural factors, the form of government
and political system, the political culture of a country, and external
factors such as international law and globalization. Constitutionalism is a
fundamental feature of democratic societies and is essential for ensuring
that power is limited and government is accountable to the people.

3. What do you mean by Federalism? Describe its

main features. [2019]
Intro: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided
between a central government and constituent units, such as states or
provinces. In a federal system, each level of government has its own set
of powers and responsibilities, and neither level is superior to the other.
Federalism is a key feature of many democratic systems around the
world, including the United States, Canada, Australia, and Germany.

The main features of federalism include:

Division of powers: The powers of the central and state/provincial

governments are clearly defined and divided in the constitution. Each
level of government is responsible for specific areas of policy and can
make laws within its area of jurisdiction. For example, in the United
States, the federal government has the power to regulate interstate
commerce, while the states have the power to regulate intrastate
commerce.

Dual sovereignty: In a federal system, there are two levels of

government with their own sources of authority. Both the central
government and the state/provincial governments derive their authority
from the constitution and are independent of each other. This means
that each level of government can act as a check on the other, ensuring
that neither becomes too powerful.

Supremacy of the constitution: In a federal system, the constitution is

the supreme law of the land. All levels of government, including the
 central government and the state/provincial governments, are bound by
the provisions of the constitution. The constitution also provides for the
protection of individual rights and freedoms.

Independent judiciary: In a federal system, there is an independent

judiciary that interprets the constitution and resolves disputes between
the central government and the state/provincial governments. The
judiciary ensures that the powers of each level of government are
respected and that the constitution is upheld.

Shared authority: In some cases, the central government and the

state/provincial governments share authority over certain policy areas.
For example, in the United States, both the federal government and the
states have the power to levy taxes.

Flexible: Federalism is a flexible system of government that allows for

experimentation and innovation at the state/provincial level.
States/provinces can implement policies that are tailored to their unique
circumstances, and successful policies can be adopted by other
states/provinces or at the federal level.

In conclusion, federalism is a system of government that divides power

between a central government and state/provincial governments. The
main features of federalism include a clear division of powers, dual
sovereignty, supremacy of the constitution, an independent judiciary,
shared authority, and flexibility. Federalism is a key feature of many
democratic systems around the world and is essential for ensuring that
power is distributed among different levels of government and that
individual rights and freedoms are protected.

4. Discuss the scope of Comparative Political

Institutions. [2019,18]
Intro: Comparative political institutions is a subfield of political science
that focuses on the study of different types of political systems,
structures, and institutions across countries and regions. This field aims
to understand the similarities and differences in political institutions and
their impact on political outcomes such as policy making, political
stability, and democratic governance.

The scope of comparative political institutions is vast and encompasses

a wide range of topics, including:

Forms of government: Comparative political institutions examine the

different forms of government that exist in the world, such as
presidential, parliamentary, and semi-presidential systems. It also
explores the historical and cultural factors that have led to the
development of different forms of government in different countries.

Electoral systems: Electoral systems play a crucial role in shaping the

political process and outcomes in a country. Comparative political
institutions examine the different types of electoral systems, such as
proportional representation and first-past-the-post systems, and their
impact on political representation and democratic accountability.

Federalism and decentralization: Comparative political institutions also

look at the different types of federal systems and the ways in which
power is distributed between the central government and regional or
local governments. It examines the impact of federalism and
decentralization on political stability, democratic governance, and
economic development.

Political parties: Political parties are a central feature of modern

democracies. Comparative political institutions examine the different
types of political parties and their role in shaping political competition
and policy making. It also explores the factors that influence the
formation and success of political parties in different countries.

Legislative institutions: Legislative institutions are an important aspect

of democratic governance. Comparative political institutions examine
the different types of legislatures, such as unicameral and bicameral
systems, and their role in the policy making process. It also explores the
 factors that influence the effectiveness and legitimacy of legislative
institutions in different countries.

Judicial institutions: Judicial institutions play a crucial role in upholding

the rule of law and protecting individual rights and freedoms.
Comparative political institutions examine the different types of judicial
systems, such as common law and civil law systems, and their impact on
the legal and political systems of different countries.

Public administration: Public administration is responsible for

implementing government policies and programs. Comparative political
institutions examine the different types of public administration systems
and their effectiveness in delivering services and promoting public
welfare.

In conclusion, the scope of comparative political institutions is wide and

encompasses a diverse range of topics related to political systems,
structures, and institutions across countries and regions. This field is
important for understanding the similarities and differences in political
institutions and their impact on political outcomes. Comparative political
institutions play a crucial role in informing policy making and promoting
democratic governance around the world.

