Criminological Research & Statistics 392
Supremos Review & Training Center
Review Notes on
CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH
& STATISTICS
-oOo-
Research is defined as a careful consideration of study
regarding a particular concern or a problem using scientific
methods. It is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict
and control the observed phenomenon. It is called
Criminological research if it pertains to criminology or that it
involves crimes, criminals, victims, public safety, security and
peace and order.
Characteristics of Research:
1. A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and
procedures are an integral part of research that set the
objective of a research process. Researchers need to
practice ethics and code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both
inductive and deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual
observations in the natural settings.
4. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from
research so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions.
More research opportunity can be generated from existing
research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the
available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the important characters of research,
the information that is obtained while conducting the
research should be accurate and true to its nature.
Types of Research:
1. Basic Research: It is mostly conducted to enhance
knowledge. It covers fundamental aspects of research. The
main motivation of this research is knowledge expansion. It
is non-commercial research and doesn’t facilitate in
creating or inventing anything. For example, an experiment
is a good example of basic research.
2. Applied Research: Applied research focuses on analyzing
and solving real-life problems. This type of research refers
to the study that helps solve practical problems using
scientific methods. This research plays an important role in
solving issues that impact the overall well-being of humans.
For example, finding a specific cure for a disease.
3. Problem Oriented Research: As the name suggests,
problem-oriented research is conducted to understand the
exact nature of the problem to find out relevant solutions.
The term “problem” refers to having issues or two thoughts
while making any decisions.
4. Problem Solving Research: This type of research is
conducted by companies to understand and resolve their
own problems. The problem-solving research uses applied
research to find solutions to the existing problems.
5. Qualitative Research: It is a process that is about inquiry
that helps in-depth understanding of the problems or issues
in their natural settings. This is a non- statistical research
method.
Purposes of Research:
1. Exploratory Research: As the name suggests, exploratory
research is conducted to explore the research questions
and may or may not offer a conclusion to the research
conducted. It is conducted to handle new problem areas
which haven’t been explored before.
2. Descriptive Research: It focuses on throwing more light on
current issues through a process of data collection.
Descriptive studies are used to describe the behavior of a
sample population. In descriptive research, only one
variable (anything that has quantity or quality that varies) is
required to conduct a study. The three main purposes of
descriptive research are describing, explaining and
validating the findings.
3. Explanatory Research: It is conducted to understand the
impact of certain changes in existing standard
procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular
form of casual research.
Types of Research Methods and Research Example
Qualitative research.– It is a research method that collects data
using conversational methods, where participants involved in
the research are asked open-ended questions. The responses
collected are essentially non-numerical. This method not only
helps a researcher understand “what” participant thinks but
also, “why” they think in a particular way.
1. Qualitative research methods:
a. One-to-one Interview: This interview technique is
systematically planned and as the name suggests is
conducted with one participant at a given point in
time. One-to-one interviews need a researcher to
prepare questions in advance and to make sure the
researcher asks only the most important questions to
the participant. This type of interview lasts anywhere
between 20 minutes to half an hour. During this time
the researcher collects as many meaningful data as
possible from the participants to draw inferences.
b. Focus Groups: Small groups comprising of around 6-10
participants who are usually experts in the subject
matter. A moderator is assigned to a focus group who
facilitates the discussion amongst the group members.
A moderator’s experience in conducting focus group
plays an important role. An experienced moderator
can probe the participants by asking the correct
research questions that will help him/her collect a
sizable amount of information related to the research.
c. Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is an
in-depth form of research where people are observed
in their natural environment with any alterations. This
method can prove to be a bit demanding in terms of a
researcher getting adapted to the natural environment
of the target audience which could even be the
Amazon rainforest! Geographic locations can be a
constraint in this type of research method. Instead of
conducting interviews a researcher needs to
experience the settings in person to collect
information.
d. Text Analysis: It is a little different from other
qualitative research methods as it used to analyze the
social life by decoding words, texts etc. through any
available form of documentation. In modern times,
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researchers follow activities on a social media platform
and try and understand the pattern of thoughts.
e. Case Study Research: Case study research, as the
name suggests is used to study an organization or an
entity. This research method has evolved over the
years and is one of the most valuable qualitative
research methods known to researchers. This type of
research is used in fields like education sector,
philosophical and psychological studies. This method
involves a deep diving into the ongoing research and
collects data.
2. Quantitative research.– It deals with numbers and
anything that can be dealt with a measurable form, in a
systematic way of investigating the phenomenon. It is used
to answer questions in terms of justifying relationships with
measurable variables to explain, predict or control a
phenomenon.
