2024 Cve G10 Updated Notes - Southern

TOPIC 1
THE CONSTITUTION
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to:
 define Constitution
 describe types of constitution
 describe the forms of constitution.
 explain the main parts of the Zambian constitution.
 describe the history and main provisions (recommendations) of constitution making process in Zambia.
 describe the process of constitution making and adoption.
 discuss the characteristics of the good constitution.
 explain the importance of a constitution.
DEFINITION
A constitution is a system of laws, customs, and principles, usually written down, according to which a country or
an organisation is governed (ruled).
• Laws – set of rules (the dos and the do nots)
• Customs – accepted traditions or habits of the people in a society.
• Principles – a fundamental essence, particularly one producing a given quality. It can also be understood as a
guiding belief.
A nation needs a constitution to regulate the activities and behaviour of its citizens. It is, therefore, important that
people are involved in the making of the constitution, as this results in the constitution commanding respect, loyalty,
obedience, and confidence from the people.
The people should think carefully about what to include in the constitution, because the constitution is a Supreme
Law to which all other laws of a country are subordinate. Supreme law of the land means that any other law that
does not conform (be in accordance…) with the constitution, is void (invalid). Therefore, the practice of adhering
(sticking to) firmly to the prescribed rules and laws enshrined in the constitution is known as Constitutionalism.
TYPES OF CONSTITUTIONS
There are mainly two types of constitution, namely, Written Constitution and Unwritten Constitution. Constitutions
can either be written or unwritten. A written or unwritten constitution can take the form of being either rigid or
flexible, depending on the requirements on how it can be changed or amended. A constitution with provisions
hard/difficult to change (amend) is referred to as a rigid constitution, while a constitution with provisions that make
it easily changed (amended) is referred to as a flexible constitution.
1. WRITTEN CONSTITUTION: is a constitution whose contents are documented (embodied) in a single (one)
formal written instrument (document). A written constitution can either be in form of a flexible or rigid
constitution. All flexible constitutions are written, but not all written constitutions are flexible. A particularly
good example of a constitution that is written but rigid is that of the United States of America. Some of the
countries with written but flexible constitutions include Tanzania, Malawi, South Africa, and Zambia.
Advantages (Merits)
 It is drawn up with great care.
 It is clear and definite.
 It is free from being twisted.
 It is easy to refer to.
 People can easily read and understand the structure and functions of each organ of government.
Disadvantages (Demerits)
 Much of the language used is too technical to be understood by an ordinary citizen.
 The power of interpretation is vested in the Judiciary; therefore, it may be abused by the Judges.
 It may create lacunae (gaps). This means it may leave out important details as all the ideas and principles of
the nation are compressed into one document.
 It gives more emphasis on the written laws; hence public opinions are decreased.
@2024/SOUTHERN PROVINCE /CIVIC EDUCATION UPDATED NOTES/LUMANO PREACHARD (B.A. ED – UNZA) 0976063123 lumanosigns@gmail.com 1
2. UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION: is a constitution whose contents are not documented in a single (one)
document but in a collection of documents. Many years ago, most countries did not have Written Constitutions.
These countries were governed by the general laws known to that society. They depended on traditions,
customs, and norms to guide and govern their people.
Some countries still have Unwritten Constitutions. Among these are The Kingdom of Eswatini ( Swaziland) and
Britain. Some of these countries have different parts of a constitution written and some parts not written.
Therefore, it is a collection of documents, statutes and traditional practices that are generally accepted as
governing a nation. The constitutions falling under this category can be easily changed/amended.
Advantages (Merits)
 It is easily adaptable to the changing conditions in society.
 It can be bent to meet national emergencies.
 It may not create lacunae (gaps). This means it may include all the important details of a country’s culture.
Disadvantages (Demerits)
 It is not easy to refer to.
 It is not clear.
 It may be taken for granted that it exists, as it is not written down.
 Its existence in multiple documents makes it difficult to be mastered.
FORMS OF CONSTITUTIONS
As earlier stated, a written or unwritten constitution can take the form of being either rigid or flexible, depending on
the requirements on how it can be changed or amended. A constitution with provisions hard/difficult to change or
amend is referred to as a Rigid Constitution, while a constitution with provisions that make it easily changed or
amended is referred to as a Flexible Constitution. Therefore, there are two main forms of constitutions, namely,
Flexible Constitution and Rigid Constitution.
1. A FLEXIBLE CONSTITUTION: is one that can be amended or changed easily. It can be changed by the
simple majority vote in parliament. In other words, it can be changed without calling for a referendum (…
asking citizens to vote Yes or No….). A good example is the Zambian constitution. The only part of the
Zambian constitution that is not flexible is the Bill of Rights because it requires a referendum for it to be
amended.
Advantages (Merits):
 Its elasticity and adaptability make it easy to be changed or adjusted to meet emergencies, circumstances
and changing needs of society. This curbs revolts, anarchy, and revolutionary changes.
 It allows some constitutional demands to be conveniently postponed or brought forward.
Disadvantages (Demerits):
 It may result in political instability if abused by those in power to satisfy their selfish interests.
 Frequent amendments may create uncertainty which may result into people losing confidence in the
constitution.
 It may change with changing passions of the people since it is easy to amend even where the change is not
necessary.
 It is unstable.
2. A RIGID CONSTITUTION: is a constitution that is difficult to amend. It cannot be amended by the simple
majority vote in Parliament. It can only be amended by a special body with a special status than Parliament.
Such bodies include National Constituency Conference (NCC), the Constituent Assembly. It can be altered or
amended only by special procedures, such as the Referendum. It is for this reason that a Rigid Constitution is
not representative of the people but a section of the people. Examples of rigid constitutions are those of Britain,
the United States of America, Switzerland, and Austria.
Advantages (Merits):
 It prevents rush amendments from being made.
 It allows time for detailed deliberations before the enactment of any laws.
 It is relatively permanent and stable. This creates confidence among the people.
 It is free from changes resulting from popular passions.
 It avoids manipulation by those in power who may wish to amend the constitution in favour of their selfish
interests.
Disadvantages (De-merits):
 It may cause delay when there is an urgent need to amend the constitution to suit the changing needs of
society.
 Its amendments can be delayed indefinitely thereby leading to frustrations and revolts in society.
THE STRUCTURE AND THE MAIN PARTS OF THE ZAMBIAN CONSTITUTION

The constitution of Zambia has gone through different changes since independence which results to differences in
structure and composition. However, the constitution starts with a preamble, which acts as an introduction the
document. The 1991 and 1996 constitutions had 14 main parts, but the 2016 constitution, which was enacted on 5th
January 2016 by the Republican President, H.E. Mr. Edger Chagwa Lungu, has 20 main parts.
In the preamble, the Zambian people acknowledges the Supremacy of God Almighty; Declare the Republic a
Christian Nation, while upholding a person’s right to freedom of conscience, belief, or religion. It goes on to state
that the country is a sovereign state ruled on the principles of democracy, good governance, and justice for all. It
confirms the equal worth of women and men to freely participate in all orders of society.
It is resolving that Zambia shall remain a unitary, multi-party and democratic sovereign State. To achieve liberty,
justice, and unity, it recognises and honours the freedom fighters that fought for independence and directs that all
State organs and State institutions abide by, and respect Zambia’s sovereign will.
PART TITLE CONTENT

1 (I) SUPREMACY OF THE Supremacy of the constitution; defence of the constitution; continuous effects of the
CONSTITUTION constitution; sovereign authority, national symbols; laws of Zambia
2 (II) NATIONAL VALUES, National values and principles; application of national values and principles, basis
PRINCIPLES AND of economic policies.
ECONOMIC POLICIES
3 (III) PROTECTION OF THE The rights and freedoms of individuals which are protected.
FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
AND FREEDOMS OF THE
INDIVIDUAL
4 (IV) CITIZENSHIP Existing citizenship; Categories of citizenship; Dual citizenship; the qualification
for Zambian citizenship and conditions which can lead to withdrawal of Zambian
citizenship; Entitlements and responsibilities of a citizens.
5 REPRESENTATION OF Principles of electoral systems and processes; Electoral systems; Electoral process;
(V) THE PEOPLE Political parties
(Electoral systems and process)
6 (VI) LEGISLATURE Principles of legislative authority; Functions of
(Legislative Authority) Parliament / National Assembly; Introduction of Bills in the National assembly;
Elections and composition of the National assembly.
Qualifications and disqualification of members of parliament; Proceedings of the
National assembly.
7 EXECUTIVE Principles of executive authority; Presidency and executive authority; Executive
(VII) (Executive Authority) function s of president; Qualifications and disqualification for nomination as
presidential candidate; tenure of office and Impeachment of President.
Election to the office of Vice; tenure of office; functions of Vice President; Cabinet
Ministers, Functions of Cabinet; Ministers and Provincial Ministers.
8 THE JUDICIARY Principles of judicial authority; Judicial functions; System of Courts; jurisdiction of
(VIII) (Judicial Authority, System of Supreme Court, Constitutional court; High Court, Industrial Relations Court; chief
Courts, and Independence) justice and other judges; appointment of Judges.
9 (IX) GENERAL PRINCIPLES Systems of devolved governance; sub-structures of local government
OF DEVOLVED
GOVERNANCE
10 (X) PROVINCES, DISTRICTS, Provinces, Districts and Ward; Provincial administration;
WARDS AND PROVINCIAL
ADMINSTRATION
11 (XI) LOCAL GOVERNMENT System of Local Government; local authorities, Election of Mayor, Deputy mayor,
SYSTEM Council Chairperson; Tenure of office for Councillors and
Vacancies; By-elections for councils;
12 (XII) CHIEFTAINCY AND Institution of Chieftaincy and traditional institutions; status of institution of
HOUSE OF Chieftaincy; Rights and Privileges of chiefs; House of Chiefs, Composition,
CHIEFS Functions and Tenure.
13 PUBLIC SERVICE Values and principles of public service; constituting offices for public service;
(XIII) holding of office of public service, Constitutional office holders (Attorney- general,
solicitor- General, Director of Public Prosecution, Secretary to the Treasury,
Permanent Secretaries); appointment of public officers.
14 PENSION BENEFITS Pension benefits; review of Pension and tax exemption; payment of pension
(XIV) benefits.
15 DEFENCE AND Principles relating to Defence Force and national security services; Status of
(XV) NATIONAL Defence Force and national security services; The functions of the Zambia Defence
SECURITY Force; Functions of National
Security Service: Qualifications to serve in the Defence Force and national security
services.
16 PUBLIC FINANCE AND Principles relating to public finance; Imposition of Tax; Withdrawal from
(XVI) BUDGET Consolidated Fund; Annual financial estimates of revenues and expenditure; Budget
and planning legislation; Auditor General’s- report.
17 CENTRAL BANK Bank of Zambia; Governor of Bank of Zambia; Legislation of Bank of Zambia;
(XVII)
18 SERVICE COMMISSIONS Principles relating to Commissions (Parliamentary service commission, Judicial
(XVIII) AND OTHER service commission, civil service commission, Teaching service commission,
INDEPENDENT OFFICES Zambia
Correctional service commission, Zambia Police service commission, Local
Government service commission, Electoral commission, Human rights commission,
Gender equity and Equality commission, Emolument commission, Lands
commission, State Audit commission,
Investigative commission, Judicial complaints commission, Police Public
complaints commission) and other independent offices (Public Protector, Auditor
general), their powers and functions.
19 LAND, ENVIRONMENT Principles of land policy; classification and alienation of land and land tenure;
(XIX) AND NATURAL principles of environmental and natural resources management and development;
RESOURCES protection, management and utilisation of land and natural resources.
20 GENERAL; PROVISIONS Official language and use and status of local languages, Nominations, and
(XX) appointments; Oaths of office, code of conduct; conflict of interest; declaration of
assets; emoluments payable under constitution; funding, expenses and emoluments
charge on consolidated fund; Definitions.
THE PROCESS OF CONSTITUTION MAKING AND ITS ADOPTION

Different countries use different ways to make their constitutions. For example, the United States of America used
the Constituent Assembly to make its Constitution. The Constituent Assembly was a group of representatives
elected by various states. This group drafted the constitution for the country.
In Zambia, the Executive wing of government initiates the making of the National Constitution. The Republican
President, using the Inquiries Act, appoints a Constitution Review Commission (CRC) to collect views from citizens
through sittings conducted in all parts of the country. The Inquiries Act is a law which empowers the President to
appoint a commission of Inquires.
Citizens make submissions to the CRC orally or in writing as individuals or groups. Thereafter, the CRC produces a
draft constitution. The Constitution Adoption process means the process of approving the copy of a draft constitution
so that it becomes an official document.
A. THE CONSTITUTION MAKING PROCESS:
A constitution should be made in a clear and satisfactory manner. Each country must have a constitution that fits its
situation. It is not just about copying any other country’s constitution and adopting it. To ensure this, a Constitution
Review Commission must be put in place. This makes a good study surrounding the need for a new constitution or
its major amendments. This commission then comes up with a draft constitution which would eventually be used as
the major reference by the Constituent Assembly in making a new Constitution.
REQUIREMENTS FOR MAKING A CONSTITUTION.
i) People’s Views – The CRC has the responsibility of seeking the views from the people for whom the New
Constitution is intended. This consultation must be done nation-wide. These views must capture the general
understandings and opinions of the citizens and be turned into the final draft constitution.
ii) A Country’s History – Every country has a history. This history provides rich experiences that can be helpful
to guide a nation towards a better future. It shows how a country handled a certain situation in the past and the
results that came out of it, whether bad or good. If good, it is used, but if it was bad, for example, it brought
disunity and tense situations, it is avoided. Guidelines to discourage reoccurrences must be provided. So, history
helps to guide makers of the new constitution on how they can go over certain provisions that proved to be
divisive in the past.
iii) Past Constitutions – These can also guide in making a better and new constitution. The effectiveness of certain
provisions in the past Constitutions, form the basis of knowledge on how decisions can be made on certain
provisions in the new Constitution.
iv) The Present Situations – As it has been stated, historical experiences are important in the guidance of making
a new Constitution. However, situations keep on changing. A new generation can have its own challenges,
values, experiences, and prospects. These are important to be considered because the new Constitution is always
aimed at serving the people for whom it is made. For example, Zambia used to be a one-party state, and the
majority never opposed it. But when times kept on changing, they changed and demanded for change to
multiparty. Therefore, present situations are always important to be considered in the making of the
constitution.
v) Way of Life – People all over the world have traditions, cultures, and customs. These determine their way of
living. A new Constitution must put these factors into consideration. A Constitution which undermines people’s
traditional and cultural values can never succeed. A good Constitution must accommodate all the neutral and
good aspects from the people’s way of life. However, these must keep in line with the fundamental human
rights and freedoms.
B. WAYS OF ADOPTING THE CONSTITUTION: There are three main methods/ways used to adopt a
constitution, these are: Through Parliament; The Constituent Assembly; and The Referendum.
(i) Through Parliament: the draft constitution, compiled by the CRC, is submitted to the President who
then accepts or rejects some provisions before submitting to Parliament for debate. Parliament debates
through normal procedures of the House. If parliament is satisfied with it, it adopts it and sends it back
to the President for the Presidential assent. Zambia has used this method four times: in 1972, 1991,
1996 and 2016.
(ii) Through a Constituent Assembly: A Constituent Assembly is a specific body tasked with the duty of
debating and coming up with a constitution for a nation. Members are usually elected by the public
from different constituencies, churches, learning institutions, trade unions, Non-Governmental
Organisations, student bodies and special interest groups. The adoption of the Constitution by the
Constituent Assembly is more representative than by Parliament. It is independent and free from
government interference or control of any person. It is also not like the National Constitution
Conference whose final draft constitution must be adopted by Parliament, as it adopts its own final
draft constitution.
(iii) Through a Referendum: this is a situation whereby a draft constitution is subjected to the public to
approve it through a public vote. Voters are required to vote ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. If more than half (50% + 1)
of the votes cast are in favour, the constitution will be adopted, and the President must assent. As stated
earlier, the only part of the Zambian Constitution which requires a referendum for it to be amended is
the Bill of Rights. In 2016, attempts to make amendments to the Bill of Rights through a referendum
failed because the number of votes in favour of this were less than the required 50%+1 threshold.
HISTORY OF CONSTITUTION MAKING IN ZAMBIA
Constitutional development in Zambia can be traced back to British colonial times, especially from the beginning of
the 1950s. This period was marked by the establishment of the Federation of Nyasaland and Rhodesia through the
Order-in-Council (a legislation made in the name of the Monarch in some Commonwealth countries), of 1953.
The Order-in-Council was followed by a constitution written by the British Colonial Administration in 1962. The
purpose of this constitution was to accommodate both white settlers and native Africans in the Legislative Council,
and to lay a foundation stone for the independence of Northern Rhodesia outside the Federation.
Following the dissolution of the Federation in 1963, a new constitution designed to resolve the conflicting interests
of the indigenous Africans, the settler white community and the colonial government was made. Most of the
provisions in that constitution were meant to safeguard the interests of white settler community. It was called the
Northern Rhodesia Self-government Constitution of 1963. The new constitution came into force through the Zambia
Independence Order-in-Council of 1964, recognising Zambia as a sovereign state. This was the country’s first
independence constitution, and it established a multiparty system dominated by Kaunda’s United National
Independence Party (UNIP).
The era of the Post-Independence Constitution was characterised by a multiparty system. There were increasing
challenges from opposition political parties to Kaunda’s dominance over the country during the First Republic. In
1972, a Constitution Review Commission (CRC) headed by Vice President Mainza Chona was established. A new
constitution which abolished multipartyism and declared UNIP the only political party recognised by law, was
passed in 1973 and this marked the beginning of the Second Republic. It was argued that the elimination of
multipartyism was done in the interest of unity and economic development. It became illegal to form or attempt to
form any political party, and illegal to belong to any political party other than UNIP. A constitution that does not
allow the formation of political parties does not encourage free electoral participation. It infringes (breaks or
violates) on people’s rights and freedoms such as freedom of association, freedom of conscience. This constitution
limited the rights of the citizens
In 1990, there was increased demand for the restoration of a multi-party system due to the deteriorating (reduction in
quality / shrinking) economic situation. This demand, among others, made President Kenneth Kaunda to appoint a
Constitutional Review Commission, headed by one of the respected Lawyers at the time, Professor Patrick Mvunga.
This constitution was a transitional document designed to meet the needs at that time. The main recommendation
was that Zambia should revert (return) to multi-party democracy. In other words, multi-party (existence of more
than one political party) should be reintroduced. It was adopted in 1991 and this marked the beginning of the Third
Republic.
With the election of Fredrick J. T. Chiluba as president, a new attempt was made to get a lasting constitution for
Zambia. A new Constitution Review Commission, chaired by John Mwanakatwe, was appointed in 1993 to draft a
Constitution. Its first Draft Constitution was presented in 1995. It recommended that persons contesting the
presidency of Zambia must have both parents who are or were Zambians by birth. As a result, the presidential
aspirant, former President, Kenneth Kaunda was automatically disqualified since his parents were not Zambians by
birth. This is also known as Parentage Clause. Other recommendations include; establishment of an Independent
Electoral Management Body (Electoral Commission of Zambia), and traditional leaders (chiefs) not to participate in
active politics. This constitution was adopted in 1996.
In 2001, Levy P. Mwanawasa became president of Zambia, and in 2003 appointed a Constitution Review
Commission headed by Wila Mung’omba. In 2005, the Mung’omba Constitution Review Commission presented its
draft Constitution that was seen as progressive but the whole process was later suspended despite the agreement to
adopt the document through a Constituent Assembly. Among the recommendations are; establishment of the
constitutional court, appointment of ministers outside parliament, more than 50% + 1 of the total vote cast for one to
win an election and become President of Zambia, borrowing public funds with approval by parliament, introduction
of a Presidential Running-mate. However, its recommendations were not adopted.
One of President Michael Chilufya Sata’s promises in the run-up to his election in 2011 was the adoption of a new
Constitution. Keeping to this promise, President Sata appointed a Technical Committee to draft a new Constitution
on 16th November 2011, headed by Aniel Silungwe. A first draft of the Constitution by the Technical Committee
was released in April 2012. Their main term of reference was to use the reports from the previous Constitutional
Review Commissions to come up with the final constitution that would stand a test of time. The Committee’s
recommendations include; the Presidential running mate, Dual citizenship, 50% +1, and Minimum qualification. It’s
draft constitution which was adopted by parliament and signed by President Edgar C. Lungu on 5th January 2016, in
the National Heroes Stadium.
YEAR YEAR OF FIRST NAME OF THE NAME OF MAIN NAME OF YEAR