5. Describe the features of the American

Federalism. [2019,18]
Intro: American federalism is a system of government in which power is
divided between a central government and individual states. The U.S.
Constitution grants certain powers to the federal government while
reserving others to the states. The following are the key features of
American federalism:

Dual sovereignty: In American federalism, both the federal government

and state governments have independent authority, and neither is
subordinate to the other. This means that each level of government has
its own sphere of influence and can act as a check on the other.
Enumerated powers: The U.S. Constitution grants specific powers to the
federal government, including the power to regulate commerce, declare
war, and coin money. These powers are referred to as "enumerated
powers," and any power not granted to the federal government is
reserved for the states.

Tenth Amendment: The Tenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

states that any powers not granted to the federal government nor
prohibited to the states are reserved for the states or the people. This
amendment reinforces the concept of states' rights and limits the power
of the federal government.

Supremacy Clause: The Supremacy Clause of the U.S. Constitution

establishes that federal law is the supreme law of the land, and any state
law that conflicts with federal law is invalid. This ensures that the federal
government has the final say on issues that fall within its sphere of
influence.

Elastic Clause: The Elastic Clause, also known as the Necessary and
Proper Clause, grants the federal government the authority to make
laws that are necessary and proper to carry out its enumerated powers.
This clause has been used to expand federal power over time.

Grants-in-aid: The federal government provides grants-in-aid to states

to help fund various programs and projects. These grants often come
with conditions that require states to adhere to certain policies or
standards.

In conclusion, American federalism is a unique system of government

that divides power between the federal government and the states. It
provides for a balance of power between different levels of government
and promotes states' rights while still allowing for a strong central
government. The key features of American federalism include dual
sovereignty, enumerated powers, the Tenth Amendment, the
Supremacy Clause, the Elastic Clause, and grants-in-aid.
6. Explain the principle of Separation of Power in
American constitution. [2019]
Intro: The principle of separation of powers is a fundamental principle of
American constitutional law. It is designed to prevent any one branch of
government from accumulating too much power and becoming
tyrannical. The principle of separation of powers is embodied in the
United States Constitution in several ways.

First, the Constitution divides the federal government into three

branches: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. Each branch is
given specific powers and responsibilities, and none of them can act
outside of their constitutional authority.

Second, the Constitution provides for a system of checks and balances.

Each branch of government is given some power over the others, which
allows them to check and balance the actions of the other branches. For
example, the President can veto laws passed by Congress, but Congress
can override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote. The judiciary can
declare laws passed by Congress or actions taken by the President to be
unconstitutional.

Third, the Constitution prohibits any one person from holding office in
more than one branch of government at the same time. This is known as
the "Separation of Powers Clause" or the "Incompatibility Clause." This
prevents one person from accumulating too much power by holding
multiple positions in the government.

Fourth, the Constitution establishes a system of federalism, in which

power is divided between the federal government and the states. This
system allows for greater decentralization of power and prevents the
federal government from becoming too powerful.

Finally, the Constitution provides for regular elections and the peaceful
transfer of power. This ensures that no one person or party can maintain
control of the government indefinitely.
 In conclusion, the principle of separation of powers is a key component
of the American system of government. It is designed to prevent any one
branch of government from becoming too powerful and to ensure that
the government serves the interests of the people. The Constitution
divides power between the federal government and the states,
establishes a system of checks and balances, and prohibits any one
person from holding too much power.

7. Explain the merits and demerits of Federal

government. [2019]
Federal government, as a system of governance, has its own advantages
and disadvantages. Here are some of the key merits and demerits of
federal government:

Merits of Federal Government:

Power sharing: In a federal system, power is shared between the central

government and the regional governments. This allows for greater
representation of regional interests and better distribution of power.

Flexibility: Federal systems are more flexible than unitary systems

because they can accommodate a wide range of regional and local
variations. This allows for greater customization of policies to meet the
specific needs of different regions.

Diversity: Federal systems can accommodate diverse political, cultural,

and social systems. This diversity can promote innovation and
experimentation in governance, leading to better policy outcomes.

Increased citizen participation: Federal systems allow for greater citizen

participation in government at both the central and regional levels. This
can lead to a more engaged and informed citizenry and better
accountability of elected officials.
Protection of minority rights: Federal systems can provide greater
protection of minority rights by giving minority groups greater
representation in regional government and protecting their rights
through regional autonomy.

Demerits of Federal Government:

Duplication of efforts: Federal systems can lead to duplication of efforts

and inefficiencies due to the duplication of government structures and
bureaucracies at both the central and regional levels.

Conflict and tension: Federal systems can lead to conflicts and tensions
between the central government and regional governments over policy
and funding issues. This can result in political instability and even
secessionist movements.

Inequality: Federal systems can exacerbate economic and social

inequalities between different regions due to differences in funding,
resources, and capacity.

