Properties of Liquids

Surface Tension
A measure of the elastic force in the surface of a liquid is surface tension.
The surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of
a liquid by a unit area (cm2).
Water beads on an apple, which
has a waxy surface.

Surface tension enables the

water strider to “walk” on water.

Liquids having strong intermolecular forces also have high surface tensions. Because of
hydrogen bonding, water has a greater surface tension than most other liquids.

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 Properties of Liquids

Surface Tension
Another example of surface tension is capillary action. The surface tension of water causes
this lm to contract, and as it does, it pulls the water up the tube.

(a) When adhesion is greater than cohesion, the

liquid (for example, water) rises in the
capillary tube.
(b) When cohesion is greater than adhesion, as
it is for mercury, a depression of the liquid in
the capillary tube results.

Another example of surface tension is capillary action.

Two types of forces bring about capillary action:
1) Cohesion, which is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules.
2) Adhesion, is an attraction between unlike molecules.
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 Properties of Liquids

Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of a uid’s resistance to ow. The greater the viscosity, the more
slowly the liquid ows. The viscosity of a liquid usually decreases as temperature increases.

The viscosity of glycerol is signi cantly higher

than that of all the other liquids listed in Table.
Glycerol is a clear, odorless, syrupy liquid used
to make explosives, ink, and lubricants.

Like water, glycerol can form hydrogen bonds. Each glycerol molecule has three —OH
groups that can participate in hydrogen bonding with other glycerol molecules.
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 Properties of Liquids

The Structure and Properties of Water

All life processes involve water. Water is an excellent solvent for many ionic compounds,
as well as for other substances capable of forming hydrogen bonds with water.
The most striking property of water is that its solid form is less dense than its liquid form:
ice oats at the surface of liquid water.
Left: Ice cubes oat on water.
Right: Solid benzene sinks to the bottom of
liquid benzene.

The highly ordered 3D structure of ice prevents the molecules from getting too close to
one another. At the melting point, because d=m/V, the density of water is greater than that
of ice.
The 3D structure of ice. Each O
atom is bonded to four H atoms.

Plot of density versus Temp. for

liquid water. The maximum
density is reached at 4ºC. 16
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 Crystal Structure

Crystalline Solid
Solids can be divided into two categories: crystalline and amorphous.
A crystalline solid, as the ice, possesses rigid and long-range order; its atoms, molecules, or
ions occupy speci c positions.
Amorphous solids, such as glass, lack a well-de ned arrangement and long-range molecular
order.
The basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid is a unit cell.

(a) A unit cell and

(b) Its extension in 3D.
The black spheres represent
either atoms or molecules.

Each sphere represents an atom, an ion, or a molecule and is called a lattice point.
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 Crystal Structure

Crystalline Solid
Every crystalline solid can be described in terms of one of the seven types of unit cells:

The seven types of unit cells.

Angle α is de ned by edges b and c,
angle β by edges a and c, and angle
γ by edges a and b.

The geometry of the cubic unit cell is particularly simple because all sides and all angles
are equal.
Any of the unit cells, when repeated in space in all 3-dimensions, forms the lattice
structure characteristic of a crystalline solid.
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 Crystal Structure

Structure of Crystalline Solid

The structure and properties of crystalline solids, such as melting point, density, and
hardness, are determined by the attractive forces that hold the particles together.
We can classify crystals according to the types of forces between particles:

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 Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

Phase Changes
Phase is a homogeneous part of the system in contact with other parts of the system but
separated from them by a well-de ned boundary.
Phase changes, transformations from one phase to another, occur when energy (usually in the
form of heat) is added or removed.
Mercury Manometer: apparatus
for measuring the vapor pressure
of a liquid.
(a) before the evaporation
begins
(b) at equilibrium, when no
further change is evident.

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 Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium
In an evaporation, or vaporization process, at any given temperature, certain number of
the molecules in a liquid reach suf cient kinetic energy to escape from the surface.
In a condensation process, while the concentration of molecules in the vapor phase
increases, some molecules return to the liquid phase.
Then a dynamic equilibrium is established when the rate of a forward process is exactly
balanced by the rate of the reverse process.
Finally, the equilibrium vapor pressure is achieved under dynamic equilibrium of
condensation and evaporation.
A measure of how strongly molecules are held in a liquid is its molar heat of vaporization
(∆Hvap), de ned as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize one mole of a liquid.
The quantitative relationship between the vapor pressure P of a liquid and the absolute
temperature T is given by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation

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 Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

Liquid-Solid Equilibrium
The melting point of a solid (or the freezing point of a liquid) is the temperature at which
solid and liquid phases coexist in equilibrium.
The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to melt 1 mole of a solid is called the molar
heat of fusion (∆Hfus).

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 Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

Solid-Vapor Equilibrium
The sublimation is the process in which molecules go directly from the solid into the
vapor phase.
The reverse process (that is, from vapor directly to solid) is called deposition.
The energy (usually in kilojoules) required to sublime 1 mole of a solid, is called the molar heat
of sublimation (∆Hsub).
It is given by the sum of the molar heats of fusion and vaporization:

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 Phase Changes and Phase Diagrams

Phase Diagrams
A phase diagram summarizes the conditions under which a substance exists as a solid,
liquid, or gas.
Let us consider the following phase diagram of water:

Each solid line between two phases speci es the conditions of

pressure and temperature under which the two phases can
exist in equilibrium. The point at which all three phases can exist
in equilibrium (0.006 atm and 0.01ºC) is called the triple point.

This phase diagram tells us that increasing the pressure on ice

lowers its melting point and that increasing the pressure of
liquid water raises its boiling point.

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