FORMED DRAFT CHAIRPERSON REVIEW RECOMENDATION ENACTED ENACTED
PRESENTATION COMMISSION S CONSTITUION
1972 1973 Mainza Chona Chona CRC  One Party Chona 1973
Participatory Constitution
Democracy
1990 1991 Patrick Mvunga Mvunga CRC  A return to Mvunga 1991
Multiparty Constitution
Democracy
1993 1995 John Mwanakatwe  Parentage Clause Mwanakatwe 1996
Mwanakatwe CRC  Establishment of an Constitution
Independent
Electoral
Management Body
(Electoral
Commission of
Zambia)
2003 2005 Wila Mung’omba  50%+1 Clause NOT ENACTED FAILED
Mung’omba CRC
2011 2012 Aniel Silungwe The Technical  50% + 1 The 2016 2016
Committee  Presidential Constitution
(Aniel Silungwe running mate.
CRC)  Dual citizenship.
 Minimum
academic
qualification.
NB: It is important to know the then Presidents at the initial stage of each Constitution Review as well as at the time
of enactment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CONSTITUTION

A good Constitution must be the one with all the features which satisfy the needs of the people it is designed for. The
following are some of them:
a) It must be clear: the language used must not be too technical, because the ordinary citizens must be able to
understand what is allowed and what is forbidden. In other words, it must not be ambiguous or vague.
b) It must be neither too flexible nor too rigid: this is because if it is too flexible, it might be abused by those in
power, thereby tempering with the basic principles; and if it is too rigid, it might be overtaken by events of a
dynamic society.
c) It must enforce unity: Provisions and clauses that can cause controversies and disunity must be avoided. The
different groups of people in a country must feel the spirit of oneness and a sense of belonging.
d) It must be stable and stand a test of time: it must not only be bound in the present time, but also consider the
future generations. It must not be changed at the pleasure of each President that comes to power. Provisions for
careful usage of resources must be made, so that future generations benefit from them too.
e) It must ensure strict protection of human rights and freedoms: all kinds of leadership should respect
people’s rights and freedom. It should not create lacunae in relation to the respect of human rights, because this
can cause dissatisfaction among citizens.
f) It must be accessible: this means it must be easy to find and affordable to most of the citizens of a country.
g) It must respond to the Social, Economic and Political needs of the citizens.
IMPORTANCE OF A CONSTITUTION.
A Constitution is important for many reasons. Some of them are as follows:
i It acts as a Social Contract between citizens and government: the relationship between government and the
people is clearly defined and regulated. It clearly lays down the responsibility of the government towards her
people. Citizens can check and assess the performance of the government.
ii It protects the Rights and Freedoms of citizens: the rights and freedoms of the people are well spelt in the
Bill of Rights, and thus, the government must respect and protect them. Every citizen is treated equally
irrespective of his/her tribe, religion, colour, or background.
iii The government is regulated: whatever the government does must agree with the Constitution. It is the
constitution which provides the government with the framework through which it operates. Therefore, the
government does not have any right to do whatever it wants.
iv It gives citizens a Legal basis: once the rights of citizens are violated by the government, citizens have the
right to use the Constitution against the government in the courts of law.
v It establishes Government Power: the power of the government and how it should be used is defined in the
constitution. By so doing, it authorises the government to use those powers on behalf of the citizens in
governing them as well as providing social services.
vi It makes a clear separation of powers: the major arms of government (Legislature, Executive and Judiciary)
and their responsibilities are well defined in the constitution. This enables a proper interaction of these organs
and the general administration of the government. The relationships are rightly regulated and guided.
vii It restricts the abuse of government power: It is said that power corrupts. This can be true with the
government. A government has a lot of power since it controls all the nation’s revenues and the security
agencies. Such powers need to be regulated and restricted in the interest of the citizens. The constitution does
this.
viii It guides citizens on what they must do: A constitution regulates the behaviour of the citizens of a nation. It
guides them in knowing their duties. It is through these duties and responsibilities that a good citizen can be
differentiated from a bad one.
ix It gives equal opportunities for individual development.
NOTICE TO THE TEACHERS
 Make corrections were possible.
 Update the notes
TOPIC 2
GOVERNANCE SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA
 define and explain governance.
 discuss the characteristics of good and bad governance.
 analyse different Electoral Systems
 explain Zambia’s Electoral Systems
 explain Zambia’s Electoral Process
 explain Zambia’s Electoral Code of Conduct
 describe the Local Governance System in Zambia
 discuss the role of Traditional Leaders in governance.
DEFINITION
Governance refers to the way a group of people or society manages its affairs. A group of people of people can be a
family, a public institution (Government organisation, Government Ministry and Parastatal) or even a private
enterprise (non-governmental organisations). Governance also means the running and management of public affairs
for the benefit of all the people. If public affairs are run efficiently (making good use of resources) and for the
benefit of the people, it means there is a practice of good governance. However, in a situation where groups or
institutions employ undemocratic tendencies such as misuse of power, lack of accountability, lack of free and fair
elections, they are said to be badly governed.
Governance is seen through political, social, and economic situations. Through its policies (decisions on what to do
or not to do), government influences the general way a country is run. It is either a country is run in accordance with
democratic principles or dictatorship. There are two types of governance, and these are Good Governance and Bad
Governance.
At national level, government manages the affairs of the state, including running of elections through the established
institution called Electoral Commission of Zambia. This chapter looks at the two types of governance and their
characteristics, Electoral systems, Electoral process, local governance system and finally the role of traditional
leaders in governance.
GOOD GOVERNANCE
Good governance means a government in authority has elements that add up to what most people expect from those
who rule over them. This means the government is legitimate (has people’s support), competent (adequate for the
purpose), accountable (obliged to answer for its deeds), and respects human rights and the rule of law. Without good
governance, progress is difficult to achieve and impossible to guarantee. It has consent of the people ruled. Mostly, it
is practiced by a democratic government.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE (CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE)

These include those that ensure that peace is maintained, and rights and freedoms of the people are not violated. The
law is not used to favour only those in leadership, but all are treated equally. They can also be understood as
characteristics of good governance, and these include:
a) Citizen Participation in decision making: - there is no discrimination. All persons, regardless of marital
status, sex, religion, disability, and race have a say in the decision-making process of the country. Good
governance allows the governed to participate in decision making. All people take an active part in the affairs of
their community and country. Before new policies are implemented, those who are governed are consulted.
They are asked for their ideas, opinions, and recommendations. This is possible where there is freedom of
association and speech. People can voice out their dissatisfaction or disapproval of what they do not agree with.
Good governance seeks compromise and common understanding with those who are led.
b) Consensus Oriented: Responds to people’s needs and interests. Good governance ensures that the interests of
the citizens are considered in decision making in order to bring a general agreement. Those in leadership are not
there to serve only themselves but serve the people they are leading. They should always respond to the
demands, needs and interests of those who are led. With proper training and well-defined standards of
behaviour, public servants should run and provide services to suit the convenience of those who use them.
c) Legitimacy of Government - Institutions that are legally placed into authority and govern with the consent of
the people are considered to be legitimate.
d) Transparency and Accountability: transparency implies that the decisions taken on behalf of those who are
governed must be made open and available to the people, and in consultation with the people, so that the led are
aware of what is taking place. This encourages the free flow of information regardless of its complexity. As
information is given to those who are governed, people can be made to understand and monitor how they are
governed. Accountability means that leaders should be answerable to the people. Systems should be in place to
call individuals and institutions to explain their actions. Any person who misuses public funds should be taken
to court and if proven guilty, be punished. A good example is that of what the Public Accounts Committee
(PAC) does. Officers from different government institutions and departments are called upon to explain how the
money was used. Governments and all public institutions must be transparent and accountable to the people
they lead.
e) The Competence of government - Authorities and Institutions should be able to make policies and decisions
and implement them effectively.
f) Respect for the Rule of Law: - the government or those in power rule a country in accordance with the
constitution and other laws of a country. Laws are not bent or undermined to fulfil the interests of those who are
in power. Everyone is treated equally before the law. The rule of law requires an independent, courageous, and
corrupt free Judiciary. The laws must be enforced without favouring a certain group of people. Without the rule
of law, there will be Anarchy (confusion or disorder) in the society.
g) Separation of Powers: - this is a principle that states that the three organs of government, namely, the
Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary must work independently. They have powers which are clearly
separated. Each organ has defined roles and does not interfere with one another in operations but checks one
another to ensure that they operate within the laws of the country. In other words, they provide checks and
balances. In this way, power is balanced among the organs of government. For example, the Legislature can
impeach (to bring legal proceedings against) the President if he/she violates the Constitution. No one organ of
government should be more powerful than the others.
h) Independence of the Judiciary: - the Judiciary is vested with the responsibility of interpreting and enforcing
the laws. The Chief Justice and the Judges should be free from interference by the Executive and the
Legislature. Once appointed, they should not be easily dismissed. They should work without fear or favour.
i) Existence of regular, free, and fair elections: - an election is a process through which people cast their votes
to choose a leader of their choice. Elections must be held at agree intervals. For example, 5 years in Zambia, 4
years in the United States of America. Every citizen who has reached the voting age ( 18 years) should be
allowed to register and vote. This is known as Universal Suffrage (franchise) or the right to vote. Political
parties must have the freedom to inform the people about policies and programmes in their Manifestos. This
gives electorates (voters) a chance to vote for candidates based on what the candidates’ policies are.
j) Political Tolerance: - people with different political opinions must be able to freely express themselves and
their opinions should be respected. One should not be forced to accept another person’s opinion. Political
violence against people who support different political parties should not be tolerated. This is because
politicians rarely have similar interests and goals. They can differ on how they want the government to be run.
However, regardless of the differences, national unity must always be recognised. This requires for tolerance (to
allow without interference).
k) Existence of Political Parties: - this promotes good governance by providing checks and balances. Opposition
political parties point out the shortcomings of a government in power. They educate the people on their rights
and obligations. They provide alternative programmes through manifestos. They also facilitate peaceful transfer
of power from one political party to another. A political party is defined as a voluntary association of people
who share common values and wish to form government of a country.
l) Respect for Human Rights: - all forms of human rights are recognised, promoted, and protected. Some of
these rights are the right to vote and to be voted into power; the freedom of assembly and association; the
freedom of conscience and expression; right to security and many more.
m) Fairness: - governments should make sure that no one is excluded from access to any public service for reasons
of race, colour, creed, and mental or physical disability. No region or constituency should be discriminated
against by any government on grounds of its political affiliation. Government workers should be recruited and
promoted openly on merit, and they should carry out functions of government impartially. People should not be
appointed into public office on grounds of ethnicity or nepotism.
BAD GOVERNANCE
Bad governance means a government in authority has no elements that add up to what most people expect from
those who rule over them. This means the government is illegitimate, incompetent, unaccountable, and does not
respect human rights and the rule of law. It is governance by a government which rules against the wishes of the
majority. It does not have the consent of the people ruled. Dictatorship is a form of bad governance. However, bad
governance can also be practiced by a democratically elected government.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BAD GOVERNANCE:

Bad governance is a direct opposite of good governance. It has got different characteristics which all focus on
denying the citizens their rights and freedoms. The following are some of the characteristics:
i) Lack of transparency and accountability: - there is no transparency in the way government business is
carried out. The decisions taken by government are not open to the citizens since there is no free flow of
information.
ii) Disrespect for the Rule of Law: - laws are undermined to fulfil the interests of those who are in power.
Citizens are not treated equally because those in power feel they are above the law and the law is for ordinary
citizens. Some citizens are favoured at the expense of others. Court decisions are not always respected.
iii) Lack of Separation of Powers: - power is not clearly separated. Each organ does not have well defined roles
and does interfere in another’s business, especially the Executive interfering with the operations of the Judiciary
and the Legislature. There are no checks and balances.
iv) Lack of Independence of the Judiciary: - there is no fair trail, as the judiciary does not operate independently.
Leaders can interfere with court proceedings without being punished by the law.
v) Irregular and unfair elections: - elections are not held regularly. When held, elections are not free and fair.
There is vote rigging. Leaders come into power through use of force or manipulation of elections. Such leaders
do not mind much about the concerns of the people they lead, because they are in power not as legitimate
representatives of their people.
vi) Lack of Citizen Participation: - the government decides for the people. People become servants instead of
masters of the government. The government claims to know what is good for the people. The people are rarely
consulted, and their concerns are often ignored.
vii) Restriction of Political activities: - the political party in power restricts the activities of the opposition parties
if they exist. Mostly, there is no freedom to form and operate opposition political parties. People are restricted
from associating freely and exercising their freedom of speech. Bad leaders fear that people may assemble and
protest their bad leadership.
viii) The Media is restricted: - media refers to organisations that spread news through newspapers, television,
radio, magazines, or any other formal way. These are feared because they make people are of the evils ( bad
things) done by their leaders. Such bad things can include corruption and violation of human rights. Mostly,
state-owned media is negatively controlled by government, such that it is made to report favourably on
government policies even when the said policies are not good. Opposing or dissenting views are not allowed in
government-owned media.
ix) Violation of Human Rights: - there is no respect for human rights. The government tends to deliberately
violate people’s rights. This is always aimed at forcing people to be always loyal. People who oppose
government can be tortured and detained without fair trial or can even be killed. The violation can also take the
form of segregating certain groups of people. Citizens always live-in fear of being arrested or killed by the
government.
x) Lack of positive response to people’s needs and interests: - those in power are more concerned with their
personal interests. They do not care about people’s welfare. There is corruption, nepotism, and other forms of
abuse of office.
GOVERNANCE SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA

Governance System refers to a set of rules and institutions that regulate the affairs of the state or organisation and its
people. All countries in the world have their own governance systems. Zambia has her own governance system too.
One of the critical elements in governance in any governance system is the electoral system.
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
An electoral system is a set of rules that translates the votes cast in an election into seats won by parties and
candidates. The purpose of the electoral system is to translate the will of the people, as expressed through the ballot
box, into members of a legislative body, local authority and presidency. For instance, the way citizens elect their
political leaders. There are four main electoral systems used throughout the world. These are:
1. Single Member Majoritarian System (SMMS).
2. Single Member Plurality System (SMPS) or First Past the Post System (FPTP).
3. Proportional Representative System (PRS).
4. Mixed Member Proportionality System (MMPS).
1. SINGLE MEMBER MAJORITARIAN SYSTEM (SMMS)

This system is also known as fifty percent plus one (50% +1) or majoritarian system. In Zambia, it is used
only when electing a presidential candidate. Under this system, a country is divided into several
constituencies. Each constituency is further divided into wards. The winner must obtain an absolute
majority (50%+1) of the votes cast. In other words, he/she must have more than half of the valid votes cast.
Where no candidate gets an absolute majority, elections are held again for the top two winners. This is
called second ballot system. The second ballot system must be held within 37 days of the initial ballot or
first election. If in the initial ballot two candidates in the second position had equal number of votes, the
second ballot will have three candidates contesting the election.
For example, if there are two million (2,000,000) valid votes cast, fifty percent of the valid votes is one
million (1,000,000). For a presidential candidate to win, one is required to get at least one million plus 1
vote translating into 1,000,001. This means that other candidates will share the 999,999 which is less than
50% of the valid votes cast.
Second ballot system is not the same as election re-run. An election re-run is where the election results are
cancelled by the courts of law, and fresh elections are held. This might be due to a successful petition. A
good example of where an election re-run was conducted is Malawi.
Advantages:
 It is more democratic in that the winner is elected by the majority.
 It allows voters to choose between people rather than just political parties.
 It retains the link between constituents and their members of parliament.
 It provides a clear-cut choice for voters between political parties and between personalities.
 It provides a coherent parliamentary opposition which can present itself as a realistic alternative to the
government of the day.
Disadvantages:
 It is expensive in case of a second ballot system.
 It may cause voter apathy (lack of motivation to vote), as voters whose candidates do not qualify for a
re-run may not vote.
2. FIRST PAST THE POST or SINGLE MEMBER PLURALITY SYSTEM (SMPS):