Difficulty in coordination: Federal systems can make it difficult to

coordinate policies and programs across different regions, resulting in
fragmentation and inefficiencies in governance.

Cost: Federal systems can be more costly to maintain than unitary

systems due to the need for multiple layers of government and the
duplication of resources.

In conclusion, federal government has its own merits and demerits.

While it can promote power sharing, flexibility, diversity, citizen
participation, and protection of minority rights, it can also lead to
duplication of efforts, conflict and tension, inequality, difficulty in
coordination, and higher costs. Ultimately, the effectiveness of federal
government depends on how well it balances these advantages and
disadvantages and whether it is able to effectively address the specific
needs and challenges of the regions and citizens it serves.
8. Explain the concept of Separation of Power. [2019]
Separation of powers is a political doctrine that divides the powers of
government into three separate branches: legislative, executive, and
judicial. The concept is designed to prevent any one branch from
becoming too powerful, and to ensure that each branch serves as a
check on the other two.

The legislative branch, which is typically composed of a parliament or

congress, is responsible for making laws. It is also responsible for
overseeing the actions of the executive branch, including its budget,
appointments, and other policy decisions.

The executive branch is responsible for enforcing laws and carrying out
the day-to-day functions of government. It is typically led by a president
or prime minister, who is responsible for appointing officials, managing
the military, and making foreign policy decisions.

The judicial branch, which includes the courts and judges, is responsible
for interpreting the law and settling disputes. It has the power to declare
laws unconstitutional and to review the actions of the other two
branches to ensure that they are consistent with the constitution.

Separation of powers is a crucial concept in democratic governance. It

ensures that no single branch of government becomes too powerful,
which could lead to authoritarianism or tyranny. By dividing power
among different branches, the system encourages collaboration,
cooperation, and compromise between different parts of government.

At the same time, separation of powers can also create tension and
gridlock between different branches of government. When one branch
disagrees with another, it can lead to delays, disputes, and even
paralysis in government decision-making. However, these challenges are
often seen as a necessary cost of maintaining a system of checks and
balances that protects individual rights and prevents the abuse of
power.
9. Discuss the main features of Constitutionalism.
[2019,18,16]
Constitutionalism is a political theory and practice that emphasizes the
importance of constitutions in defining and limiting the power of
government. Here are some of the main features of constitutionalism:

▪ Written Constitution: Constitutionalism is often associated with the

idea of a written constitution, which is a document that lays out the
fundamental principles and laws of a country. A written constitution
provides a clear framework for government, and it helps to prevent
abuses of power by setting limits on what the government can and
cannot do.
▪ Rule of Law: Constitutionalism emphasizes the rule of law, which
means that everyone, including government officials, is subject to the
law. The rule of law helps to prevent arbitrary or unjust actions by
government officials, and it provides a basis for resolving disputes in
a fair and impartial manner.
▪ Separation of Powers: Constitutionalism is also associated with the
concept of separation of powers, which divides government power
into three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. This
separation helps to prevent any one branch from becoming too
powerful, and it ensures that each branch serves as a check on the
other two.
▪ Limited Government: Constitutionalism emphasizes the idea of
limited government, which means that the power of government is
limited by the constitution and by the rule of law. This helps to
prevent government from becoming too powerful and from infringing
on individual rights and freedoms.
▪ Protection of Individual Rights: Constitutionalism also emphasizes
the protection of individual rights and freedoms, such as freedom of
speech, religion, and the press. A constitution can provide a
framework for protecting these rights, and it can help to prevent
government from violating them.
▪ Judicial Review: Constitutionalism often includes the concept of
judicial review, which gives the courts the power to interpret the
 constitution and to strike down laws or actions that violate it. Judicial
review provides a check on the power of the other branches of
government, and it helps to ensure that the government is acting
within its constitutional limits.

In summary, constitutionalism emphasizes the importance of written

constitutions, the rule of law, separation of powers, limited government,
protection of individual rights, and judicial review. These features are
designed to prevent abuses of power, protect individual rights and
freedoms, and promote a fair and just society.

10. Discuss the nature of Comparative Political

Institutions. [2019,18,16]
Intro: Comparative political institutions refer to the structures, rules,
and practices that shape the behaviour of political actors and institutions
in different countries. The nature of these institutions can vary greatly
depending on historical, cultural, economic, and social factors. In this
essay, we will discuss the nature of comparative political institutions by
examining their features and functions.

One of the primary features of comparative political institutions is their

diversity. Political institutions can take many different forms, including
democratic and authoritarian regimes, presidential and parliamentary
systems, federal and unitary states, and centralized and decentralized
decision-making structures. These institutional variations are influenced
by factors such as colonial legacies, cultural traditions, economic
development, and international pressures. As a result, comparative
political institutions can be studied from a variety of perspectives,
including historical, sociological, and comparative approaches.