Quantitative research methods:
1. Survey Research- The goal of survey research is to
learn about a large population by deploying
the survey. Survey may be carried out using a pen and
a paper or the now innovative online surveys. In this
method, a researcher designs a survey with most
relevant survey questions and deploys the survey.
Once the researcher receives the responses, he/she
summarizes them to tabulate meaningful findings and
data.
2. Descriptive Research- Descriptive research is a
quantitative research method, which corresponds to
identifying the characteristics of an observed
phenomenon and collecting more information. This
research method is designed to depict the participants
in a very systematic and accurate manner. In simple
words, descriptive research is all about describing the
phenomenon, observing, and drawing conclusions
from it.
3. Correlational Research- It examines the relationship
between two or more variables. For example: Married
women have a negative correlation with cancer. There
are two variables: cancer, and married women. When
we say negative correlation, it means women who are
married are less likely to develop cancer. However, it
doesn’t mean that marriage directly avoids cancer.
BASIC PARTS OF RESEARCH PAPER:
1. TITLE PAGE – consists of the research title, names of the
researchers and name of the English teacher. •
Acknowledgement – a personal page where the researchers
are given the privilege to extend gratitude to all people who
helped in accomplishing the research.
2. TABLE OF CONTENTS – contains the accurate paging of
each part of the research paper. • List of Tables/Figures –
contains the accurate paging of the tables/figures used in
the study.
3. ACKNOWLEDGMENT - Acknowledge those whom you think
have contributed to your work. Always use the third person
point of view when referring to the writer. Mention the
name, and how this person has helped you; followed by the
next person, and so on.
Criminological Research & Statistics 393
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4. ABSTRACT – It is used by readers to quickly review the
overall content of the paper. It contains a summary of what
is included in the thesis. It must be concise yet accurate as
only the pertinent points in the manuscript are included.
For a simple guide, ensure that the following are present: 1)
a brief introduction of the study, 2) the purpose of the
study, 3) how the researcher studied the phenomenon, and
4) the salient findings and conclusions of study. It requires a
maximum of two pages; thus, is typically restricted to 200 –
250 words.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT – Acknowledge those whom you think
have contributed to your work. Always use the third person
point of view when referring to the writer. Mention the
name, and how this person has helped you; followed by the
next person, and so on.
CHAPTER 1
THE PROBLEM
1. Background of the study – This is an overview of the
research which presents a situational problem analysis
globally, national, regional, and local context. This may also
include a) the justification of what generated interest and
motivation for the problem: b) the logical continuity
between relevant previous work with the present work; c)
the theoretical or practical importance of the study: and d)
in general, provides the reader a firm sense of what was
done and why.
2. Theoretical / Conceptual Framework – This includes: a|)
the different theories and models that provide the
conceptual underpinnings of the study or the legitimate
bases for defining its parameters; b) general reviews or
surveys about the topics that can be referred to that are
available; and c) an emphasis of permanent findings,
relevant methodological issues, and major conclusions.
This part of a research is very important because the
theories shall help in the interpretation of the research
findings which leads to very good research. It is advisable to
use free standing headings and paragraph headings
whenever necessary to assist organizing the concepts being
presented.
3. Research Paradigm – This is a diagrammatic representation
of a conceptual framework. It represents the conceptual
framework very clear and detailed discussion of the
variables and their relationship. The researcher should
know the value of controlling a particular (independent)
variable in order that interference of other variables in the
prediction will be avoided or minimize.
4. Statement of the problem and Hypotheses – The research
problems are usually answered empirically. The main
problem is usually stated in a declarative form and covers
the broad area. In this part the intent of the investigation
must in a clear grammatical sequence, shows congruence
with the title and the theoretical framework, and provides
linkage with the methodology to be employed.
5. The hypotheses should provide the researcher's expected
answer to the sub-problems. They should be stated clearly
and unambiguously in a declarative form. Use the null
hypothesis except for literary or qualitative researches.
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CHAPTER 2
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
1. Research Design – Spell out and indicate the research
method used and reason for the choice of it.
2. Population and Locale of the Study – Present a narrative
description of the population. Start with the universe
(entire population) then to the sample. Explain the
sampling technique used, if any. When needed, a tabular
presentation of the respondents' characteristics may be
done after its textual explanation.
3. Data Gathering Tool/s – Briefly describe the instrument or
materials used and their function in the study. I f the data
gathering is through a structured paper -and-pencil tool,
discussion of the (psychometric) characteristics, if any ,
should be presented.