This is commonly referred to as winner takes all. The country is divided into constituencies and wards.
When elections are held, voters vote for individuals of their choice. Any candidate who gets the highest
number of votes wins the election, even with a difference of one vote.
Advantages:
 It is relatively cheap.
 It is simple to understand and use.
 It allows voters to choose between people rather than just political parties.
 It retains the link between constituents and their members of parliament.
 It provides a clear-cut choice for voters between political parties and between personalities.
 It provides a coherent parliamentary opposition which can present itself as a realistic alternative to the
government of the day.
Disadvantages:
 It may produce a minority government as most people may vote against the winning candidates,
especially where there were more than two contestants.
 Minority communities and historically or socially disadvantaged groups tend to be under-represented.
 Party structures are mostly dominated by male, so this affects the ability of women to be elected to
parliamentary office.
3. PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION SYSTEM (PRS)
In this system, there is no delimitation (demarcating of boundaries) of constituencies and wards. Voters vote
for a political party of their choice and not for an individual candidate. Parliamentary seats are shared
among political parties, according to percentages obtained in election. A party with the highest number of
votes forms government. Members of Parliament are not directly elected by the people but are appointed/
nominated by their respective political parties using a Party List System. This system is used in South
Africa.
Advantages:
 The system facilitates a more representative Legislature.
 Where there is a social division, the inclusion of all significant groups in parliament can be a near
essential condition for democratic consolidation.
 It creates few wasted votes.
Disadvantages:
 Members of Parliament are not answerable to the electorate but rather to their political parties.
 It tends to increase government instability.
 It tends to produce more parties in legislature, in which it is less likely for one political party to have a
majority number of seats. Bills for the ruling party could be difficult to go through.
 It weakens the constituency-Representative link because it fails to provide for the relationship between
constituencies and representatives.
4. MIXED MEMBER PROPORTIONALITY SYSTEM (MMPS)

It is a mixture of the First Past the Post (FPTP) and the Proportional Representation System (PRS). This
system allows some Members of Parliament to be elected using the First Past the Post System while others
are nominated using a Party List System.
Advantages:
 There is a strong link between Members of Parliament and their constituencies.
 The representation of various groups and parties is assured using Proportional Representation System.
 There is accountability experienced over the Members of Parliament by the constituency using First
Past the Post System.
 There is a greater sense of belonging under this system.
Disadvantages:
 It is less familiar and less known in Africa.
 It is too complicated for a common person to understand.
 The combination of both the constituency based and the party list-based voting, may cause unnecessary
misunderstanding among political parties.
ELECTIONS
An election is a formal process of selecting a person for public office. It can also be understood as a formal process
of accepting or rejecting a political proposition, by voting. It can also be defined as a formal group decision-making
process by which a population chooses an individual to hold public office.
Through elections, citizens transfer power they hold to make decisions and manage public affairs to representatives
who will exercise it on their behalf. Therefore, elections provide citizens with a formal opportunity to influence the
democratic governance process. The constitution of Zambia requires that elections be held periodically.
Elections have been the usual mechanism by which modern representative democracy has operated since the 17 th
Century. Elections are important because they:
 provide an opportunity for the people to participate in the governance of their country.
 Provide an opportunity for citizens to choose their representatives that speak and decide on their behalf.
 are a means through which political leaders are chosen.
 give legitimacy to the government.
 give chance to citizens to choose parties that support their policies that are beneficial to the people.
 oblige candidates to explain to the citizens why they should be elected,
 make political parties accountable to the people,
 provide a mechanism of peaceful transfer of power,
 offer regular opportunities to people to change government, and
 provide the peace and stability necessary for development.
MANAGEMENT OF ELECTIONS
Elections in Zambia are managed by the Electoral Commission of Zambia (ECZ). The ECZ is an independent
Electoral Management Body established under Article 229 of the Constitution of Zambia. It has the responsibility to
manage elections in Zambia.
The Commission consists of a Chairperson, Vice-Chairperson and three other members appointed by the President,
subject to ratification by the National Assembly. These members of the Commission serve on a full-time basis.
Functions of the Commission are two categories: Constitutional and Statutory
I. Constitutional Functions:
 Delimit electoral boundaries.  Settle minor electoral disputes.
 Implement the electoral process.  Regulate the conduct of voters and
 Conduct elections and referenda. candidates.
 Voter registration (this function is  Accredit observers and election agents.
continuous).
II. Statutory Functions:
 To provide voter education (this function is continuous).
 To make regulations providing for the registration of voters and for the manner of conducting
elections.
 To constitute conflict management committees and appoint conflict management officers for purposes
of resolving electoral disputes.
 to correct mistakes committed by electoral officers in the tabulation of results within seven days of the
declaration of the results.
 To administer and enforce the Electoral Process Act, and the Electoral Code of Conduct.
 To disqualify a political party or candidate in breach of the Code.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTIONS IN GOOD GOVERNANCE

Elections must be:
1. PERIODIC – Elections must be held when they are due. They must be held at regular intervals. For
example, every five years in Zambia; every four years in the United States of America. Elected officials must
return to the electorates at some point to seek their mandate to continue office.
2. COMPETITIVE – Elections must take place in a conducive political environment where candidates can
compete fairly and enjoy freedom of assembly, association, and movement, necessary to voice out their
opinions openly to win the support of the people. No candidate should have undue advantage over the other.
3. INCLUSIVE – Elections must include everyone who is eligible either to stand as a candidate or to vote in
an election without any form of discrimination.
4. DECISIVE – Elections determine who gets which elected position in government. Therefore, the winning
candidate or party should not be prevented from taking office.
TYPES OF ELECTIONS IN ZAMBIA:

There are three main types of elections, and these include:
a. Presidential Election for choosing the Republican President.
b. National Assembly Elections for choosing the Members of the National Assembly.
c. Local Government Elections for choosing the Mayor/Council chairperson and
Councillors.
FORMS OF ELECTIONS:
There are two main forms of elections in Zambia. These are General and By-elections (special elections).
1. General Elections – these are held to determine which political party’s candidate, or independent
candidate, will occupy each office that is up for election. They are held every five years on the Second
Thursday of August. This is in accordance with the 2016 National Constitution. The last time they were
held in Zambia was on Thursday, 11 th August 2016. There are four positions that are voted for in these
elections, namely, President, Member of Parliament, Mayor/Council Chairperson and Ward Councillor. A
candidate can either be sponsored by a political party or stand as an independent candidate. Note that, under
the 2016 National Constitution of Zambia, a person is disqualified from being nominated as a candidate for
election as President if that person has dual citizenship.
2. By-Elections – these are held when either a Member of Parliament, Mayor/Council Chairperson or Ward
Councillor:
 dies
 resigns from his/her position.
 is expelled from his/her political party.
 is imprisoned for more than six months.
Note that, in Zambia, under the 2016 Constitution, there is no need for a Presidential By-election. This
applies to any country with the Presidential Running-mate close. If the position of the Republican President
falls vacant for any reason, there will be no Presidential By-election as the Vice President will be sworn-in
as President. This is because the Vice President was a running mate who was elected alongside the
President.
ZAMBIA’S ELECTORAL SYSTEM

As earlier stated, an electoral system is a set of rules that translates the valid votes cast in an election into seats won
by parties and candidates. The purpose of Zambia’s electoral system is to translate the will of people to decide on
who should be President, Members of Parliament, Mayors/Council Chairpersons and Councillors. The electoral
system in Zambia is twofold; majoritarian (for Presidents only) and simple majority or first past the post (for the rest
of the positions). This is in accordance with the 2016 National Constitution.
The electoral system should not be confused with the electoral process of a country. The electoral process refer to
the procedures following in the conduct of elections. The Electoral Commission of Zambia (ECZ), though
independent, is a government institution mandated to conduct elections. The Electoral Commission of Zambia
carries out the Electoral Process.
ZAMBIA’S ELECTORAL PROCESS:

Elections are never a single day event. There are various processes within a five-year electoral cycle that are integral
(necessary) prior to the day of voting. An electoral process simply means a series of interlinked stages of events
involved in the selection of representatives through an election. Zambia’s electoral process is provided for under the
Electoral Process Act of 2016. The Act also provides for the Code of Conduct, electoral offences and penalties. The
following are the stages involved in the electoral processes:
1) Legislation - this involves the enactment of laws to govern the electoral process.
2) Delimitation – a process of demarcating of boundaries for constituencies, wards and polling districts for
voters to have better accessibility of polling stations. Without such boundaries, voters cannot be allocated
to polling districts, and therefore, would not know where they can vote from. This exercise usually takes
place once in ten (10) years.
3) Voter Education - the Electoral Commission of Zambia and the Civil Societies educate the citizens
through various means such as posters, electronic and print media, drama and other methods on how to
conduct themselves before, during and after elections. They also encourage people to register and to vote
on the poll day.
4) Registration of Voters – the Electoral Process Act empowers the Electoral Commission of Zambia to
carry out Continuous Voter Registration. Registration of voters is a process where eligible citizens make
applications to be included on the register of voters. This allows a person to vote in an election, thereby,
participating in the democratic governance of the country. Further, the Zambian Constitution guarantees the
right of every eligible citizen to be registered as a voter. To exercise your right to vote, you need to register
as a voter so that you can obtain a voter’s card.
 Importance of a Voter’s Card: a voter’s card is one of the key documents that is required for you to
vote, and it is proof that you registered as a voter. This means you will be in a position to vote in an
election. If you go to the polling station and you are not in possession of a voter’s card, you shall not
be allowed to vote. The voter’s card has the following information:
▪ Full names and initial ▪ Residential address
▪ Gender (Sex) ▪ Signature or thumbprint
▪ Date of Birth ▪ Polling station
▪ Portrait (Photograph of the Holder) ▪ Polling district
▪ Voter’s card number ▪ Expiry date.
 Significance of Registering as a Voter: it gives you an opportunity to choose representatives of your
choice. Further, it is your Constitutional right and responsibility to vote. Additionally, it is one of the
requirements for a person to participate in an election through voting. Voter registration determines
who may or may not vote in an election.
5) Inspection of the register of voters (Verification of Voter’s Roll) – after the registration of voters, the
Electoral Commission of Zambia produces a provisional register of voters. This provisional register of
voters is not final and cannot be used in an election. It is still open to changes or amendments in case of
clerical errors or any other mistakes. All registered voters should inspect the provisional register of voters
to make sure their names and other details are correct.
In order to be allowed to inspect personal details in the provisional register of voters, a person must provide
the Registration Officer with his or her Voter’s Card and Green National Registration Card. The date for
inspection is normally announced by the Commission. During this period, a copy of the provisional register
of voters is available at all registration centres (polling stations) for inspection by the public.
6) Nomination of candidates – different political parties present their candidates for filing the nomination
papers stipulating qualifications of the presented candidates. They publicly make their intentions of
standing for elections known. The nomination day marks the beginning of the official election campaigns.
7) Election Campaigns – these are activities or strategies that political parties candidates or independent
candidates use to convince the electorate to vote for them. Campaign strategies vary from party to party.
They do this through political rallies, indoor meetings, door to door canvasing, use of posters, wearing of
T-shirts with political messages and symbols. Election campaigns provide voters with information that can
assist them in choosing a candidate of their choice. Election campaigns end a day before the actual voting
day at 18 hours.
8) Polling day or Voting day – this is the day electorates or voters go to polling stations to vote for their
candidates of their choice. Voting is the act of casting a ballot on the polling day. Voting in Zambia is
carried out on a “one person, one vote” basis. It is done through the secret ballot. This means that when
voting, no person should see who the voter is voting for. On poll day, polling stations open at 06:00 hours
and close at 18:00 hours. Voters who joined the queue before 18:00 hours will be allowed to vote. If the
polling station opens late, the time lost will be added to the closing time. A voter must vote at a polling
station appearing on the voter’s card.
A. The Right to Vote: it is every citizen’s right and responsibility to vote and participate in the
governance of the country in any democratic society like Zambia.
B. Rights of a Voter: apart from the right to vote, a registered voter is also entitled to the following
rights:
(i) Be assisted if he/she has a disability or is illiterate.
(ii) Complain about irregularities.
(iii) Be excused from work to go and vote.
(iv) Be protected by the law and police.
(v) Seek and access to voter information freely.
(vi) Vote for candidates of their own choice freely.
(vii) Take part in elections by registering and voting.
(viii) Express opinion peacefully and without restrictions.
(ix) Vote in secrecy
(x) Vote without intimidation or fear
C. Eligibility to vote: In order to vote, a person must:
i. be a Zambian with a green National Registration Card (NRC)
ii. have attained the age of 18 years and above.
iii. be in possession of a valid voter’s card.
iv. have his/her particulars appearing in the register of voters.
D. Voting Procedures: it is important for a voter to go and vote from a polling station appearing on the
voter’s card. During poll day, a voter should do the following:
Step 1 - preparing to go to the polling station: a voter takes the following documents with
him/her to the polling station:
 Green National Registration Card
 Voter’s Card
Step 2 - Arrival at the polling station
 A voter lines up with other voters to wait for their turn to be allowed inside the
polling station to cast their vote.
 Voters are expected to observe all rules and regulations governing the polling station.
 Voters will be directed by an usher to the correct queue.
Step 3 - Inside the polling station ascertaining the identity of the voters.
 The voter shows the polling assistant his or her NRC and a Voter’s Card.
 The polling assistant checks the details on the NRC and Voter’s Card against those
appearing in the voter’s register.
Step 4 - Inking: all fingers of the voter are checked to see that there are no ink marks. The
absence of ink means that the voter in not voting for the second time on that particular day. It is
not allowed to vote twice. The right-hand thumb is then marked with indelible (difficult to wash
away) ink.
Step 5 - Issuance of Ballot Papers: the voter is issued with stamped ballot papers. If the voter has
been given ballot papers that are not stamped, he/she has the right to demand for stamped ones
because unstamped ballot papers are considered to be invalid when counting them.
Step 6 - Marking of Ballot Papers: the voter marks the ballot papers in the polling booth. Once a
voter is issued with a ballot paper, he/she must take care so that it does not become a spoiled one.
Thus, the voter shall not do the following:
 Write their name on the ballot paper.
 Write their signature or any mark that may identify them on the ballot paper.
 Place a mark on more than one candidate or write anything else except for the mark
X.
 Leave the ballot paper unmarked.
 Remove the ballot paper from the polling station.
 Come with a ballot paper or any other paper from outside the polling station.
Step 7 - Vote Casting: the voter deposits the marked ballot papers in the respective transparent
ballot boxes. The ballot boxes have different coloured lids as follows:
 For Presidential - Orange
 For National Assembly - Red
 For Mayoral/Council Chairperson - Purple
 For Local government (Councillor) - Black
 For Referendum - Brown
Step 8 - the voter walks out of the polling station.
9) Counting, Tabulating and Verification of the Results – votes cast are counted and added to come up
with a total for each candidate. The Electoral Commission of Zambia through Town Clerks or Council
Secretaries check on the results to ensure that election results contain correct figures and were a true
reflection of the votes cast. The spoiled ballot papers are also verified. Thereafter, the results are taken to
the Totalling Centre where verification of the same results is done to ensure that the counting was done
properly.
10) Announcement of results and declaration of winners – results for Local Government and Parliamentary
are announced by the Presiding Officers at the Constituency Totalling Centre, while those for the
Presidential are announced by the Electoral Commission Chairperson at the National Totalling Centre. The
one who declares the winning Candidate as President is the Electoral Commission of Zambia Chairperson.
The ones who announce results of Ward Councillors are called Presiding Officers while those who
announce results for Parliamentary elections are called Returning officers.
11) Resolving Election-related disputes and complaints – after the declaration of the winners of the
elections, the aggrieved candidates may petition the results through the Courts of Law. The Constitutional
Court is the one mandated with the responsibility of handling the disputes or complaints.
ELECTORAL CODE OF CONDUCT:
This is a set of rules and principles that regulates the conduct of all stakeholders before, during and after elections.
The stakeholders include the Electoral Commission of Zambia, Political Parties, Media Institutions, Election
Monitors, Election Observers, Election Agents, Zambia Police Services, and other Law Institutions. The Electoral
Commission of Zambia and various stakeholders agreed on the Electoral Code of Conduct to provide a level of
electoral playing field in Zambia. This code applies to all citizens and institutions in Zambia.
Political parties, candidates, monitors and observers are required to sign the Declaration of Compliance Form,
stating that they shall comply and be bound by the code of conduct. The Commission now has the power to
reprimand an erring political party, candidate or stakeholder for any violation of the code. The Commission also has
the power to revoke (withdraw) the accreditation of election agents, polling agents, monitors, observers or the media
where it is in the interest of public safety and security to do so.
It is, therefore, important that election officers familiarize themselves with the Electoral Code of Conduct so that
they know the kind of conduct electoral stakeholders should exhibit during elections. The code lists a range of
offences and penalties.
Electoral Offences:
An electoral offence is the violation or breach of electoral regulations or laws that govern the electoral process.
Electoral offences are committed at three stages of the electoral process which are: nomination day, campaign period
and poll day.
I. Offences at Nomination Day - there are various offences that are committed at nomination day. Examples
include:
 Returning Officers wrongly accepting or rejecting a nomination paper if they have been persuaded by
promises of money to assist or hinder any candidate.
 Persuading a Returning Officer to accept an invalid nomination paper.
 Threatening a Returning Officer to force him/her to accept an invalid nomination paper or reject a valid
nomination paper.
 Making a false statement to a Returning Officer or forge a nomination to make it seem valid.
 Falsely state that a candidate has withdrawn the nomination or died.
 Threatening another person to make such a person to stand or not to stand as a candidate.
 Threatening or using force to compel another person to sign or refuse to sign a nomination paper.
 Loitering in any public place within four hindered metres radius of the nomination centre
 Refusing to leave a nomination centre when ordered by an Election Officer.
II. Offences During Campaign Period - there are a number of offences that can be committed during the
campaign period. For example, it is an offence for a person to:
 offer money or goods and services to another person in an attempt to persuade that person to vote or
refrain from voting for a particular candidate.
 offer money or goods and services to another person in an attempt to persuade that person to join a
demonstration.
 disturb or disrupt a public meeting to prevent a candidate from canvassing (seeking) for support.
 cause violence or use any offensive language (insults) or engage in any conduct likely to lead to
violence or intimidation.
 carry or display firearm (personal weapon) at a political meeting or in a course of any match,
demonstration or other public gatherings of political nature.
 make false defamatory or inflammatory allegations concerning any person or political party in
connection with an election.
 use Government or Parastatal transport of facility for campaign purposes except for the President and
his/her Running Mate (Vice President).
 deface or destroy political party notices or posters.
 be in possession of another person’s Voter’s Card or Green National Registration Card.
III. Offences on the Poll Day - there are a number of offences that can be committed on poll day. For
example, it is an offence for a person to:
 canvass for votes and/or shout political slogans, anywhere within four hundred metres of the polling
station on poll day.
 Persuade people to refrain from voting anywhere within four hundred metres of the polling station.
 Post a political party notice or sign and/or persuade to vote for one candidate or another, within four
hundred metres of the polling station. Only the official notices that are posted by election staff are
allowed.
 Destroy, remove or deface the official notices posted by election offices.
 Prevent voter(s) from accessing a polling station by threats, violence, or other means of persuasion.
 Offer money or other goods and services to another person in order to persuade that person to vote or
refrain from voting for a particular candidate.
 Attempt to or vote more than once.
 Persuade a Presiding Officer to issue them with a ballot paper in an attempt to vote when they are not
eligible to vote.
 Impersonate another person in an attempt to vote under that person’s name.
 Be in possession of another person’s voter’s card.
 Be in possession of a ballot paper that has not been offered by a Presiding officer.
 Leave a polling station with a ballot paper.
 Deface or destroy a ballot paper.
 Force another person to disclose who they have voted for.
 Put in the ballot box anything other than a ballot paper.
 Remove anything from the ballot box before the close of the poll and before the Presiding Officer
officially opens the ballot box.
 Attempt to or persuade a Returning Officer who is responsible for the count to make a false count or
declaration.
 Fraudulently complete, alter or destroy a ballot paper or a voter’s card.
 Knowingly give false information to an Electoral Officer.
 Abrogate one’s oath of secrecy such as to ascertain, record and communicate the serial number of any
particular ballot paper or ascertain how it has been marked by the voter.
 Harass or assault a Commission member of staff.
Penalties:
For any of the above-mentioned offences, the maximum penalty shall be on first conviction liable to a fine not
exceeding two hundred thousand penalty units or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or both.
In addition, any person who is convicted of a corrupt practice (bribery, undue influence, impersonation) or an illegal
practice shall be disqualified from voting for a period of five years and shall also be disqualified from being
nominated as a candidate for the same period.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA

Before Zambia’s independence, the Local government was ruled by the British Colonial Administration through the
Central Government and Native Authorities. The Native Authorities fell under the Ministry of Native Affairs. The
Native Authorities consisted of Chiefs and other Traditional Leaders. The duties performed by Native Authorities
included:
 Collection of taxes
 Issuing license for dogs, stores, and bicycles
 Handling civil cases at Local Courts was done specifically by chiefs.
After 1964, the Ministry of Local Government became responsible for the administration of all local authorities in
the Country. Steps were taken to establish councils in rural areas, and most of the inherited rural local authorities
were based on traditional units of government, but they were too small to be either administrative or financially
viable. The new councils included chiefs appointed by the Minister of Local Government. These councils provided a
limited range of basic essential services such as schools, libraries, markets, and housing.
In 1965, a uniform pattern of local authorities throughout Zambia was established under the Local Government Act
number 69 and there were City, Municipal, Township and Rural Councils. All councils in a province were under a
Provincial Local Government Officer, while at district level, a Local Government Officer was in-charge.
Then in 1980, the Local Government Decentralisation Act was enacted. The Act allowed UNIP to take full
responsibility to control the operations of all councils in Zambia. It was at this point when, District Governors,
appointed by the President, took over from the Mayors and Council Chairpersons and all councils in the country
became District Councils. Reasons for the 1980 Decentralisation were:
 To reduce delays, as most decisions could be made on the spot instead of referring to headquarters.
 To make plans and programmes more relevant to local needs and conditions.
 To improve co-ordination between different government agencies in an area.
 To reduce the burden on senior staff at national level to improve their performance.
In 1991, the Decentralisation Act was amended. The new act introduced three types of local councils, these were
City, Municipal and District Councils. The MMD government wanted to give more powers to the councils so that
there was less dependence on central government for funds. This made the council to operate freely without
interference from political parties. Town Clerks and Mayors are found in City and Municipal Councils, while
Council Secretaries and Council Chairpersons are found in District Councils. This has continued to present;
however, the position of Mayor or Chairperson has now become elective.
FUNCTIONS OF LOCAL COUNCILS:

 Providing clean and safe water  Wastes disposal
 Providing accommodation and plots for  Collecting levies
development  Making by-laws
 Providing recreation facilities such as swimming  Providing educational facilities such as schools
pools and parks  Proving public health facilities and control of
 Providing and maintaining street lighting epidemics such as cholera
 Maintaining the environment  Controlling livestock movement
 Maintaining graveyards  Constructing and maintaining markets
 Maintaining roads  Awarding trading licenses to people.
 Town planning
THE HOUSE OF CHIEFS
The House of Chiefs is a forum through which Traditional Leaders (Chiefs) participate in governance. It consists of
5 Chiefs from each Province, elected by the Chiefs in a province, making a total of 50 chiefs in the House of Chiefs,
since Zambia has 10 provinces. The term of office for these elected chiefs is five years. A member can be re-elected
for a second term of five years after which he/she is not allowed to be re-elected for a third term.
The house elects the Chairperson and Vice-chairperson from among the members, annually (every year). The
assumption of office as Chairperson and Vice-chairperson rotates annually amongst the chiefs from each province.
The chairperson and the vice-chairperson take an oath of allegiance (loyalty) to the President. The clerk of the house
and other staffs carries out the administrative duties of the house. The functions of the house of chiefs include:
 consider and discuss a Bill relating to custom or tradition referred to it by the President, before the Bill is
introduced into the National Assembly.
 initiate, discuss and make recommendations to the National Assembly regarding socio-economic
development in the province.
 initiate, discuss and decide on matters relating to customary law and practice.
 initiate, discuss and make recommendations to a local authority regarding the welfare of communities in a
local authority.
 make proposals on areas in customary law that require codification.
 advise the Government on traditional and customary matters.
Among the problems faced by the house of chiefs is that it has no real influence on issues of governance and
development. It plays an insignificant advisory role, as its resolutions must be debated upon by the National
Assembly. Chiefs are not allowed to join a political party like Members of Parliament. A chief who seeks to hold
office in a political party or election or appointment to a state office, except that of councillor, shall abdicate
(renounce) the chief’s throne.
THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL LEADERS IN GOVERNANCE

Traditional leaders are held in high esteem in Zambia. Their advice is listened to by most of the people of Zambia. In
other words, they are greatly respected. For this reason, they can mobilise people to behave well and participate in
developmental activities. Since they are the custodians of culture, their major role is to preserve culture through
their activities and instructions.
 They encourage their people to uphold positive or good cultural practices and values. These include loyalty,
love, kindness, fairness, justice, and honesty. These are important virtues in promoting good governance.
 They initiate public discussions during village gatherings on matters that are related to culture and
development. Issues affecting the community are tackled. These include child marriages, child sacrifice,
forced marriages and general moral corruption. People are told about the dangers of such negative vices.
 They also control land in their communities. They help in allocating plots of land to their people. They
must ensure that fairness prevails and that there are no causes of grudges related to land issues in their
communities.
 They also help in settling disputes among their people, through advising, counselling, and disapproving
those who are in the wrong. Many of them are like fathers or mothers to their communities. This brings
them power and influence. It is this power which they use to guide their people for positive change.
TOPIC 3
CITIZENSHIP
 Explain citizenship
 State qualifications of a Zambian citizen
 Describe qualities of a good citizen
 Identify factors that hinder good citizenship
 Explain the rights and freedoms of a citizen
 Explain duties and responsibilities of a citizen
 Identify groups of people and citizens with special needs
THE CONCEPT OF CITIZENSHIP
The concept of citizenship has its origins in Greece (a European country). Citizenship is a state of belonging to a
particular country. It is a mutual relationship that exists between an individual and the nation to which he/she
belongs. The state guarantees an individual rights and freedoms, and in return, the individual is obliged (do a
service) to take part in civic and political processes of the state. Therefore, a Citizen is a member of a state who
enjoys all fundamental rights and privileges provided by a state, and in return, performs duties towards the state.
There are two aspects (the way it appears) of citizenship, these are Legal Aspect, and Moral Aspect.
A. LEGAL ASPECT: - A citizen is recognised by law and his/her rights are enshrined
(Protected within…) in the laws of the land. He/she must receive protection of the state whether within the
state or when abroad. He/she must enjoy total freedom of property ownership and political rights. When
one misuses this freedom, that individual is liable for prosecution.
B. MORAL ASPECT: - A citizen must have a sense of responsibility to fulfil all his/her obligations to the
state, such as obeying the law and defending the country. He/she must be self-disciplined and have self-
control. He/she must be good and have honourable sense to the state/family he/she belongs. One must be
ready to give back to the community to promote general happiness and common well-being of the people.
A citizen who does not comply with the moral aspect of citizenship is not liable for prosecution but may be
reprimanded by society.
TYPES OF CITIZENSHIP
There are two types of citizenship, namely, Natural Citizenship, and Naturalised Citizenship. Before we look at
them, it is important to understand the term Alien (Foreigner).
Definition of Alien: - an Alien or Foreigner is a person staying in a country which is not his/her own. An alien,
although resident in one country, owes allegiance (readiness of a citizen to protect his/her country in times of threat
and be able to do the duties of the country) to his/her own country. Aliens enjoy human rights but not political
rights. For instance, a Chinese staying in Zambia cannot take part in voting for leaders in Zambia.
An Alien does not always have complete freedom to acquire or sell land or property but is required to obey the laws
of the state in which he/she stays. An alien may be deported from the host state for misconduct or for committing
serious crimes. He/she owes no duty to the host country but may pay taxes. If the host country is at war with another
country, an alien is by law not allowed to participate in that war. Immigration laws of a country govern the entry and
status of aliens in the host country.
1. Natural Citizenship:
There are two rules that guide natural citizenship. These are the rule of Jus Sanguinis (blood) and the rule
of Jus Soli (place of birth). The rule of Jus Sanguinis considers citizenship based on blood relation or
descent. A child inherits the citizenship of his/her parents, regardless of where that child is born. Most
countries follow this rule because it was the first to define citizenship.
The rule of Jus Soli considers citizenship based on the place of birth. A person acquires a citizenship of a
country he/she is born. For example, a person born in Zambia from Chinese parents is a Zambian.
Countries that acknowledge both Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli result in having Dual Citizenship (a state of
belonging to two different countries). Zambia, in accordance with the 2016 National Constitution,
recognises dual citizenship. Other countries that recognise dual citizenship include Britain and the United
States of America.
2. Naturalized Citizenship:
This is a type of citizenship acquired by an alien or foreigner upon meeting the prescribed conditions.
However, a naturalised citizen can either be partial or complete.
 Partial citizenship – is a type where a naturalised citizen does not enjoy all the rights and
privileges of the country. For example, he/she has no right to vote.
 Complete citizenship – is a type which allows a naturalised citizen to enjoy all the rights and
privileges in the state.
The following are some of the prescribed conditions which one must follow to acquire citizenship:
(i) The rule of residence – an alien who lives in a host country for a certain period, may apply to
become a citizen that country if he/she wishes so. For example, an alien who has lived in Zambia
for at least 10 years, can apply for citizenship.
(ii) Marriage – allows a spouse to acquire citizenship of the wife or husband, but the host country
can demand the evidence of good character before issuing citizenship to the spouse.
(iii) Principle of declaration on a prescribed form – requires an alien to fill in a prescribed
application form and provide important documents declaring that his/her wants to apply for
citizenship in the host country. An alien must publish his/her declaration in the Government’s
daily newspaper.
(iv) Renunciation of previous citizenship – an alien is required to give up his/her previous
citizenship and take an oath of allegiance to the host country. This is known as expatriation.
However, this is not a case in a country that allows dual citizenship.
 A citizen—
(a) may renounce citizenship as prescribed; or
(b) shall be deprived of citizenship if that citizenship was acquired by means of fraud,
false representation, or concealment (hiding) of a material fact.
QUALIFICATIONS OF A ZAMBIAN CITIZEN.

According to the Zambian Constitution, Citizenship may be acquired by birth, descent, registration, or adoption in
accordance with the clearly described conditions for one to be a Zambian Citizen. The government makes sure that
citizens are clearly known and recognised by law. This is because the government has the responsibility over its
citizens of providing them with basic social services, protecting them and ensuring that they progress. The
government spends a lot of its revenue to fulfil its responsibilities over its people. Therefore, it makes sure that funds
are spent on its citizens rather than outsiders.
Part 4 of the 2016 amended Constitution of Zambia, Article 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 and 39 stipulates the following
conditions:
 A person born in Zambia is a citizen by birth if, at the date of that person’s birth, at least one parent of that
person is or was a citizen.
 A child found in Zambia who is, or appears to be, of not more than eight years of age and whose nationality
and parents are not known, shall be presumed to be a citizen by birth.
 A person born aboard—
(a) a registered ship or aircraft of a country, shall be deemed to have been born in the country of
registration of the ship or aircraft; or
(b) an unregistered ship or aircraft of a country, shall be deemed to have been born in that country.
 A person born outside Zambia is a citizen by descent if, at the date of that person’s birth, at least one parent
of that person is or was a citizen by birth or descent.
 A person is entitled to apply to the Citizenship Board of Zambia to be registered as a citizen if that person
has attained the age of eighteen years and—
(a) was born in Zambia and has been ordinarily resident in Zambia for a period of at least five
years.
(b) was born outside Zambia, has or had an ancestor who is, or was, a citizen and has been
ordinarily resident in Zambia for a period of at least five years.
(c) has been ordinarily resident in Zambia for a continuous period of at least ten years.
On dual citizenship, the constitution states that:
 A citizen shall not lose citizenship by acquiring the citizenship of another country.
 A citizen who ceased to be a citizen, before the 2016 Constitution was enacted, because of acquiring the
citizenship of another country, shall be entitled to apply.
Every Zambian citizen who has reached 16 years of age, receives a symbol of Zambian citizenship. This symbol is in
form of a Green National Registration Card, which is obtained from the Citizenship Board of Zambia.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD CITIZEN

Citizenship carries with it rights and responsibilities. It is about working for the good of the community in which one
lives. Therefore, a good Zambian citizen is one who is a good person to him/herself and to others. He/she is self-
respecting and respects others. The following are some of the qualities of a good citizen:
 Patriotism – a good citizen must have a sense of love and loyalty to a state, by observing the values and
principles of one’s country. A patriot is a person who has true love for his/her country. Such a person
always participates in those activities which promote unity and development for his/her country. Shunning
participation is not being fair to oneself and the country one belongs.
 Respect for Law – a good citizen obeys the laws of his/her country. Some of the laws might be faulty or
unjust, but a citizen is supposed to use peaceful means to oppose them, as provided by the constitution, to
show displeasure. Such means include using one’s vote, public speaking, writing through newspapers and
staging a peaceful demonstration in accordance with the laws.
 Self-control – a good citizen restrains him/herself from doing bad things. He/she does not involve
him/herself in activities that do not bring positive change to the community and the nation at large.
 Conscience – a good citizen has a sense of responsibility and service towards the community and the
nation. The democratic systems of government need great support from citizens to be maintained. A citizen
must be supportive to the good governance of his/her country. Conscience drives an individual to perform
his/her duties honestly and diligently.
 Empathy – a good citizen has concern or compassion for the well-being of others, especially for the
vulnerable people in society. His/her behaviour shows kindness.
 Perseverance – a good citizen has the willingness to attempt several times to accomplish intended goals.
FACTORS THAT HINDER GOOD CITIZENSHIP

 Poverty – a poor citizen may not be interested in national issues. This may cause them not to
participate, as they are preoccupied with finding means of survival. Poverty often makes some citizens
engage in anti-social activities such as theft, cheating and voter apathy. There is little contribution to
the progress of a nation when most of its citizens are living in abject poverty.
 Corruption – it makes people behave or act in dishonest ways. It promotes injustice and unfairness.
Any person can be denied fair hearing at any level of authority when those responsible to effect justice
are bribed. Corruption deprives people of their rights. Corruption, at whatever level, is a danger to the
citizenship of Zambia.
 Theft – where citizens lose their goods due to theft, there can never be peace and joy. High levels of
theft in any given society causes fear among the citizens and can bring discouragement. Where people
are discouraged, there is also little morale to contribute to the development of the nation.
 Selfishness – A selfish person lacks the concern for others and their values. Such people do not act
fairly, justly, or truthfully. He/she always seeks for personal interest at the expense of others.
Selfishness is a great enemy to national unity, harmony, and patriotism.
 Ignorance – an ignorant person often fails to differentiate between wrong and right, and this prevents
such citizens from making full contribution to national development.
 Defects in the electoral system – if a large section of the citizens have no confidence in the electoral
system, it can make them lose interest in the affairs of a state.
 Misinformation by the Media – newspapers, radio, television, and internet may twist the truth and
misinform the public to an extent that citizens are not able to access issues knowledgeably and
correctly.
 Laziness – there is no contribution that a lazy person makes to the development of a nation. Usually,
lazy people get involved in behaviours that are anti-social such as stealing, spreading rumours about
others. Such acts threaten peace in the community and can cause disunity and disharmony.
RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF CITIZENS

Citizens have rights (entitlements) that must be recognised and respected. A citizen is given special rights and
favour, compared to a non-citizen (an Alien). For example, a Zambian citizen is free to participate in all national
elections. This right is called franchise. Rights are divided into three categories, namely, Natural rights, Moral
rights, and Legal rights.
1) NATURAL RIGHTS: These are rights that are enjoyed by individuals in the state of nature. These
rights existed before the establishment of countries or nation states. They are natural and essential to
individuals whether the person is aware of them or not. For example, the right to life. All citizens are
equal in dignity. No citizen should be discriminated in any way or treated unfairly.
2) MORAL RIGHTS: These are rights acknowledged by the moral sense of the people. They exist due to
custom, long usage, and the strength of public opinion. No legal action can be taken against violation of
moral rights, but the way people feel about them is so strong that it is difficult for an individual to
deliberately violate them. For example, old person has a moral right to be looked after by his/her
children. However, if the children do not take care of their parent, he/she cannot sue them.
Nevertheless, public opinion will condemn them.
3) LEGAL RIGHTS: These are privileges given by the government of a nation and guaranteed by it.
These rights are justiciable (able to be evaluated and resolved by the courts). In other words, legal
rights are recognised by the state and the judiciary ensure their enforcement. They are enshrined in the
laws of the nation. There are three kinds of legal rights:
(i) Civil Rights:
 right to personal safety and freedom
 right to family life
 right to freedom of speech and expression
 right to assembly and association
 right to property
 freedom of conscience and religion
(ii) Political Rights: - these are rights that ensure that every person is given an opportunity to take
part in the affairs of a state. Democracy is only made possible by the active participation and
cooperation of all citizens. These rights include the following:
 right to vote
 right to belong to a political party
 right to be voted into public office
 right to criticize government
 right to form a political party
 right to petition to register grievance, either individually or collectively (as a
group)
(iii) Economic Rights:
 right to work
 right to adequate wages
 right to reasonable hours of work
DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A CITIZEN