Another feature of comparative political institutions is their capacity to

shape political behaviour and outcomes. Institutions can influence the
way political actors interact with each other and the policies they
pursue. For example, presidential systems tend to give more power to
the executive branch, while parliamentary systems emphasize the role
 of the legislative branch. Federal systems distribute power between
central and regional governments, while unitary systems centralize
power in the national government. These institutional variations can
have significant implications for political stability, representation, and
policy-making.

Furthermore, comparative political institutions are constantly evolving

and adapting to changing circumstances. Institutions can be created,
reformed, or dismantled depending on political and social forces. For
instance, democratization movements have led to the establishment of
new political institutions in many countries, while globalization has
prompted changes in international institutions such as the United
Nations and the World Trade Organization. These changes can create
new opportunities and challenges for political actors and institutions,
and can affect the distribution of power and resources within and
between countries.

In conclusion, comparative political institutions are diverse, influential,

and dynamic. They are shaped by a range of historical, cultural,
economic, and social factors, and have important implications for
political behaviour and outcomes. Comparative political institutions can
be studied from a variety of perspectives and can provide insights into
the ways in which political systems function and change over time.

11. What do you mean by ‘Rule of Law’? [2019,18,16]

Intro: The rule of law is a fundamental principle of governance that
establishes a system of accountability and fairness in the administration
of justice. It is the principle that all individuals and institutions are
subject to the law, regardless of their status or position. In this essay, we
will discuss the meaning and significance of the rule of law.

At its core, the rule of law means that laws should be applied
consistently, transparently, and predictably. It requires that laws are
made in a transparent and accountable manner, and that they are
enforced impartially and without discrimination. The rule of law also
means that individuals and institutions are held accountable for their
actions, and that they are subject to legal remedies when they violate
the law.

The rule of law is a cornerstone of democratic societies, as it promotes

transparency, accountability, and the protection of individual rights and
liberties. In a society governed by the rule of law, individuals are free to
exercise their rights and freedoms without fear of arbitrary interference
or punishment. The rule of law also ensures that the government and its
officials are accountable to the people they serve, and that they are
subject to legal constraints and oversight.

The rule of law has several key features that are critical to its
effectiveness.
▪ First, it requires an independent judiciary that is free from political
interference and is able to interpret and apply the law impartially.
▪ Second, it requires laws that are clear, accessible, and predictable, so
that individuals are able to understand their rights and obligations
under the law.
▪ Third, it requires legal procedures that are fair, transparent, and
efficient, so that justice is delivered in a timely and effective manner.
▪ Fourth, it requires a legal framework that is consistent with
international human rights standards, so that the rights and freedoms
of all individuals are protected.

In conclusion, the rule of law is a fundamental principle of governance

that establishes a system of accountability and fairness in the
administration of justice. It is essential to the functioning of democratic
societies, as it promotes transparency, accountability, and the
protection of individual rights and liberties. The rule of law requires an
independent judiciary, clear and predictable laws, fair and transparent
legal procedures, and a legal framework that is consistent with
international human rights standards. When the rule of law is upheld,
individuals and institutions are held accountable for their actions, and
justice is delivered in a consistent and predictable manner.
12. Who is said to have made the first
comparative study of governments? [2019]
The oldest form of comparative government is the study of
constitutions. The first known such work is Aristotle's compilation of the
constitutions and practice of 158 Greek city‐states, of which only the
Constitution of Athens survives.

13. Distinction between Constitution and

Constitutionalism. [2019]
Intro: Constitution and constitutionalism are two related concepts that
are often used interchangeably but have distinct meanings. In this essay,
we will provide a point-wise distinction between constitution and
constitutionalism.

Constitution:

1. A constitution is a written document or set of documents that

outlines the fundamental principles and rules by which a government
operates.

2. It defines the structure of the government, the powers of its

branches, and the rights and duties of its citizens.

3. A constitution is typically adopted by a process that involves public

debate, drafting, and ratification.

4. Constitutions can be amended or revised, but the process is usually

more difficult than passing regular legislation.

5. Constitutions can be codified (written down in a single document) or

uncodified (based on a collection of legal and political traditions).

Constitutionalism:
 1. Constitutionalism is a political philosophy that emphasizes the
importance of limiting government power through a constitution.

2. It is the belief that government should be constrained by a set of

fundamental principles and rules that are superior to ordinary
legislation.

3. Constitutionalism seeks to ensure that the government acts within its

legal and constitutional limits, and that citizens are protected from
arbitrary or unjust exercises of state power.

4. It is based on the idea that the rule of law is a fundamental value, and
that no person or group should be above the law.