4. Data Gathering Procedures – It should discuss what the
researcher did and now the research was done. Summarize
each step in the execution of the research, including the
instructions given to the participants. Describe the
randomization, counterbalancing, and other control
features in the design.
5. Treatment of the Data – This is the basis for the evaluation
of the appropriateness of the procedure for the analysis of
the data. For quantitative research, all statistical tools have
to be presented inclusive of how these were used and their
formulae. Alongside the statistical tools will be a
presentation of their corresponding null hypothesis, if these
were the basis in the analysis of the findings.
CHAPTER 3
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
The presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data
per problem includes organizing, classifying, and examining the
data for their meaning, while the synthesis of data embraces the
formulation of general principles.
CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1. CONCLUSIONS – are brief generalizations which are derived
from the findings. Accordingly, the conclusions are not
mere reiteration of the findings; on the contrary, these are
inferences which can be discerned from the results of the
study.
2. RECOMMENDATIONS – are counsels or advice which are
feasible and specific. Recommendations which are
intended to motivate the management of the researcher's
subject/institution to improve their present system and
condition are called policy recommendations; whereas, the
so-called research recommendations are those aimed at
replicating the thesis for the use and benefit of others in
the future.
3. BIBLIOGRAPHY – The word “bibliography” came from the
Greek term “bibliographia” – the writing and copying of
books. It consists of list of references used by the
researcher. It is presented as follows:
Criminological Research & Statistics 394
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FOOTNOTES
• Ibid (Ibidem) – Latin word that means “in the same place”
that is used to cite the same book, publication, chapter, or
page previously cited.
• Op. cit. (Latin word which means opere citato or opus
citatum) - in the text or texts quoted (used in footnotes to
refer to a source just mentioned).
• Infra – (Latin term that means “below”) used in an
explanatory note to refer a reader to a point later in a text.
• Supra - used in formal writing to refer the reader back to
something at an earlier point in the same text.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
1. Applied Research – Research which studies the relationship
and/ or applicability of theories or principles to the solution
of a problem.
2. Basic Research – Research which adds something new to
the body of the knowledge in a particular field.
3. Bibliography – Any list of references at the end of a
research report or manuscript, whether cited or not within
the write up; includes not only texts referred to in the
paper, but as well as any other articles the researcher /
write made use of and readers might need as background
reading.
4. Case Study – Extensive study of an individual unit, group,
institution, organization, or program which provides a
thorough analysis of the object being investigated.
5. Citation – A short, formal indication of the source of
information or quoted material.
6. Conceptual Framework – A set of interrelated ideas or
notions that provide the legitimate bases of the study.
7. Descriptive study – A study that is not truly experimental
(e.g. Case history, record view, correlation, observation)
8. Empirical research – Research conducted for the purpose
of collecting measurable data in terms of attitudes,
behavior, or performance; designed to generate
projectable, numerical data on a topic.
9. Experimental group – Subjects in an experimental design
that receives the treatment or program under study.
10. Independent variable – An entity that is manipulated,
measured, or selected by the researcher as an antecedent
condition to an observed behavior.
11. Mean – Referred to as “the average”; computed merely by
adding the numbers in a series and dividing the total by the
number of items in the series.
12. Moderator variable – An entity that influences the nature
of the relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable.
13. Null hypothesis – The proposition, to be tested statistically,
that the experimental intervention has no effect, meaning
that the treatment and control groups will not differ as the
result of the intervention.
14. Paradigm – A model or pattern which presents root
assumption parameters with in which research is
conducted.
15. Population – A complete set of individuals, objects or
measurements having some common observable
characteristics.
16. Qualitative research – Collection of non- numerical data
using interviews, observations, and open-ended questions
to gather meaning from non-quantified narrative
information.
17. Quantitative – Research-collection of numerical data in
order to describe, explain, predict and/or control
phenomena of interest.
18. Reference – Usually come at the end of research report or
manuscript and should contain only those works cited
within the write-up.
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 Criminological Research & Statistics 395
Supremos Review & Training Center

19. Reliability – Degree to which an instrument consistently

measures in the way on repeated trials.
20. Sample – a subset or part of a population
21. Standard deviation – A measure of the range of variation
from an average of a group of measurement; a statistical
measure of the dispersion of the frequency distribution
22. Survey – Observational or descriptive, or non-experimental
study in which persons are systematically examined for the
presence or absence of characteristic of interest.
23. Theory – Comprehensive explanation of a given set of data
that has been repeatedly confirmed by observation and
experimentation, and has gained general acceptance within
the scientific community, but has not yet been decisively
proven.
24. Validity (of an instrument) – Degree to which a measure
accurately assesses the specific concept is designed to
measure.

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