 General Duties and Responsibilities of a Zambian Citizen
 To always express loyalty and patriotism to Zambia
 To participate fully in all public and civil activities
 To uphold and defend the constitution and laws of Zambia
 To desire to learn more and acquire useful knowledge that can contribute to the development of the
country
 To use all available resources and personal abilities to contribute to the advancement and welfare of the
nation
 To contribute in all possible ways to the rule of law and democratic governance in Zambia
 To offer defence and military service to the state whenever called upon in all matters related to national
interest
 To guard and protect public property and resource from misuse or deliberate damage
 To engage in all activities that fight corruption and all other criminal and antisocial activities
 To take care of the environment by protecting and conserving it.
 To do all that is necessary and possible in boosting unity and harmony among all the people of Zambia
 To pay taxes and dues legally due to the state
 Personal Responsibilities of a Citizen include:
 Taking care of oneself
 Supporting one’s family
 Adhering to morals, principles, and values of one’s society
 Respecting the rights and interests of others
 Civic Responsibilities or Duties of the Citizen include:

 Obeying the law
 Paying taxes
 Respecting the rights of others
 Being concerned about public issues
 Participating in civic activities such as voting
 Performing public service
 Observing and maintaining the security of the nation.
GROUPS OF PEOPLE WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
All the people with special needs are protected by the laws of Zambia. They are expected to be treated equally with
other people. Examples of people with special needs include refugees, the aged, and people with disabilities,
orphans, unemployed youths, and children.
 REFUGEES – these are people who leave their countries to seek safety and freedom in another country.
The causes can be persecution, war, natural disaster, or violence. Most refugees in Africa are due to internal
wars. Some refugees can flee their countries due to persecution on basis of one’s tribe, religion, race, or
political beliefs. The countries where refugees are found are known as countries of Asylum. The office of
the High Commissioner for Refugees investigates the plight of refugees.
Some refugees are referred to as the Internally Displaced Persons (IDP). These are the people who have
been forced to leave their homes and move to other places within their country, without having crossed
international borderlines.
 THE AGED – the elderly persons are people who have grown old and have limitations in doing certain
daily routine. Being elderly is not a crime and, therefore, they are entitled to all rights and freedoms as
enjoyed by other members of the society. Their dignity and respect must be upheld by the society and the
state. The government must give them care and assistance. The elderly persons who are at least the age of
65 years are commonly known as senior citizens.
 PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES – These are people who have impairment in any area in life. This
impairment can be physical such as being lame or deformation of any part of their body, mental weakness,
and abnormal emotional expressions. A person with disability is, therefore, referred to as one with a major
physical or mental impairment. Sometimes disabilities happen from the time of birth or can happen during
a person’s lifetime. All people with disabilities are protected by laws from any practice, tradition or custom
that tries to undermine their dignity, interest, welfare, or status. They should be given education,
employment, and shelter without discriminating them, so that they lead normal lives.
 ORPHANS – children without parents need care and support by providing basic needs for them. If no
support is given to them, they end up being street kids. The government should offer social security to
these.
 UNEMPLOYED YOUTHS – many youths have no employment. The absence of regular income subjects
these youths to extreme hardships. Some of them resort to crime and prostitution. The youths need skills to
enable them for employment.
 CHILDREN – these are all those human beings who are under the age of eighteen years. Children are
characterized as people with special needs because their bodies and mental capacities have not developed to
handle certain things. They are protected by law in Zambia. They should not be discriminated, neglected, or
subjected to any form of abuse by anyone.
CHAPTER 4
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN RIGHTS
By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:
 define Human Rights
 outline the historical development of Human Rights
 discuss the characteristics of Human Rights
 explain categories of Human Rights
 discuss the significance of Human Rights
DEFINITION
Human Rights are entitlements (claims and freedoms) that one has simply by the fact of being human. In other
words, human rights are entitlements that one has by virtue of being human. Every human being, regardless of one’s
colour, religion, age, sex, nationality, the geographical location or whether rich or poor, has the same claims and
freedoms. They are human rights because they are things you can be, do or have. These rights are there for your
protection against people who might want to harm or hurt you. Therefore, we can understand human rights to be the
basic rules for fair treatment of all human beings. They are naturally given by God.
Human rights constitute a set of norms governing the treatment of individuals and groups by states and non-state
actors based on ethical principles regarding what society considers fundamental (important) to a decent life. They
are based on shared values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect, and independence. These values are defined and
protected by law. in Zambia, Human rights are enshrined in Part III of the Zambian Constitution under the Bill of
Rights.
When human rights are not well known by people, abuses such as discrimination, intolerance, injustice, oppression,
and slavery can arise. Human rights are relevant to all of us, not just those who face repression or mistreatment. No
one has any right to deny another person any of these rights.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Human rights have always existed. The belief that everyone, by virtue of her or his humanity, is entitled to certain
human rights is new. Its roots, however, lie in earlier tradition and documents of many cultures; it took the catalyst
of World War II to propel human rights on to the global stage and into the global conscience.
Throughout much of history, people acquired rights and responsibilities through their membership in a group – a
family, indigenous nation, religion, class, community, or state. Most societies have had traditions like the “golden
rule” of “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” The Hindu Vedas, the Babylonian Code of
Hammurabi, the Bible, the Quran (Koran), and the Analects of Confucius, an ancient religion of China, are five of
the oldest written sources which address questions of people’s duties, rights, and responsibilities. Other documents
mentioning individual human rights are:
 The Magna Carta of 1215
 The Charter of Mande of 1222
 The English Bill of Rights of 1689
 The French Declaration on the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789
 The US Constitution and Bill of Rights of 1791
The Magna Carta was the earliest document in the world in which human rights were recognised. In Africa, the
Charter of Mande was the earliest. However, the above listed documents were not universal in nature because they
often excluded women, children, slaves, and persons of certain social, religious, economic, or political groups.
 The Charter of Mande – 1222

In the year 1222, Sundiata Keita, the King of the Empire of Mali, also called Mande, proclaimed the Charter of
Mande or Oath of Mande at his coronation. It was the result of a joint effort by elders, noblemen and associations of
the country, who had been commissioned by the King to draw up the principles upon which the empire should be
ruled. The Charter of Mande opens with an essential statement on the equality of human lives. The Charter of Mande
states that:
“Every human life is a life … there is no life more ‘ancient’, or more
respectable than another life, as no life is worthier than another life.”
For this reason:
“Every life being a life,
Every damage afflicted on a life needs repair.
Therefore, nobody may, without reason, oppose his neighbour,
Nobody may do his neighbour a wrong,
Nobody may torment another human being.”
The Charter of Mande also contains some paragraphs addressing two main evils: hunger and slavery. It condemns
slavery and guarantees that nobody would be captured as a slave. The Charter promised to eradicate (remove
completely) all forms of hunger:
“Hunger is not a good thing,
Slavery is not a good thing either.
There is no worse calamity than these two things, in this world.
If we have quiver and arrow,
Famine will not kill anybody in Mande …
(and) no village will ever be destroyed
by wars fought with the aim to capture slaves …
As from today,
The very substance of slavery is eradicated …
Within the borders of Mande.”
 The United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights – 1948

Member countries of the United Nations pledged (promised) to promote respect for the human rights of all. To do
this, they formed a Commission on Human Rights and gave it the duty of drafting a document putting in writing the
meaning of fundamental rights and freedoms that had been declared in the Charter. The commission was chaired by
Eleanor Roosevelt, wife of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the then President of the United States of America. The
Commission came up with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which was adopted on 10th
December 1948 by 56 member states. The UDHR is a set of principles by which United Nations members commit
themselves to providing all people of the world with human dignity. Human rights principles support the belief of a
free, just, and peaceful society.
The adoption of the UDHR meant that how a government treated its citizens was no longer a domestic issue, but a
matter of international concern.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

Characteristics are distinguishing features that set something apart. Human rights have distinct qualities that
distinguish them from ordinary rights. The following are the characteristics of human rights:
 Human rights are INHERENT – they are not granted by any person or authority. They exist
independently of the will of an individual or group of persons. Human rights do not have to be bought,
earned, or inherited; they belong to people simply because they are human. Inherent is that which is a
naturally given gift. We are all born with them. They cannot be transferred from one person to the other.
They are a birth right. Whether one realises that they have them or not, they are still there.
 Human rights are INALIENABLE – they cannot be taken away nor given away except through judicial
means; no one has the right to deprive (take away) another person of them for any reason. They are
unchangeable and undeniable. People still have human rights even when the laws of their countries do not
recognise them, when they violate them. There are specific situations that can make the human rights to be
removed from someone. For example, every person has the right to freedom, but in case of criminal acts,
one can be imprisoned by a court judgment.
 Human rights are UNIVERSAL – they apply to everyone to all people everywhere in the world. They
apply irrespective of one’s origin, status, or condition or place where one lives. They are enforceable
without national border. They are assured by law internationally. This law demands the world governments
wherever they are, to protect and promote human rights. Governments are obliged to resist from engaging
in acts which can or may seem to violate these rights.
 Human rights are INDIVISIBLE – they are not capable of being divided. Once one right is violated,
others are equally affected. This means all human rights depend on each other. They are interdependent and
should be enjoyed in totality. If a person is denied the freedom of association, his/her freedom to free
speech and movement will certainly be affected. This is because he/she is not free to associate with others;
he/she cannot speak with them freely.
 Human rights are NON-DISCRIMINATORY – all human rights rotate around the principle of equality.
Everyone must be treated equally in relation to each specific human right. No one should ever be favoured
at the expense of others. Therefore, there is no human right that can promote any form of discrimination.
This principle is greatly emphasised in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in Article (1)
that states that “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
CATEGORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS

At global level, human rights are classified into three categories according to their evolution or development process.
The different categories are referred to as ‘generations.” These generations are not in order of importance, but in the
order in which they were recognised historically in the development of human rights.
(i) Civil and Political Rights: these are also called First Generation Rights. They are first generation rights
because they were the first rights to be recognised. These are those rights which are made to protect
individuals’ freedom from governments or private institutions. Due to these rights, governments are obliged
not to interfere in the life of the individual. They give freedom to individuals to participate freely in the
civil and political affairs of their countries. Civil rights, generally, refer to the rights of citizens. Examples
of these “liberty-oriented” rights include:
 right to life
 right to personal liberty
 right to security of the individual
 right to vote
 right to join any political party of your choice
 right to religion
 right to a speedy and fair trial
 protection from slavery and forced labour.
 protection of freedom of conscience
 protection from discrimination on grounds of race, age, sex, religion, and many others
 freedom from torture and inhuman treatment
 freedom of opinion
 freedom of assembly, association, movement, and expression
(ii) Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: these are also known as Second Generation Rights. This category
consists of rights that are economic, social, and cultural in nature. In other words, those rights which
directly affect one’s economic, social, and cultural life. Their realisation brings about social justice, dignity,
and equity. Governments are required to take deliberate action or steps to bring about conditions in which
every person enjoys adequate standards of economic, social, and cultural rights. These “security-oriented”
rights include:
 Right to employment
 Right to education
 Right to a reasonable standard of living
 Right to food
 Right to shelter (adequate housing)
 Right to health (medical care)
 Right to social security
(iii) Collective Rights (Solidarity Rights): these are also known as Third Generation Rights. They are the most
recently (latest) identified rights. These are rights that belong to groups of people. They are enjoyed
collectively. These are there for protection from attacks on group identity and group interests. The most
important collective right is the right to self-determination.
This category has rights that go beyond the mere civil and social rights, as expressed in many progressive
documents of International Law. They include the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment, the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and
other pieces of generally desirable Soft Law. These are called soft law because they have not been enacted
into legally binding documents. The difficulty in enacting them into legally binding documents is because
of the principle of sovereignty which respects the decisions of nations. The other reason is that of the
influence and power of nations that might go against the provisions of the rights. These rights are best
described as solidarity rights because they require international cooperation and aim at community building.
Examples of these rights include:
 right to self-determination
 right to clean water
 right to safe sanitation
 right to participation in cultural heritage
 right to live in an environment that is protected from destruction.
 right to natural resources
 right to inter-generational equity and sustainability
WAYS BY WHICH HUMAN RIGHTS ARE VIOLATED

Since human rights are the rights that must be enjoyed by every human being, they must be respected and protected.
There are sometimes when these rights are violated. Violations exist in every part of the world. This is not
acceptable, and it is a grave offence. It is, therefore, imperative (extremely important) for all citizens to know their
rights can be abused by the government, private institutions, or individuals. The ways by which human rights are
violated include:
(i) Detention without trial – this is when a person is held in prison beyond 48 hours without having
received fair trial in courts of law. Every citizen is entitled to fair trial in the courts of law irrespective
of the offence he/she is thought to have committed.
(ii) Discrimination – this is the setting apart a person or group of people in a negative way. Any form of
discrimination, whether based on colour, tribe, height, or any other factor is a violation of human
rights. Discrimination often occurs against a group of people who are a minority. It can be a religious
group, a tribe, or a race. These can be discriminated by being treatment as others.
(iii) Corporal punishments – this can be beating a person with a stick or any other tool. This is a violation
of that person’s right because such a punishment can cause physical damage to one’s body.
(iv) Child labour – children have weak bodies which cannot withstand certain conditions. Where a child is
assigned labour outside home, is a violation of that child’s human rights. Even at home, heavy labour
is an abuse. This can include digging pits, carrying heavy stones and luggage.
(v) Denying people, the right to own property – every person has a right to own property. Therefore,
refusing a person to buy or own property is a violation of that person’s right to own personal property.
Taking away a person’s property without consent or compensation is a form of violation of human
rights. In case of national interest or other reasonable case, the government can legally take away an
individual’s property. This is done after the compensation has been made.
(vi) Sexual Assault – this is when a person is forced into a sexual act. It can be defilement or rape.
Defilement is when a child (one who is below 16 years) is sexually used by another person. Rape is
when an adult person is forced into an act of having sex. This is one of the common ways girls’ and
women’s rights are abused. It is either sexual assault or sexual harassment.
(vii) Human trafficking – this is the illegal way of carrying human beings from one place to the another
with the intention of taking advantage of them. It can be taking young girls to another place to use
them as sex workers or maid servants. This can also take a form of treating women as commodities for
sale instead of human beings.
(viii) Depriving one of resources needed for well-being – there are certain resources that can enable one to
live a modest life or to survive. It is an abuse to deny a person of such things as, food, clothing, shelter,
and safe water. A person should never be punished for his/her wrongs by depriving them of such
things.
(ix) Denial of a person the right to privacy of home – deliberate interference with the privacy of a
person’s home is an abuse. Any person or group of people getting into any other person’s home
without permission is unacceptable. Even security agents are not supposed to get into someone’s home
and search it without proper authorization.
(x) Denial of a person to belong to culture – every individual is born in a certain culture. Therefore,
everyone has the right to enjoy and develop one’s culture and identity. It is an abuse to use any means
to prevent any person to belong to a culture of his/her liking.
(xi) Abuse of women – women are one of the vulnerable groups of people whose rights are abused daily.
Women are commonly beaten by their husbands in homes.
TOPIC SUMMARY: Every person in the world must enjoy basic fundamental human rights from birth to death.
These rights apply to human beings regardless of nationality, religion, race, sex, language, or ethnic groupings.
These rights are in different categories and it is necessary for people to be aware of these rights.
CHAPTER 5
CORRUPTION
SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES
 describe corruption
 discuss types of corruption
 explain causes of corruption
 explain effects of corruption
 identify institutions that fight against corruption in Zambia
 identify the role of public officers, community, and the youth in fighting corruption
DEFINITION
The definition of corruption, according to the Anti-Corruption Commission Act Number 3 of 2012, should be
understood in two ways as follows:
1. BRIBERY: soliciting, accepting, obtaining, giving, promising, and offering a gratification as an
inducement or reward for a favour. A gratification is any payment in cash or kind.
2. ABUSE OF PUBLIC OFFICE: misuse or abuse of public office by doing arbitrary (based on
individual judgment) acts which are against the state’s and citizen’s interests.
Today, corruption has become a wide term to mean the abuse of public office for personal gain. It is the abuse of
entrusted power and authority for personal gain. It is equated to different forms of bribery in public office. However,
the term corruption is very wide. It refers to acts of dishonest, fraud, deception, and all other wrongs ways a person
can use to get what he or she should not get by law.
Corruption involves squandering, embezzlement, and misallocation of public resources. It involves taking bribes and
receiving illegal payment in return for a favour/ an official act. This can be illustrated by a Civil Servant who
demands for extra payment from a service provider to award him or her a tender (contract) to supply goods to
government. It can be civil servant using public office to take advantage of others or the public. A government
worker can use fake companies to supply goods to the government at excessive prices. This worker can be behind
the formation of the fake company contracted to carry out a transaction with the government.
TYPES OF CORRUPTION
Corruption can be categorised as:
1. Petty Corruption
2. Grand corruption
3. Political (electoral) corruption.
1. PETTY CORRUPTION – that which occurs at a small scale at different levels of government. It involves
small value such as K100.00. For instance, chicken, bread and may include:
 Soliciting or offering of bribes to provide or acquire services. E.g., driving licence, police bond, or
school places.
 Unreasonable delay, omission, or refusal to perform duties. E.g., to issue a permit, licence,
certificate, or payment.
 Failure to declare interest or gifts. E.g., chicken from a learner.
Petty corruption can involve exchange of gifts for certain other favours. For example, a businessperson can give
a gift of a flat screen television set to a tax collector/ official to undervalue a few of his or her goods. In this
way, businesspersons use gifts to pay less tax to the government. It can also involve selling government jobs to
the candidates seeking for employment.
2. GRAND CORRUPTION – the term grand refers to something that is massive. With grand corruption, it refers
to corruption that involves exceptionally large sums of money. It generally occurs at the highest levels of
government operations whereby; it cannot be easily blocked by the different departments of the government. It
involves large amounts of such value as a vehicle, K200,000.00 and may take the form of the following:
 Fraudulent or unlawful acquisition, diversion, disposal of public property/ funds. E.g., motor
vehicles.
 Wilful failure to comply with procedure relating to management of public affairs. E.g., tender/
contract procedure for procuring medicine.
 Bribes about contract or procurement of goods, works and services. E.g., undue insurance for
teachers’ houses, health centres, roads.
Grand corruption can also involve paying hundreds or thousands of ghost civil servants. Ghost workers mean
those workers who are reflected in the records and payroll but do not exist physically. The money that is paid to
them is taken by an individual or a few dishonest individuals. The more the ghost workers, the more the
government loses money. Grand corruption is sometimes the same as political corruption since it can be possible
in most cases by the involvement of political leaders at the highest level of government in a country.
3. POLITICAL OR ELECTORAL CORRUPTION – this is mainly the use of political power to illegally gain
advantage of others. A person holding a political office can use it to illegally gain money or favour. It mainly
occurs during election period whereby politicians engage in different forms of illegal activities to win elections.
Some of these activities involve asking for company contributions from businesspeople with promise to give
them commercial favours in case a contestant won election. Political or electoral corruption relates to vote
buying and include distribution of any unauthorised items to the electorates during election campaigns, e.g.,
sugar and cash.
OTHER FORMS OF CORRUPTION