5. Constitutionalism can be promoted through a variety of mechanisms,

such as an independent judiciary, a separation of powers, and
mechanisms for accountability and transparency.

In summary, the constitution is a written document that outlines the

basic rules and principles by which a government operates.
Constitutionalism, on the other hand, is a political philosophy that
emphasizes the importance of limiting government power through a
constitution. While the constitution is a specific legal document,
constitutionalism is a broader political philosophy that seeks to ensure
that government power is limited and that individual rights are
protected.

14. Who has written the book “The Spirit of

Laws”?
The book "Spirit of the laws" was written by Montesquieu, a French
scholar.

SPIRIT OF THE LAWS:

 • This book was published in the year 1748 during the ongoing French
Revolution.

• The book Spirit of the laws was based on the "checks and balances".

• According to this book, the powers of the government are equally

distributed to the 3 organs of the government.

• The three organs were: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary.

• One organ checks the actions of the other two organs.

• This theory was called as " Theory of Separation of Powers".

• However, many political thinkers blame this theory as it deadlocks the

administration.

15. Differentiate Confederation with that of

Federation.
Intro: Confederation and federation are two types of political systems
that involve the sharing of power between different levels of
government. While they share some similarities, there are also
significant differences between them. In this essay, we will differentiate
between confederation and federation.

Confederation:

▪ A confederation is a political system in which states or regions retain

significant autonomy and sovereignty, while delegating limited
powers to a central government.

▪ The central government in a confederation typically has limited

authority over the member states, and its powers are defined by a
treaty or constitution.
▪ The member states in a confederation retain the right to secede from
the union, and are often represented in the central government
through a confederate assembly or council.

▪ Decisions in a confederation are usually made by consensus or

through the agreement of a majority of the member states.

▪ Examples of confederations include the European Union and the

Confederate States of America.

Federation:

▪ A federation is a political system in which power is shared between a

central government and regional governments, with each level of
government having independent authority within its own sphere of
influence.

▪ The central government in a federation has significant authority over

the regional governments, and can override their decisions in certain
areas.

▪ The regional governments in a federation are represented in the

central government through a federal assembly or council.

▪ Decisions in a federation are usually made through a process of

negotiation and compromise between the central government and
the regional governments.

▪ Examples of federations include the United States, Canada, and

Australia.

In summary, confederation and federation are two different types of

political systems that involve the sharing of power between different
levels of government. While confederation is a loose union of states or
regions with limited central authority, federation is a more centralized
system in which power is shared between the central government and
 regional governments with independent authority within their own
spheres.

16. Discuss in brief the various methods of the study of Traditional

Political Institutions. [2018,16]
Comparative, configurative, and historical methods are commonly used
in the study of traditional political institutions. Each of these methods
has unique characteristics that make it suitable for different types of
research questions and analytical purposes.

• The comparative method involves the comparison of different

cases or instances of traditional political institutions. This method
is useful for identifying similarities and differences across cases
and for developing generalizations and hypotheses about the
factors that influence the functioning and outcomes of political
institutions. The comparative method can be used to identify
patterns, regularities, and trends across different contexts, and to
test theoretical propositions about the factors that shape political
institutions.

• The configurative method involves the detailed analysis of

individual cases or instances of traditional political institutions.
This method is useful for exploring the unique features,
characteristics, and dynamics of individual cases, and for
developing in-depth knowledge and understanding of particular
political systems. The configurative method is particularly well-
suited to the study of complex or historically contingent political
systems, which may be difficult to generalize about or compare
across contexts.

• The historical method involves the analysis of historical data and

events to understand the development and evolution of
traditional political institutions over time. This method is useful
for exploring the origins, causes, and consequences of political
change and for identifying patterns and trends in the evolution of
political systems. The historical method is particularly well-suited
 to the study of long-term historical processes and
transformations, such as the development of democratic
institutions or the decline of authoritarian regimes.

Overall, the comparative, configurative, and historical methods provide

different lenses through which to study traditional political institutions.
By combining these methods, researchers can develop a rich and
nuanced understanding of the complexities and diversity of political
systems around the world.

17. Write a brief note on the principles of separation of power.[2018]

Intro: The principle of separation of power is a fundamental concept in
modern democratic societies that seeks to ensure that the exercise of
power is not concentrated in the hands of one individual or group. The
principle is based on the idea that the best way to prevent tyranny is to
separate the powers of government into different branches that can
check and balance each other. In this answer, we will discuss the
principles of separation of power.

• Legislative power: Legislative power refers to the power to make

laws. The legislative branch of government is responsible for
passing laws, and it is usually composed of a parliament, congress,
or similar body. The principle of separation of power ensures that
the legislative branch is independent of the executive branch, so
that laws are made based on the needs of the people, rather than
the interests of the ruling elite.

• Executive power: Executive power refers to the power to enforce

laws. The executive branch of government is responsible for
implementing and enforcing laws, and it is usually composed of a
president, prime minister, or similar position. The principle of
separation of power ensures that the executive branch is
independent of the legislative branch, so that laws are enforced
fairly and without bias.
 • Judicial power: Judicial power refers to the power to interpret
laws. The judiciary is responsible for resolving disputes, and it is
usually composed of a court system. The principle of separation of
power ensures that the judiciary is independent of the legislative
and executive branches, so that it can interpret laws objectively
and impartially.

• Checks and balances: The principle of checks and balances

ensures that no branch of government becomes too powerful.
Each branch has the power to check and balance the other
branches, preventing any one branch from becoming too
dominant. For example, the legislative branch can check the
power of the executive branch by impeaching the president, while
the judiciary can check the power of the legislative branch by
declaring laws unconstitutional.

In conclusion, the principle of separation of power is a cornerstone of

modern democratic societies, and it is designed to prevent the abuse of
power by ensuring that no one individual or group has too much power.
The separation of power is achieved through the independence of the
legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government and the
principle of checks and balances. These principles help to ensure that
governments are transparent, accountable, and responsive to the needs
of the people they serve.

18. Write the salient features of federalism.

Intro: Federalism is a system of government that distributes power
between a central government and several constituent units or states. In
this system, each level of government has its own set of powers and
responsibilities, and they are expected to cooperate and work together
to govern the country. In this answer, we will discuss the salient features
of federalism.

• Division of powers: Federalism involves the division of powers

between the central government and the constituent units or
states. The constitution outlines the powers and responsibilities of
 each level of government, and they are expected to work together
to govern the country.

• Dual government: Federalism involves the existence of two levels

of government that operate concurrently - the central
government and the state governments. Each level of government
has its own set of powers and responsibilities, and they work
together to govern the country.

• Written constitution: Federalism is typically based on a written

constitution that outlines the powers and responsibilities of each
level of government. The constitution also establishes the
framework for how the central government and the state
governments will work together.

• Independent judiciary: Federalism requires an independent

judiciary that can interpret the constitution and ensure that the
central government and the state governments are working within
the bounds of their powers.

• Protection of state rights: Federalism is designed to protect the

rights and powers of the states. Each state has the right to govern
itself, as long as it is operating within the framework of the
constitution.

• Cooperative federalism: Federalism requires cooperation and

coordination between the central government and the state
governments. This is typically achieved through a system of grants
and other forms of financial assistance.

• Checks and balances: Federalism is designed to prevent any one

level of government from becoming too powerful. The
constitution establishes a system of checks and balances that
ensures that each level of government is accountable to the
others.
 In conclusion, federalism is a system of government that involves the
division of powers between a central government and several
constituent units or states. It is designed to protect the rights and
powers of the states, while also promoting cooperation and
coordination between the central government and the state
governments. Federalism is based on a written constitution, an
independent judiciary, and a system of checks and balances that ensures
that each level of government is accountable to the others.

19. Explain the concept of ‘Checks and Balances’. [2018,16]

Intro: Checks and balances is a fundamental principle of modern
democratic systems of government, which is designed to prevent any
one branch or level of government from becoming too powerful. The
concept of checks and balances is based on the idea that each branch or
level of government should have the ability to limit or control the power
of the other branches or levels, thereby ensuring that power is
distributed fairly and that no one branch or level becomes too dominant.

The system of checks and balances operates in a number of different

ways:

• Separation of powers: One of the primary ways in which the

principle of checks and balances is achieved is through the
separation of powers. This means that each branch of government
(legislative, executive, and judiciary) has its own distinct set of
powers and responsibilities, and is intended to be independent of
the others.

• Legislative oversight: Another important way in which checks and

balances operates is through legislative oversight. This involves
the ability of the legislature (e.g. parliament or congress) to
scrutinize and hold the executive branch to account for its actions.
This may involve the use of committees, investigations, and
hearings.
 • Judicial review: The judiciary also plays an important role in the
system of checks and balances, by having the power to review and
interpret laws passed by the legislature and actions taken by the
executive branch. This means that the judiciary can declare laws
or actions unconstitutional or unlawful, thereby limiting the
power of the other branches of government.

• Executive veto: The executive branch also has a role to play in the
system of checks and balances, through its power of veto. This
means that the executive can veto legislation passed by the
legislature, thereby preventing it from becoming law. However,
the legislature can override the veto with a two-thirds majority
vote.

In conclusion, the concept of checks and balances is an essential feature

of modern democratic systems of government. It is based on the idea
that each branch or level of government should have the ability to limit
or control the power of the other branches or levels, thereby ensuring
that power is distributed fairly and that no one branch or level becomes
too dominant. The system of checks and balances is achieved through
the separation of powers, legislative oversight, judicial review, and
executive veto.