There are other forms of corruption that are common at all levels of government administration. The following
are some of them:
I. BRIBERY – this is giving something in exchange for a service or anything to gain an unfair
advantage. This advantage can be going over a formal regulation, paying less than the required
fees, entering a place which is out bound, speeding up the payment process, getting grants from
government or tempering with court proceedings.
II. NEPOTISM – this is the practice of favouring one’s relatives at the expense of the public or the
legible candidates. This practice gives one’s relatives advantage over others, when it comes to
employment, promotion at workplaces, pay rise, allowances and other opportunities that come by
holding a public office or employment. Nepotism seeks to give extra privileges and positions of
power and authority to relatives.
III. EXTORTION – this form of corruption thrives on threatening victims. It is using powers or
authority that comes with a public office to force someone to yield to one’s demands. Extortion
can be done by threatening to destroy one’s reputation, dismissal from work, withholding
payment or inflicting harm with the purpose of forcing the victim to yield to demands of
extortionist. The demands are always for self-gain. It can be demand for money, a service,
property, or a political favour.
IV. EMBEZZLEMENT – this is misuse or misallocation of funds or property to which one has been
entrusted. It is only possible with the person who has access to funds or assets and can illegally
take control over them. It is called Graft, if a person with a position in political office uses public
funds for personal gain.
V. PATRONAGE – this is a system by which one holding a public office favours contracts,
appointments, promotions or pay rise to other people in return for political support. This system
goes over the formal regulations or official rules to achieve personal interests. Patronage is always
built up to gain political support during elections or when passing a specific legislation.
VI. CRONYISM – this is the practice of partiality in awarding jobs and other advantages to friends
or trusted colleagues. It involves government officials doing favours for their friends. For
example, a traffic officer getting a friend’s traffic fine cancelled; or an official in charge of
awarding of government tender (contracts), favouring a tender from a friend’s company even
though better or cheaper tenders were submitted.
VII. JUDICIAL CORRUPTION – judicial corruption is the misuse of public office related to courts
of law involving magistrates, judges, and justices. Judicial corruption can lead to biased judgment
of those who have not corrupted the court officials. A judge that has been corrupted can dismiss a
criminal case that is obvious. Instead, he/she can convict the innocent and acquit a criminal.
CAUSES OF CORRUPTION
There are many causes of corruption in our country. Some of the causes seem to be genuine, but corruption is an
unacceptable practice in our society. There is no factor that can be justified as the right reason for being corrupt.
Greed and dishonest are the overriding causes of corruption.
 Social Causes include: Weak religious and moral teachings, unethical and immoral leadership, widespread
illiteracy, lenient punishment to offenders, indifference of people to corrupt officials, selfish politicians,
desire to gain favours from government officials.
 Economic Causes include: Low wages/salaries, wide income disparities, inadequate social economic
services, high tax charges.
 Organisation Causes include: Unnecessary long procedures (red tape), lack of the independence of the
judiciary, lack of press freedom, non-existence of service standards.
(i) UNETHICAL AND IMMORAL LEADERSHIP: There are some leaders who are generally immoral and
therefore, appointment in positions of power cannot change their attitude. These do not have moral
accountability. They are greedy. Being greedy is having excessive desire to possess wealth and property. It
is about acquiring more than one’s needs. The danger of greedy people is that they tend to deprive others of
basic needs, survival, and future opportunities for a better life. It is the greedy of wealth which motivates
people to be corrupt. Greedy people are only concerned with accumulation of material and money. They
engage in corruption as a normal way of their lives even though they have plenty. Social values such as
honesty and unselfishness do not matter to them.
(ii) WIDESPREAD ILLITERACY: Corruption or corrupt leaders take advantage of illiterate people to
swindle national resources without much resistance. This is because a population that is largely illiterate is
not able to fight corruption/ their rights. Illiterate people cannot tell whether their leaders are misusing
resources or not.
(iii) INDIFFERENCE OF PEOPLE TO CORRUPT OFFICIALS: Public views about corruption play an
important role in fighting corruption. In Zambia, corruption is tolerated by some people who think it is
normal because of the economic hardships. People have powers to resist certain vices in their leaders.
However, if they do not mind about those vices and voice out their dissatisfaction, leaders cannot change by
themselves. For instance, national government misallocation or misuse of resources and they do not rise and
denounce such behaviours, leaders will become more extravagant.
(iv) SELFISH POLITICIANS: Some politicians have personal interests than offering service to the nation.
They look for opportunities to fulfil their selfish interests, and corruption is one of the ways they use to get
what they want. When one becomes a politician with the purpose of enriching oneself, there is nothing that
would stop him/her from being corrupt because there is not much money in political appointments for one
to become wealthy. These seek for illegal contribution to their campaigns from businesspeople and those
who also want to take advantage of them.
(v) DESIRE TO GAIN FAVOURS FROM GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS: Some industrialists and
businesspeople are motivated to give bribes to gain favours from civil servants and politicians who are
strategically located. These can be Permanent Secretaries, Chief Accounting Officers, or Ministers dealing
with awarding of contracts and local leaders who normally have the final say on budgets. These are targeted
by the businesspeople so that they can gain advantage over their fellow competitors in business.
(vi) LOW WAGES AND SALARIES: In most developing countries, workers are paid little wages and salaries
as compared to the cost of living. People work to earn a living by being able to meet all their basic needs.
Once they are unable to meet their basic needs in the proper ways, there is high temptation for them to
resort to some means which are unacceptable by law. Most would engage themselves in corruption to
supplement their lawful income.
(vii) WIDE INCOME DISPARITIES: In some government departments, some workers who are slightly above
others in rank are paid far too much higher wages than those below them. Sometimes the disparities
(differences) tend to force the lowly paid to resort to corrupt means to try to earn as those who are highly
paid.
(viii) HIGH TAXES CHARGED: Sometimes governments can impose heavy taxes on certain items. Some
people who do not want to pay the statutory taxes resort to bribing tax officials so that they underpay the
levies.
(ix) UNNECESSARY LONG PROCEDURES (RED TAPE): Some procedures that officers expected to
follow in workplaces may unnecessarily be too long. The officers take advantage of such delays to demand
kickbacks for fast action.
(x) LACK OF POLITICAL WILL: Sometimes governments are not willing to deal with corruption firmly.
The government can have incredibly good laws against corruption, but if the leaders at all levels do not
have the will to fight corruption, the laws are rendered ineffective. For instance, those who may have been
cited in cases of corruption may not be tried as according to the law by those whose duty is to do so. Due to
lack of political will, the government may not thoroughly follow up such cases to stamp out corrupt
tendencies.
(xi) LACK OF PRESS (MEDIA) FREEDOM: The media plays an important role in exposing cases of
corruption. The media should investigate corrupt activities or practices. In countries where press freedom is
lacking, the media is not free to expose corrupt practices, especially those of committed by high-ranking
government officials.
(xii) LACK OF TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY: If a government lack checks and balances,
there is mismanagement and misuse of public funds.
(xiii) LACK OF INDEPENDENCE OF THE JUDICIARY: Courts may not act independently on matters of
corruption if they are influenced by outside forces such as the executive.
(xiv) PUBLIC REACTION: Public view about corruption plays an important role in fighting corruption. In
Zambia, corruption is tolerated by some people who think it is normal because of the economic hardships.
EFFECTS OF CORRUPTION
The effects of corruption are very unpleasant and devastating on any given society. They hinder a country’s
economic development. A corrupt country will never prosper economically as its resources are not properly utilized.
The following are some of the most common effects of corruption in society:
 It makes those involved in it become rich at the expense of other citizens
 Widespread dissatisfaction among citizens
 Increases poverty
 Undermines good governance and democracy
 Undermines development
 Undermines the rule of law
 Undermines peace and security
 Erodes standards and procedures
 Reduces investor confidence
 Lowers the quality of services delivery
 Increases crimes
 Weakens institutions
 Hinders the enjoyment of human rights
 Creates high levels of discontentment
 Increases inequality in society
 Leads to underdevelopment
 Brings about serious environmental degradation.
A. WIDESPREAD DISATISFACTION AMONG CITIZENS – citizens feel cheated by those in

government. People hate to be cheated. When they realise that taxes paid are not well utilized, they become
bitter with the government in general. This leads to several negative responses from the citizens. They can
demonstrate or strike or can even take up arms to fight.
B. CORRUPTION INCREASES POVERTY – corruption increases poverty among the majority citizens in
the country as a few have more wealth. Since the funds that are embezzled by the government officials were
meant to improve the living conditions of the ordinary people, they end up not benefiting. The free services
they would have received from government, e.g., medicines, are not there and therefore, they must pay for
them. This means that poverty levels increase, as the money spent on these services would have been used
on other things.
C. CORRUPTION UNDERMINES GOOD GOVERNANCE AND DEMOCRACY – When leaders are
involved in corruption, they tend to interpret government regulations haphazardly to get what they want. In
this way, the formal way of handling government business is ignored. This affects the general
administration and principles like accountability and transparency are often ignored.
D. CORRUPTION WEAKENS INSTITUTIONS – Good governance is impossible without strong
administrative institutions such as the Police, Government Inspectorate, the Anti-Corruption Commission,
and the Drug Enforcement Commission. However, these institutions can easily be weakened by officials
who are corrupt. Corruption always interferes with the proper and formal ways institutions carry out their
activities. Where there are weak institutions, there are always injustice, ineffective service to people and
wastage of government resources.
E. CORRUPTION ERODES STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES – Corruption distorts/ erodes standards
because it enables those who are less deserving to reach goals ahead of those of great merit. When bribes, in
whatever form, are paid by candidates to be admitted into institutions of learning such as colleges and
universities instead of gaining admission on merit, even those who do not deserve are admitted. This results
in the lowering of education standards of the country, thus, slowing down the development of the country.
Tender procedures are sometimes not followed when awarding contracts. A purchaser or buyer disqualify
potential suppliers. This can also be that the supplier may offer a bribe to receive favours from the
purchaser.
F. CORRUPTION INCREASES CRIME – When corruption is rampant, there are high cases of crime. This
is because corruption itself is a crime! The government is there to make sure that people are treated fairly
and get justice. However, corrupt civil servants cannot treat people equally and fairly. They always favour
those who give them bribes. In most cases, poor people suffer the most, because criminals cannot be
prosecuted due to corruption.
G. CORRUPTION UNDERMINES PEACE AND SECURITY – When corruption takes place in offices
such as the National Registration Offices, Passport Office and Immigration Office, people with ill
intentions may easily enter the country. Such people endanger the security of the nation.
H. CORRUPTION LEADS TO LESS INVESTMENT – Investors are business-minded people. They only
invest where they expect to make profits and they always do not give free money to people. This makes it
hard for them to invest in an environment where government officials at every level ask for bribes before
offering services. Instead, investors look for some other places to invest where there is no or less
corruption.
I. CORRUPTION & ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT – Many forms of corruption involve
mismanagement of public funds resulting in underdevelopment. Corruption effect on the economy is clearly
seen in money laundering activities, tax evasion and other economic crimes which lead to economic
instability. This deprives the country of much needed revenue.
Since corruption involves the embezzlement of government funds, government policies on development
cannot be implemented properly. Funds that are meant to build roads, bridges, and other social
infrastructure such as schools, hospitals are misallocated or misused and, in the end, the construction of
such facilities fails or is not done properly or poorly or below the expected standards.
There are also various forms of public property that corrupt people may mismanage, e.g., equipment and
buildings. The national budget and public management regulations put in place control measures, but
corrupt people ignore these controls so that they get money or property or both from government.
Corruption in trade results in reducing government revenue. It mainly takes place at border points and at
times when the people involved in business need to pay tax. Ultimately, corruption slows down the rate of
development by preventing citizens from benefiting from national wealth.
J. CORRUPTION & THE ENVIRONMENT – Corruption can cause serious environment degradation,
hence, affect lives of various forms. If the people who have been entrusted with the responsibility of taking
care of the environment, such as the Forestry Department who prevent indiscriminate cutting down of trees,
accept bribes, deforestation can occur. Similarly, pollution can increase if the people who should promote a
clean and safe environment such as the Zambia Environmental Management Authority (ZEMA) accept
bribes. The final effect would be loss of habitat; flora (plants) and Fauna (animals), climate change, and
loss of income from tourists.
INSTITUTIONS THAT SPEARHEAD THE FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION

Zambia is one of the African countries with several institutions and strong laws against corruption. These have been
gradually established and some modified over a time as way of making sure that corruption is stopped in Zambia.
Some of these institutions include:
1) Anti -Corruption Commission (ACC)
The Anti-Corruption Commission is the official institution established by government and mandated to lead the
fight against corruption in Zambia. It was established in 1980 by an Act of Parliament and became operational in
1982. It is composed of a board of five commissioners and a directorate appointed by the president and subject
to Parliament’s approval. The ACC is in-charge of investigating and prosecuting corruption cases. It also
conducts awareness-raising and public education campaigns and runs a free hotline for reporting suspicions of
corruption. The Anti-Corruption Commission is an autonomous corporate body with a slogan “A corrupt-free
Zambia begins with me,” which enshrines the general fight against corruption. They encourage everyone to join
the fight by reporting any corrupt practices seen to the Commission. The Anti-Corruption Commission uses the
following methods in its fight against corruption:
a) Prevention - by undertaking necessary and effective measures to prevent corruption in public and private
sectors. It also makes sure that any work methods, or procedures prone to corruption are revised. To do this,
there is a Commission Prevention Department (CPD) which conducts managerial accountability workshops
in both public and private sectors to set standards for accountability within the institutions. The ACC
coordinates with all the government ministries, departments, and agencies together with private
organisations in the fight against corruption.
b) Community Education - the community is educated on matters relating to corruption such as dangers and
effects of corruption. This is done through the Commission’s Community Relations Department (CRD) in
collaboration with Civil Society Organisations (CSOs). The department uses radio and television
programmes, public lectures, workshops and many more. Members of the community are trained on how to
prevent and fight corruption. Through sensitization, it encourages groups and individuals to participate in
the fight.
c) Investigations and prosecution – under this approach, the Commission receives and investigates
complaints of suspected corrupt practices and if evidence is found, prosecution follows. The ACC is always
alerted to intervene where cases of corruption has been sighted.
2) The Zambia Police Service

The Zambia Police Service has been charged with an important role in the fight against corruption. With this
establishment, the Police Professional Standards Unit is charged with the responsibility of dealing with Police
abuse and corrupt practices in the system. They investigate and arrest suspected corrupt officers. The police also
investigate, and arrests suspected corrupt persons.
3) The Directorate of Public Prosecution (DPP)

The DPP is the lead prosecutor of the government cases against other individuals and parties. It oversees
investigations initiated by the Zambia Police Service to ensure that they are conducted in accordance with the
law and undertakes criminal proceedings. Since this is an extremely sensitive office in fighting corruption, it
must be well staffed to be able to fight all forms corruption. The DPP was transformed into the National
Prosecution Authority in May 2013.
4) Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU)

An independent FIU was formed in 2010 as part of the government’s wider struggle against money laundering,
terrorist financing and other serious offences, but has not yet fully developed the capacity to take the lead in
investigating financial crimes. Among other things, the unit is responsible for the receipt, requesting, analysing,
disclosure and dissemination of Suspicious Transaction Reports. The FIU has limited intervention powers to
freeze suspected proceeds of crime while referring the case to investigators to pursue.
5) The Office of the Auditor General

It is the supreme audit institution. As with other anti-corruption institutions, the head of office is appointed by
the President subject to parliamentary approval. It is responsible for auditing government institutions. It does
this by reviewing, assessing, checking, and examining all the revenues received and how they are spent by the
government ministries and departments. Its major responsibility is to ensure that public funds allocated by the
parliament are used for the intended purpose. It also audits the Judicature, accounts relating to stock and stores
of government and accounts of state-owned enterprise and corporation. This institution does not impose
sanctions against public officials but refers cases to relevant authorities. It fights corruption by exposing alleged
corrupt practices and misuse of public funds. This is done by publishing an annual report highlighting the
loopholes that need to be tightened, the wastage that occurred and the revenue that was received but not
reflected as received. It is through auditing that the office fights corruption in the country.
6) The Public Protector (Ombudsman Institution)
This office was established to replace the office of Investigator General, also known as Ombudsman. This is by
virtue of Article 243 of the 2016 amended Constitution. The Public Protector is the chairperson for the
Commission for Investigations. This office carries out investigations on a wide variety of complaints which
include corruption cases which may include misallocation of funds, misapplication of regulations and laws. This
office holds the government accountable for its actions and decisions. It exercises some oversight on the way the
government carries its constitutional role. This institution also serves to promote practices of good governance
within public institutions in the delivery of public services to the general public.
CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS (CSOs) INVOLVED IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION

Civil Society Organisations also play an important role in promoting integrity, transparency, and good moral
behaviour in public and private institutions. Civil Society is a general term that involves a large section of people,
non-governmental organisations, and international agencies. The people involved in civil society range from
diplomats, aid-workers and professionals like Teachers, Lawyers and Engineers. These can be involved in different
sectors such as education, law, charity, and religious activities. Since these are widespread in their operations, they
can an important role in fighting corruption. They can engage and sensitise the communities in which they operate
the dangers of corruption and how to stop it. They can make reports on corruption and forward them to the right
authorities. The following are some of the most prominent and established civil society organisations that deal with
corruption issues:
I. Transparency International Zambia (TIZ)
It was established in June 2000, formally registered in January 2001, and officially launched on 20 th
June 2001. TIZ is the Zambian chapter of Transparency International (TI) which exclusively focus on
corruption. Thus, the main goal of TIZ is to contribute to the reduction of corruption in Zambia.
II. Foundation for Democratic Process (FODEP)
It is one of the oldest CSOs in Zambia. It was established in 1991 with the objective of promoting
democracy in Zambia. Among other things, FODEP also focuses on anti-corruption activities. It
conducts awareness programmes by educating the public on corruption in the electoral process.
III. The Media
The media has an important role to play in reduction of corruption. The print media, television, radio,
and the internet (social media), inform the public about corruption issues within the society. The role
of the media is to dig deeper and carry out research on any cases of corruption. This is called
investigative journalism. They investigate and expose corrupt practices. By so doing, the media
discourages people from engaging in corrupt practices.
WHISTLE-BLOWERS’ PROTECTION ACT

In 2010, Parliament enacted the Public Interest Disclosure Act also known as the Whistle-blowers’ Protection Act.
Whistleblowing is reporting crime that has taken place or is taking place but without the recognition of the relevant
authorities. This means the one who report a case (whistle-blower) is protected by the government from any kind of
intimidation and harassment from those who have been reported.
This Act gives protection to Civil Servants and Employees in the private sector when they whistle blow about cases
of corruption. This protection extends to ordinary citizens who report such cases. The government has established
different mechanisms by which whistle-blowers can report vital information to the relevant government authorities.
THE ROLE PLAYED BY DIFFERENT GROUPS IN FIGHTING CORRUPTION

There are different levels by which corruption can be fought. These levels include individuals, public officers, and
the community.
(i) Public Officers: these carry out government activities and always handle government resources. For this
reason, they are important in the fight against corruption. They can fight corruption by resisting it when
they are offered bribes. They should not only resist it but also report those who want to corrupt them to the
anti-corruption institutions.
Public officers have regulations and code of ethics by which they operate. These help them to keep in line
with the responsibilities that are expected of them. It is, therefore, important for them to stick to those
regulations and code of ethics to fight corruption.
(ii) The Community: the community is important in the fight against corruption. Government alone cannot
fight a successful war against corruption. This is because corruption in most cases is made possible because
of collaboration between some government officials with people outside government. Therefore, the public
must cooperate with the government to fight any forms of corruption. This cooperation can involve the
willingness of the community to reject giving or receiving bribes, and not electing to offices those people
they have known that are corrupt.
The government officers are appointed from the community and live among the community. It is, therefore,
easy for the community to monitor the activities of the public officers. Where the community suspects
wrongdoing, it can report to the authorities. People in the community should know that corruption works
against them. To tolerate corruption is to tolerate suffering. They should engage their leaders and force
them to stop corruption.
Strong forums in communities should be formed to debate, highlight, handle legally issues concerning
corruption. Free flow of information about corruption cases and corrupt officials can enable the public to
know how to fight the vice.
Corruption is not only a problem with the central government but also with the local governments. For this
reason, communities can also form vigilant local bodies. These can be independent of the government but at
the same time cooperate with it in monitoring the activities and handling of funds at local level.
(iii) The Youth: the youth form the largest percentage in most of the developing countries where corruption is
high. They are energetic and ambitious for a bright future. Therefore, they should be more concerned about
the consequences of corruption. This is because corruption is more likely to affect them than others. This
should encourage them to join the fight against corruption. The knowledge of the negative effects of
corruption should motivate and encourage them to resist and fight it. They can form anti-corruption clubs
through which they can raise the awareness of the danger of corruption in their society.
CHAPTER 6
CULTURAL STUDIES
Specific Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this topic, learners should be able to:
 Describe Culture
 Outline components of culture
 Explain characteristics of culture
 Discuss the importance of culture
 Explain types of culture
 Identify Zambia’s societal core values
 Discuss Zambia’s cultural practices
 Identify factors that affect the appreciation of cultural diversity in Zambia
 Describe Global Culture
 Identify institutions that preserve cultural heritage in Zambia.
DESCRIBE CULTURE:
Culture is the whole way of life of a given people. This includes their food, language, taboos, festivals, values,
beliefs, and traditions. It can also be defined as the sum of behaviour which people have learnt over a period and
defines ways by which they do things. Therefore, culture is identified in how and what people worship, how they
dress, how they prepare food, the type of housing they live in, their sporting activities, technology, music, dance,
symbols and meanings, ideas of beauty, economic activities, education system, their legal and political system, the
fundamental rights of a human being, spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional aspects of a human being.
Culture is not something that one is born with, but it is learnt. It is learned behaviour patterns, opinions and attitudes
that differentiate one society from the other. People live in groups called societies. People in different societies have
different patterns of living. This pattern of living includes beliefs, knowledge, morals, customs, and regulations that
govern a society.
Culture is a tool through which people pass over the knowledge and norms established by ancestors from one
generation to another. Things like the structures through which people govern themselves are part of the culture that
was established long ago. Modern people learn about the culture of the people of long ago by studying the artifacts
and broken pots that have been recovered. These reveal the cultural patterns they led.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE:
A component is a unit or part of something. It is an element of the whole. For example, two legs are a component of
a human being because they are part of the whole human being. There are eight major components of culture. These
include:
1. Language – is a group of symbols that enable communication between people. Through a given language,
people can communicate with each other in a clear and understandable way. It is also through language that
people interact. Language defines a cultural group even though the same language can be used in different
countries. It differentiates one culture from another. It reflects the nature and value of a culture. Language
is not only spoken, but it can also be unspoken language such as gestures. Gestures are signs used to
express different things such as showing a fist as a sign of strength or violence. Gestures mean different
things in different cultures.
2. Religion – is a system of beliefs dealing with soul, deity and/or life after death. It is a major cultural
component. Religious taboos, customs and rituals dictate the behaviour of a given society. Religion can
also dictate the type of food, or drinks (beverages) people eat or take. For example, Hindus do not eat beef,
devout Catholics do not eat meat on Good Fridays, while devoted Muslims do not drink alcoholic
beverages.
3. Values and Attitudes – Values are things or standards in a society that are held in high esteem. Generally,
all members of a society strive to achieve such standards. Values and attitudes constitute the value systems
of any given society. A society value system guides people in what is considered right and wrong. It is the
basis of society’s way of life. Most value systems are based on a society’s central religion.
4. Education – is an important part of culture since culture is learned behaviour. There are three types of
learning in any society, and these are:
(i) Informal learning – it is a type of learning in which a child learns by imitating the
behaviour of its family members/friends or by watching characters portrayed in the
movies or films.
(ii) Formal learning – this is a type of learning in which adults teach young family members
on how to behave in certain situations. For example, in Zambia, an adult teaching a
young child to kneel when he or she is greeting or giving something to an adult.
(iii) Technical learning – this is a type of learning in which teachers instruct a child in an
educational environment about what should be done, how it should be done, and why it
should be done. It takes place in a classroom arrangement.
5. Social Organisations – this is the way a society organises itself. It relates to how society defines
relationships, social institutions such as marriage and status system such as the role of a man, woman, and
children. The extended family system is a common social institution in African societies for it provides
mutual protection and social support daily.
6. Technology and material culture - these refer to society’s ability to create and use things. Technology
and material culture relates to the way society organises its economic activities. Terms like ‘Industrialised
nations’ and ‘developing nations’ refer to different technologies and material cultures. Thus, we speak of
being in Stone Age when society used stone tools; Iron Age when society used Iron tools, but now we talk
of Computer Age culture since computers are the means of organizing, calculating etc. Developed countries
have reached Space Age culture by designing the most modern technology such as E-mail information.
7. Aesthetics – this is a society’s perception of what is considered beauty in art and in persons. It dictates
what is acceptable or appealing in that culture. What is considered good taste or beautiful in one culture
might not be in another culture. Some types of dressing acceptable in urban areas such as mini-skirts and
slits may not be acceptable in villages.
8. Law & Politics – these are the rules and structures that regulate the behaviour of individuals. Legal rules
that attract punishment when broken. The laws protect members of the society to live at peace and free
from inhuman treatment. The political system of a society defines the structure of government and who
occupies positions in the structures. It defines the roles and responsibilities of those who govern and the
governed.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
A characteristic of a thing or person is that which distinguishes it or the person from other things or people. It is a
special mark or quality. The following are the characteristics or special features of culture:
A. Culture is DYNAMIC – Culture is not constant; it changes with time. Some aspects of culture can be
preserved because culture in totality cannot be preserved. It is always evolving and changing. Some
changes in culture are harder to accept than others. Change in technology is easily accepted rather than
change in the value system of society. For example, the use of cell phones has been accepted easily than the
equality of men and women because this touches on a value system.
B. Culture is LEARNT - Culture must be passed on from one generation to another. This is possible only
when culture is learnt by the people in the new generation. It is through learning that young people adapt to
their culture. It is taught to an individual by the society in which the individual is born. Children begin
learning about their culture at home from their immediate family by observing how it is respected and
performed, then what is learnt is implemented.
C. Culture is CUMULATIVE – Every human generation can discover new things and invent better
technologies. When a generation acquires new knowledge, it is added to what they already have. They do
not discard the old knowledge because of the new knowledge.
D. Culture is COMPREHENSIVE – this means that culture involves all aspects of life of a given people.
E. Culture is SHARED – stable culture must be shared by a certain specific group or groups of people.
Members of a society share a set of ‘ideals, values and standards of behaviour. This set of shared ideals is
what gives meaning to their lives, and what bonds them together as a culture. A culture that is not shared is
said not to be durable.
F. Culture is INTEGRATED – aspects of culture are functionally interconnected. Changing one trait will
have an impact on others. Without the integration, there would be confusion in the society. For example,
the language should be able to describe all the functions within the culture for ideals and ideas to be
transmitted from one generation to the next.
G. People are usually not aware of their culture until they meet other cultures. They only realise that their
pattern of behaviour is universal are universal when they meet people from other culture.
H. People do not know all their culture. No one knows everything about their culture. It is not possible for
one to know everything about their culture.
I. Culture gives a society a range of permissible behaviour patterns. Culture commonly allows a range of
ways in which men and women can be who they are.
J. Culture no longer exists in isolation: there is no society that can exist in isolation; thus, languages and
indigenous patterns are being replaced rapidly.
IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE:
 It enables group life. Through a certain culture, people are linked and related. It teaches members to think
of themselves as part of the large unit.
 It gives a vision to its people. It provides the focus to the members of the society.
 It provides rules and norms by which people must live. These rules help to maintain stability and
orderliness.
 It encourages unity among its members. This cooperation leads to peaceful living.
 It helps the members to gain a positive concept of family, nation, and government.
 It gives opportunity to members to understand each other as they interpret their interaction and
communication according to their culture.
 It reinforces ones’ identity and ability to critically reflect on that identity. This allows one to develop and
interact with others, thus, bringing mutual understanding between societies and peoples.
 It is important for the identity of the society. Since culture includes language, music, dances, festivals,
rituals and traditional craftsmanship, cultural heritage brings identity of a society. In times of need, songs,
art works, and texts can bring hope and comfort which reinforces cultural and self-awareness.
 Learning about culture brings about development. Economic development without roots in culture can
never result in sustainable development.
 It contributes to national development through traditional ceremonies that attract tourists. There is keen
interest in the relationship between arts and culture, and the economic and social development of our
communities
 It instils a sense of freedom in people. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),
article 27, affirms every human being to freely participate in the cultural life of one’s country.
TYPES OF CULTURE
I. Folk Culture:
Folk culture is sometimes referred to as residual culture, that is, remains of the past. It is usually
revived from elements of the forgotten past due to nostalgic taste. Nostalgic taste is desire of what used
to be done in the past. It comprises of features related to festival, clothing, beliefs, religion, legends,
foods, and traditions. It has ways of preparing food, dressing, dancing, and building houses.
Folk culture is the total of the most vital cultural components belonging to a particular group. With folk
culture, there is much respect for nature and genuine harmony and freedom. Therefore, personal
honour, loyalty to family and clan, duty to the community and respect for nature are the main
principles governing a folk culture.
It focuses much on the personal growth in cultural discipline, knowledge, freedom, and readiness to
serve one’s community. It appreciates nature and seeks to promote it through folksongs, dances, and all
other cultural activities.
II. Mass Culture:
Culture that is spread through machines and is used on a large scale. It uses technology and electronic
media. For example, Television, Internet (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok), Video
Tapes. Many Zambian children now absorb this type of culture, and this leads to the creation of forms
of behaviour different from what their parents knew or did during their time.
III. Popular Culture:
This is culture which is a product of changing needs and innovations in people’s lifestyles. It is short
lived. Most of its components are not permanent since they keep on changing. It is referred to as
common because it tends to have mass appeal and more especially the Youth. It is related to people’s
attitudes, ideas, and the way they see things in different ways of life. Popular culture is greatly
influenced by mass culture. It is a culture created through collection of different ideas from different
origins. This culture is often criticised by older and religious people. Popular culture includes things
like pop music, pop dance, and pop art and so on.
IV.
V. Ideal Culture:
This is what a group people or a society sees culture as a perfect culture. It is the lifestyle members of
society are supposed to live. It is the expected behaviour pattern and is the culture to which people
aspire to be. They wish and desire to live according to its real values, beliefs, and attitudes, however,
the reality is not the same. Many people when asked to describe their culture, give a response based on
ideals rather than reality. Ideals are often not realised in real life. Examples include:
 It is always claimed that all people are equal but in real daily life there are some people
who are treated specially.
 Marriage is said to be permanent, and separation is a taboo. However, there are many
people today with broken marriages in our society.
 Zambia was declared Christian nation but, most Zambians do not live according to the
principles of Christianity.
Therefore, an ideal culture has certain principles and standards that it aspires to uphold but which are
not attained in real life. Ideal culture is the direct opposite of real culture.
VI. Real Culture:
This refers to the actual behaviour of the people in a society. Real culture is the general culture of a
society as it is practiced in actual daily life. It is the culture that exists, and the actual way things
happen in real practice. For example, among Zambians, sleeping at a funeral house until burial has
taken place is an example of Zambia’s real culture.
VII. Synthetic Culture (Artificial Culture):
This is that is not real. It is when people pretend to be not what they really are. It is full of pretences.
Indigenous cultures are threatened with massive destruction as Western culture is presented as the only
culture which every country must copy. People’s cultural heritage is danger. Aspects of indigenous
cultures are preserved only for the attraction of tourists’ dollars who bring currency while the local
people consume popular western culture in form of films, television, or radio. Western cultural
commodities are often technologically superior and, therefore, admired and enjoyed. Globalisation has
contributed much to the existence of this artificial culture.
One of the most important aspects of synthetic culture is the issue of popularising consumption.
Consumerism promotes products through advertisements to encourage people to buy and own
products. The desire for consumption often creates pressure for imported things instead of encouraging
local production and, in so doing, distorts social priorities. For example, people may buy the latest
expensive imported products.
VIII. Organic Culture:
This is the type of culture that is not contaminated. It is original. This type of culture no longer exists.
This is due to intermarriages and exposure of each culture to different cultures. Urbanisation and
Industrialisation has made this exposure possible.
IX. Counterculture:
This is about behavioural patterns, activities, or styles of life by a group of individuals that are opposed
to the generally accepted standards of behaviour in a society. They usually refuse to follow the normal
way of doing things and end up developing their own behaviour. For example, unemployed youths may
feel neglected and develop their own way of talking, leisure, and clothing that is slightly different from
the way most of the people in society behave. This is a form of social rebellion.
X. Subculture:
Depending on their sense of belonging and attitude towards the core values, people may create another
group of culture within a culture. A subculture is a way of life or behaviour which a small group of
people belonging to the same culture may portray. It may arise due to different occupations in society,
which result in differences in power and prestige. For instance, a group of people with little education
and little income may lead a different lifestyle from those that are educated and with high income. The
well-educated people may form what is called an ‘elite culture’, leading an expensive lifestyle. A
lifestyle of those in low density residential areas (komboni) is not as expensive those in the high-
density residential areas (muma yards) but all are found in the same town or city.
XI. Cultural Heterogeneity:
The term “Hetero” means different. Therefore, heterogeneity refers to different races, beliefs,
nationalities, and religions. Cultural heterogeneity refers to people in a society with different lifestyles.
The Republic of South Africa is an example of such a society. The South African slogan of ‘Rainbow
Nation’ emphasises the special contributions of various immigrant cultures to the diversity of its
society. Cultural heterogeneity promotes cultural pluralism, which recognises and respects
contributions of various cultures to the whole society.
XII. Cultural Homogeneity:
The term “Homo” means same or similar. This is a type of culture portrayed by people of similar or
same beliefs. For example, North African countries such as Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, and Egypt share
similar or same culture.
ZAMBIA’S SOCIETAL CORE VALUES

Every cultural group, including that of Zambia, has core values which provide a standard measurement by which it is
regarded. The word “core” means centre, and “value” is the quality of being useful. Therefore, core values are
central to a society’s well-being. These guide the beliefs and behaviours of a group of people. Core values are shared
values and are cherished in any society. Zambia’s core values include the following:
 Obedience to Authority – authority is power vested in a group or an individual who is responsible for
other people or manage institutions. Obedience to authority, therefore, is recognizing and obeying the
power given to such people. Examples of people with authority are civic, political, school, church,
traditional, police, family, and peer group leaders.
 Tolerance – this is the quality of allowing opinions, beliefs, customs, and behaviour of other people to also
prevail even when one is not in agreement with them. It is accepting that each person has fundamental right
to one’s opinion.
 Mutual Respect – this is the value of treating each other with consideration. Mutual respect also works on
the idea that if one does not respect other people, that person will not be respected by others as well.
 Respect for Privacy – every person requires some time to be on his or her own, away from others, either
when they are working, relaxing or just wanting to be alone. Privacy also has to do with keeping private the
information a person does not want to reveal.
 Respect for Elders – elders are believed to have accumulated enough knowledge and experience. This
makes them wise and natural guides to the people who follow them and the young ones. For this reason,
elders are highly respected. Their advice is in most times taken seriously.
 Honesty – this is a quality of telling the truth, not cheating, and not stealing. It is a quality of being
trustworthy and straightforward. An honest person says what he or she means and means what he or she
says.
 Trust – this is the confidence, belief in the goodness, strength and reliability of oneself and others.
 Integrity – this is the quality of being honest and morally upright. It goes beyond just being honest as it
includes all qualities of goodness. It requires not only being truthful to others but also to oneself. A person
of integrity does not pretend to be what he or she is not.
 Loyalty – this is the faithfulness and truthfulness to people, groups, or organisations that one is a member
of.
 Love – this is the quality of goodwill towards every person. It is a deliberate avoidance to bringing harm to
other people. It is a strong feeling of deep affection for others.
 Social Justice – this is treating everyone in the community fairly.
 Peace – this is freedom from stress and physical threat to one’s well-being. It is a state of living in
friendship with others and the environment.
 Cooperation – this is working together for the common good of everyone in the community.
 Responsibility – this is doing what one is expected to do without being told, supervised, or forced.
 Patriotism – this is loving one’s country and willing to sacrifice for its well-being.
 Hard work – this is the ability to accomplish difficult tasks as opposed to idleness.
 Scientific Advancement – this is the science and technology as tools to making progress and improving in
one’s social and income problems.
 Commitment to the democratic resolution of differences – this is the recognition that sorting out tension,
disputes and differences is best done through dialogue and the acceptance of the majority’s view. It is a
commitment to peaceful resolution of any form of conflict.
 Good Character – character is important in our culture. A person with bad character is often shunned and
is not respected. A person with good character is the one who is honest, kind, reliable, loyal, and faithful. A
person with a bad character is one who disrespects others, is dishonest, unkind, and unfaithful. Our culture
advocates for a good character. A person who is well-behaved is respected and loved.
CULTURAL PRACTICES IN ZAMBIA