20. Who has written the book ‘New Aspects of Politics’?

New Aspects of Politics is a 1925 book by Charles Merriam. It is
considered to be one of the early contributions to the behaviouralist
movement in politics.

21. Who has given the theory of ‘Separation of Powers’?

The theory of Separation of Powers can be traced back to the writings of
the French philosopher Montesquieu in his book "The Spirit of the
Laws", published in 1748. Montesquieu argued that a government
should be divided into separate branches, each with its own set of
powers, to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and
thus a threat to individual liberty.
22. What do you understand by political system?
A political system refers to the framework of laws, institutions, and
practices that determine how a government operates and how political
power is allocated within a society. It includes the structures and
procedures for making and implementing decisions, as well as the
distribution of power and authority among various actors and
institutions.

Political systems can vary widely depending on factors such as the size
and complexity of a society, its cultural traditions, and the values and
ideologies of its citizens. Some common types of political systems
include democracy, monarchy, dictatorship, and communism. The
political system also includes the rules and regulations for participation
in the political process, such as the right to vote, freedom of speech, and
the ability to form and join political parties. Overall, the political system
plays a vital role in shaping the social, economic, and cultural dimensions
of a society, and influences how citizens interact with their government
and with each other.

23. Differences between Traditional and Modern approach. [2018,16]

Intro: The study of comparative political institutions has evolved over
time, with the emergence of different approaches and perspectives. Two
main approaches are the traditional approach and the modern
approach.

The traditional approach focuses on the study of formal institutions,

such as constitutions, electoral systems, and legislative bodies. This
approach seeks to identify similarities and differences between political
systems based on their formal structures and functions. The traditional
approach also tends to rely on descriptive and quantitative analysis of
political systems, and it is more concerned with the empirical
measurement of political phenomena than with theoretical
explanations.
In contrast, the modern approach is more interested in studying the
underlying political processes and dynamics that shape political
institutions. This approach focuses on the role of political actors, such as
political parties, interest groups, and civil society organizations, in
shaping political institutions and their outcomes. The modern approach
is more theoretical and normative in nature, and it seeks to understand
why political institutions work the way they do, and what factors
contribute to their success or failure.

Some of the key differences between the traditional and modern

approach in the study of comparative political institutions include:

• Emphasis on formal vs. informal institutions: The traditional

approach focuses on formal institutions, such as constitutions and
electoral systems, while the modern approach pays more
attention to the role of informal institutions, such as norms,
values, and beliefs, in shaping political behaviour and outcomes.

• Descriptive vs. explanatory analysis: The traditional approach is

more descriptive and quantitative in nature, while the modern
approach is more explanatory and qualitative. The modern
approach seeks to understand the underlying processes and
dynamics that shape political institutions, while the traditional
approach is more concerned with measuring and categorizing
these institutions.

• State-centric vs. actor-centric: The traditional approach tends to

focus on the role of the state as the primary actor in shaping
political institutions, while the modern approach emphasizes the
role of political actors, such as interest groups, political parties,
and civil society organizations, in shaping political outcomes.

• Structural vs. process-oriented: The traditional approach tends to

focus on the structural aspects of political institutions, such as
their formal organization and functions, while the modern
approach is more process-oriented, and seeks to understand how
political institutions are shaped and transformed over time.
 Overall, both the traditional and modern approaches have contributed
to our understanding of comparative political institutions, but they differ
in their focus, methods, and theoretical perspectives. The modern
approach is generally seen as more dynamic and relevant to
contemporary political challenges, while the traditional approach
continues to provide a useful foundation for comparative political
analysis.

24. Explain Dicey’s concept of ‘Rule of Law’.

Intro: A.V Dicey was a British jurist and constitutional scholar who
developed the concept of Rule of Law in the late 19th century. Dicey's
concept of Rule of Law is based on three main principles: supremacy of
the law, equality before the law, and the predominance of legal spirit.

• The first principle, supremacy of the law, means that no

individual, group, or institution is above the law. This principle is
based on the idea that the law is the highest authority in the land
and that all individuals, including government officials, must obey
the law. Dicey argued that the supremacy of the law protects
individual rights and freedoms from arbitrary interference by the
government.

• The second principle, equality before the law, means that all
individuals are subject to the same laws and procedures, and that
there should be no discrimination based on social status, wealth,
or political power. Dicey argued that the principle of equality
before the law ensures that all individuals are treated fairly and
that justice is not biased in favor of certain groups or individuals.

• The third principle, the predominance of legal spirit, means that

the law is not just a set of rules, but a spirit or attitude that
pervades the entire legal system. This principle is based on the
idea that the law should be interpreted and applied in a consistent
and impartial manner, and that legal decisions should be based on
reason, not arbitrary power or personal preference.
 Dicey's concept of Rule of Law has been widely influential in the
development of modern constitutional democracies. However, his ideas
have also been subject to criticism and revision over time. For example,
some scholars have argued that Dicey's emphasis on the formal aspects
of the law overlooks the importance of informal norms and practices in
shaping legal outcomes. Others have criticized Dicey's emphasis on the
supremacy of the law as a form of legal positivism, which overlooks the
importance of moral and ethical considerations in legal decision-making.

Despite these criticisms, Dicey's concept of Rule of Law remains an

important foundation for modern constitutional democracy. It provides
a framework for understanding the role of the law in protecting
individual rights and freedoms, ensuring equal treatment under the law,
and promoting the impartial and consistent application of legal
principles.

25. Describe the input-output approach of David Easton.

Intro: David Easton was an American political scientist who developed
the input-output approach to political analysis. The input-output
approach is a systematic and comprehensive framework for analysing
political systems and their interactions with their environments. This
approach emphasizes the importance of feedback and adaptation in
political systems, and it has been influential in the study of political
behaviour, policy-making, and governance.

The input-output approach starts with the assumption that political

systems are open to their environment, and they must adapt to
changing conditions in order to survive and function effectively. Political
systems take in inputs from their environment, such as demands,
preferences, and resources, and they transform these inputs into
outputs, such as policies, decisions, and outcomes. The output of the
political system, in turn, affects the environment and generates new
demands and inputs.
The input-output approach involves several key concepts and processes.
These include:

• Inputs: Inputs are the demands, preferences, and resources that

political systems take in from their environment. Inputs can come
from a variety of sources, including interest groups, voters, elites,
and international organizations.

• Conversion: Conversion is the process by which political systems

transform inputs into outputs. This involves a variety of actors and
institutions, such as legislatures, bureaucracies, and interest
groups, which interact to produce policy decisions and outcomes.

• Outputs: Outputs are the policies, decisions, and outcomes

produced by the political system. Outputs can take many forms,
such as laws, regulations, budgets, and programs.

• Feedback: Feedback is the process by which the output of the

political system affects the environment and generates new
inputs. Feedback can be positive or negative, and it can create
opportunities for adaptation and learning within the political
system.

The input-output approach has several strengths and weaknesses. One

strength is that it provides a comprehensive and systematic framework
for analyzing political systems and their interactions with their
environment. It emphasizes the importance of feedback and adaptation,
and it can help identify opportunities for improving policy-making and
governance.

However, the input-output approach has been criticized for its focus on
formal institutions and processes, and its limited attention to the role of
culture, ideology, and power in shaping political outcomes. Some
scholars have also questioned the usefulness of the input-output
approach for analyzing complex and dynamic political systems, which
may involve multiple levels of governance, overlapping policy domains,
and diverse actors and interests.
 Despite these limitations, the input-output approach remains an
important framework for understanding political behavior and
governance, and it continues to inspire new research and innovation in
the field of political science.

26. What is Behaviouralism?

Behaviouralism or the behavioral approach to comparative politics is a
perspective that emphasizes the role of individual behaviour in shaping
political outcomes. This approach recognizes that individual attitudes,
values, beliefs, and behavior can have a significant impact on political
processes, institutions, and individuals – level factors that drive political
behaviour and to use this understanding to make predictions about
political outcomes.

The behavioral approach is rooted in the belief that individuals are not
passive recipients of political forces, but are active participants in
shaping the political forces, but are active participants in shaping the
political system as complex and dynamic, shaped by the actions and
interactions of individuals actors. It also recognizes that political
behavior is shaped by a variety of factors, including economic incentives,
social norms, and cultural values.

The behavioral approach to comparative politics has been used to study

a wide range of political phenomena, including voting behavior, political
participation, political attitudes and beliefs, and the formation of
political preferences. This approach has also been used to study the
effect of institutions on political behavior, as well as the influence of
political actors, such as interest groups and political parties, on political
outcomes.

Overall, the behavioral approach to comparative politics provides a rich

and nuanced understanding of the political world by recognizing the role
of individual behavior in shaping political outcomes. It provides a
valuable tool for predicting political outcomes and for understanding the
complex interplay between individual behavior and the political system.
27. Who has written the book “The Political System”?
"The Political System" is a book written by the American political
scientist David Easton. It was first published in 1953 and has since
become a classic in the field of political science. In the book, Easton
presents his influential input-output model of the political system and
explores the ways in which political systems interact with their
environment to produce policy decisions and outcomes. The book also
provides insights into the nature of political power, the role of
institutions, and the dynamics of political change.