The ethnic groups in Zambia share the following common cultural practices:
i. RITES OF PASSAGE: these are rituals that one undergoes to mark important changes in a person’s
position in society. These rites of passage include such rituals as the naming of a new-born baby,
initiation, marriage, death and after death ceremonies. Girls and boys at one stage reach the age when
they are between childhood and adulthood, a stage called Adolescence.
Traditional initiation ceremonies are mostly practiced on girls before puberty. Among girls, puberty is
marked by the beginning of the first menstruation. The girls being initiated are taken to special private
places for a few weeks before their puberty stage. Selected elderly women spend time with them
teaching them different things that are relevant to their adult age. Girls are trained the role of a wife to
her husband, about sex and sexual skills, sexual hygiene and how to look after children. They are also
taught how to do domestic chores such as fetching water, collecting firewood, and preparing food.
Some tribes initiate boys into adulthood by circumcision. Different forms of dances are performed
during initiation season. Boys are taught men’s responsibilities towards their community and future
family. They are also taught survival skills such as fishing, caving, hunting and pottery.
Initiation ceremonies help to promote culture and beliefs among the youth. Girls and boys grow
knowing how to behave when they become adults. These ceremonies enable them to acquire sexual
knowledge and sexual hygiene. Among the most widely known initiation ceremonies are Nkolola (for
the Tonga), Sikenge (for the Lozi), Chisungu (for the Bemba) and Mukanda (for the Luvale).
ii. EXTENDED FAMILY SYSTEM: This is the family system that does not only embrace the nuclear
family but also uncles, cousins, aunties, in laws, nephews and nieces. In Zambia, the term ‘Mother’ is
extended to one’s mother’s sisters and ‘father’ to one’s father’s brothers. This system means that the
concept of orphans did not exist in real terms. It ensured that everybody belonged to a family even if
not a biological one. Therefore, in an event of one or both parents dying, the children would be taken
on by family members. It also makes sure that work is handled easily.
iii. TRADITIONAL CEREMONIES: Many traditional ceremonies are held to commemorate past
events. Other functions of traditional ceremonies include:
 Expressing, reflecting, and reinforcing cultural relationships and values.
 Observing certain rituals
 Connection to the ancestors
 Assertion of local traditional leadership.
 Reconciling inter-group conflicts.
 Celebrating past war victories.
 Harvest ceremonies.
 Religious festivals.
 Ceremonies which move the rhythm of nature such as rising of new moon, flooding
cycles such as Kuomboka Ceremony.
COMMON PUBLIC CEREMONIES IN ZAMBIA
 Kuomboka Ceremony of the Lozi people.
 Umutomboko Ceremony of the Lunda people of Luapula.
 Ukusefya pa Ng’wena ceremony of the Bemba people
 Kulamba ceremony of the Nsenga people.
 Shimunenga ceremony of the Ila people.
 Nc’wala ceremony of the Ngoni people.
 Likumbi Lya Mize ceremony of the Luvale people.
 Malaila ceremony of the Kunda people.
 Kulamba Kubwalo ceremony of the Lenje people
iv. TRADITIONAL ATTIRES: Some Zambian cultures display unique style of dressing. These include
the Lozi, men wear a Siziba (Kilt) while women wear a Musisi. The Chewa’s Nyau dancers also
exhibit different attire from the Luvale Likishi dancers.
v. THE ARTS: Art is expressed in dance, music, paintings, folklore, crafts, etc. Zambians have songs
and dances for most occasions. The songs not only entertain but praise, advice, teach and rebuke. Even
most Zambian paintings depict real life situations. Folklore plays a key role in shaping and moulding
values and attitudes.
vi. HOSPITALITY: Traditionally, Zambians are hospitable people because welcoming people and
visitors is an important Zambian societal value and is cherished and practiced. It is regarded as a
symbol of being human (UBUNTU). Visitors and strangers are accorded a warm welcome and treated
with respect and honour. This practice has been diluted due to high levels of poverty, crime, and
unemployment in urban areas as well as in rural areas of late.
APPRECIATION OF THE CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN ZAMBIA

Zambia can be classified as having a broad homogeneous culture, in terms of race and religion. But there exists a
variation of ethnic diversity in terms of language, traditions and customs that give it a heterogeneous characteristic.
Therefore, in appreciating the cultural diversity that exists in Zambia, people should be mindful of the following
aspects that have a bearing on cultural diversity:
 STEREOTYPING – This is when one makes an opinion on another purely based on group
membership. For example, regarding all females as weak or all young people as irresponsible. It is
also done based on ethnicity.
 PREJUDICE – Prejudice is an irrational, illogical hatred and suspicion of a particular group, which
can be based on gender, age, ethnicity, religion, and place of residence or occupation. Stereotyping
and Prejudice lead to discrimination.
 ETHNOCENTRISM – This is the belief that one’s own culture is the best and judging other people’s
culture by its standard. People tend to view the customs of others in the light of their own beliefs and
values. It is the worst form of all cultural discrimination because it has is its roots in the psychic of
persons.
 TRIBALISM – This is the extreme loyalty to a tribe to the extent that one gets strong negative
feelings for people outside his or her tribe. It is the exaltation of his or her tribe above other tribes. It is
a feeling of looking down upon other tribes. It is also the attitude of favouring his or her tribe mates at
the expense of others. When other tribes realise that they are discriminated against, they respond in a
negative way against a tribe that looks down upon them.
 CULTURAL RELATIVISM – It is a deliberate attempt to view the world as seen by members of
other societies. It is based on the belief that each group’s way of life is logical to that group’s response
to survival issues. Cultural relativism respects the right of other cultures even if these do not appeal to
one. When members of society regardless of ethnicity, religion, gender, and occupation are given
equal opportunity to realise their potential, it supports cultural diversity. Cultural diversity is the
absence of direct and indirect discrimination in all areas of life. This is best done through:
 Assimilation, a situation when people from minority groups and different classes of
society are accepted in major social institutions.
 Amalgamation, a process of blending minority and majority groups through social
bonding such as marriage.
GLOBAL CULTURE:
Global culture refers to the worldwide culture. The modern world has developed a global communication system
through television, radios, internet, and many other advanced communication facilities such as Facebook,
WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok etc. This has made it easy for many people from different parts of the world
to share similar elements of culture and practices. For example, it was viewed as beauty for a woman to have big
hips and a belly. However, due to globalisation, women and more especially the young ones prefer to be slim. They
limit what they eat (commonly known on social media as Banting) and are careful with what they wear. They prefer
to look like other young women elsewhere in the world.
Global culture is boosted by international travel, international trade, and cultural exchange. With this kind of
interaction, people’s way of life is slowly becoming similar worldwide. This type of culture goes beyond
geographical boundaries such as the borders of our country. Global culture is more realised especially among highly
educated people who are more exposed to the worldwide modern way of life.
The western culture, which mainly refers to the American and European culture, has greatly influenced other world
cultures. Every day, more of the lifestyle of the western culture is assimilated into our worldwide cultures. Among
the components of this culture are, Freedom of expression and women emancipation.
IMPACT OF GLOBAL CULTURE ON ZAMBIA
 Destruction of local cultures.
 It has increased the spread of international languages like English and French.
 It has led to the reduction or total elimination of negative cultural elements like Female Genital Mutilation
(FGM), forced marriages, widow inheritance and other aspects of gender violation.
 It has led to the spread of religions like Islam and Christianity which stress the belief in the existence of
God, the creation of human beings and the universe.
 It has led to the increase in moral decay among most youths in Zambia. For example, women wearing short
dresses and shorts that exposes their thighs. Exposing of women’s thighs is considered immoral in most
Zambian cultures. Another example is that of men sagging and putting on earrings.
 It has also led to increased social crimes like prostitution because of the spread of materials like
pornography which influence people to engage in these activities.
 Spread of technology.
 Mixing of culture.
 Increase in tourism.
INSTITUTIONS THAT PRESERVE CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ZAMBIA

1. MUSEUMS – It is a place where important cultural and historical tools are collected and conserved for public
viewing. In this way, they help to unify citizens to identify with our country’s culture and history. A museum is
basically an institution responsible for ancient objects that are related to culture and are of history importance.
The museum also carries out research on objects in its custody and exhibit to the public that information. This
researched information can focus on local places, historical events and local people who lived a long time ago.
However, today museums go beyond collecting local objects and information. They also collect objects
internally that are related to mankind’s origin and how humankind has been able to survive throughout the past
centuries. Museums are administered by the National Museums Board whose responsibility can be summarised
as:
 Collection of artifacts.
 Restoration of artifacts.
 Display of artifacts of historical, cultural, scientific, technological, and economic
significance to the nation.
2. NATIONAL HERITAGE CONSERVATION COMMISSION – This institution administers immovable
heritage such as sites and monuments. It was formed to collect and preserve the historical and cultural objects
places. Its headquarters are in Livingstone and it has offices in Kasama, Solwezi and Lusaka. It was authorised
to conserve all the outstanding natural heritage resources and cultural heritage in Zambia. It gives permits to
those involved in the tourism industry to take tourists to the registered heritage sites.
3. NATIONAL ARTS COUNCIL – This council is responsible for fostering the developing and preservation of
arts in Zambia. It promotes artistic and intellectual creativity and Art Education. Government, through the
National Arts Council, has provided an enabling environment, which supports the necessary conditions for
artistic and intellectual creation. It recognizes that freedom of opinion and expression is essential for reactive
activities of artists and intellectuals alike. It encourages and recommends the funding of notable artists in
Zambia. It has guided and helped in the formation of several art associations. It is responsible for registering and
affiliating with all national arts association. It sponsors some awards to local artists.
4. MINISTRY OF TOURISM – It is responsible for providing regulations to the way tourism industry functions
in Zambia. It also guides all the tourism operators on how to carry out their activities in a proper way. It links up
all enterprises, sites, associations, and activities that are related to tourism.
CHAPTER 7
SUBSTANCE ABUSE
Specific Learning Outcomes
 Define substance and substance abuse
 Describe substances often abused by people
 Explain reasons for substance abuse
 Suggest ways of avoiding substance abuse
 Discuss the effects of substance abuse on individual, community, and national levels
 Discuss measures used to prevent substance abuse
 Identify institutions involved in fighting substance abuse in Zambia.
SUBSTANCE AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE:

A Substance is a material or type of matter. To abuse is to use something excessively or wrongly, especially drugs.
Therefore, substance abuse means taking something often that your body does need and for wrong reasons. It is a
habitual use of a substance in excessive amounts that are harmful to the person consuming it.
The continuous use of a drug or drugs forms into a pattern or habit. This habit is a disorder that is destructive to the
consumer. One becomes addicted to that substance, thereby finding it difficult to stop that habit. Therefore, at this
level, one’s life becomes dependent on such a drug. He or she cannot do without it. Drug addiction is called a
disease because it causes destructive patterns of living. As mental disturbances can be said to a disease, it is the same
with drug addiction.
Even the drugs that are not illegal can be abused. This means that almost all the drugs can be abused. It is, therefore,
not ok to misuse drugs of any type.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES:
1. Over the Counter Substances – These are substances or drugs which can easily be bought over the
counter from a shop and used for medical purpose such as Panadol, Aspirin, Cafemol, and other household
cleaners like Bleach and Ammonia. One does not need to have a prescription to buy these.
2. Controlled Substances – These are substances that can only be obtained if one has a prescription or
special authorisation. These substances can be dangerous if not used properly. Examples include Morphine,
Valium, Cocaine, Codeine and Marijuana.
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES ACCORDING TO THEIR EFFECTS – substances can also be
classified according to their effects on the user. The following are examples:
 Depressants – These are substances that slow down the action of the central nervous system ( brain). They
are also known as sedatives or hypnotics. When taken in small amounts, they decrease a person’s
awareness and tension. But when taken in larger amounts, they lead into a coma (a condition of deep
unconsciousness, which may result in death). Examples include Alcohol, Mandrax and Valium.
 Stimulants – These are substances that stimulate the central nervous system and speed up the body
processes. If stimulants are taken in large amounts, they become depressants because their effects slow
down the central nervous system. The most common stimulant is caffeine found in tea coffee, chocolate,
coca cola and other energy drinks such as Kungfu, Red Bull, Dragon and Kombat
Caffeine derives from a German word Kaffee, meaning coffee. It is obtained from certain plant leaves,
beans and fruits and can be processed into different forms such as powder, liquid, or smoke.
When caffeine is consumed excessively, it leads to convulsions, lack of sleep and excessive anxiety. It
tends to stimulate the central nervous system. Other stimulants include cocaine and nicotine.
 Hallucinogens – these are substances which distort the way the brain translates impulses or messages from
sensory organs producing perceptual changes. The distortion may make the brain alter or change messages
about something real, thus, producing an illusion. The brain may produce images with no basis called
hallucinations. These substances in this category include Lysergic acid diethyl (LSD), cocaine, magic
mushrooms, and ecstasy. A person begins to see danger where there is no danger or vice versa. One can
even jump out of a car perceiving a tree is falling on that car, when it is not the true case.
 Narcotics or Opiates – These are substances that make the senses dull and relieve pain by depressing the
cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain responsible for consciousness including
perception, memory, learning and initiation of movement. They also affect the thalamus (mood regulation
centre).
Narcotics are mainly derived from the Opium poppy plant. They include raw opium, morphine, codeine,
pethidine, methadone, and heroin.
 Inhalants or Solvents – These are drugs or substances found in household products such as glue,
deodorants like perfume sprays and fuel gasses. These form fumes which give out vapour that is inhaled by
the consumer. The capillary surface of the lungs allows quick absorption of the substance. Entry into the
brain is fast and intoxicating effects are intense. Inhalants can cause brain damage and death at times.
SUBSTANCES AND THEIR EFFECTS

1. ALCOHOL – is a pure colourless liquid present in drinks such as beer, wine, and brandy. People take
alcohol for pleasure during many occasions such as leisure, initiation, traditional and wedding
ceremonies. Only adults can drink but in modern society, beer is abused by children. Alcohol is also
taken for medicinal purposes. Most of the medicines contain a percentage of alcohol.
Alcohol abuse is when one drinks too much alcohol too often. This leads to addiction. Addiction is
taking something that one cannot stop. A person who is addicted to alcohol is called an alcoholic.
Alcoholism is a severe and potentially fatal (causing death) condition caused by physical dependence
on alcohol. It impairs physical and mental health.
The strength of any alcoholic beverage depends on the percentage concentrate of a chemical called
Ethanol per given volume. The higher the percentage, the more potent (strength) the beverage
becomes. In other words, the more effects it has to an individual.
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL:
 Increases blood pressure and heartbeat.
 Causes violent behaviour.
 Affects the brain, it distorts the way one thinks, speak and acts.
 Causes cirrhosis (The liver becoming fatty and enlarged causing inflammations).
 Causes Hypothermia (feeling warm even when one is losing heat).
 Distorts perception of time and space and have a double vision (unclear objects).
2. TOBACCO – it is made up of some chemicals which are poisonous when one smokes as it enters the
bloodstream. It is a commonly abused substance that contains nicotine, carbon monoxide and tar which
are very harmful to the body. Carbon monoxide is a deadly gas that affects the blood’s ability to carry
oxygen around the body. Tar contains a few substances that can cause cancer. Nicotine is a powerful
drug that makes the heartbeat faster. If taken in large doses, nicotine slows nerve impulses, resulting in
reduction of heartbeat.
Constant smoking affects the cells in the respiratory tract, thereby making the smoker easily get
respiratory infections.
EFFECTS OF TOBACCO:
 Bronchitis
 Emphysema- Lung disease which affects breathing.
 Heart disease nicotine increases the heartbeat and so wears down the heart.
 Cancer – smoking causes about 90% of deaths from cancer
 Blood clots and stomach ulcers.
 Damages the unborn babies
 Shortness of breath
 Colds, flu, and other infections
 Non- smokers inhale smoke which makes them passive smokers
 Deforestation. Due to the process or drying and curing tobacco.
3. INHALANTS – As earlier stated, Inhalants are a diverse group of substances that include volatile
solvents and gases. The volatile substances are found in household products such as glue, paint, nail
polish, powdered tobacco, Petro, rubber and lighter fluid.
Inhalants are usually sniffed from an open container and lungs allow rapid absorption as a result entry
into the brain is fast and produces intense intoxicating effects.
EFFECTS OF INHALANTS:
 Depression of the central nervous system. (Reducing breath rate)
 Causing high blood pressure.
 Headaches, nausea, slurred speech, and loss of motor coordination.
 Rash around the nose and mouth.
 Unpredictable behaviour.
 Memory impairment and attention deficit.
 Liver and kidney abnormalities.
 Red, glassy, and watery eyes.
 Distortion in perception of time and space.
4. DRUGS - A drug is any substance which alters the chemistry of the body and affects the natural
balance of the mind and emotions. Drugs can either be natural or synthetic chemicals. Natural drugs
are those which are found in certain plants. For example, caffeine in coffee, nicotine in tobacco and
tetra hydro-cannabinol
I. CANNABIS - This is a hard brown material or herbal mixture that comes from a cannabis
plant. It is an illegal drug in Zambia; therefore, possession, cultivation or trafficking of this
substance constitutes an offence. It has several street names such as Draw, Blow, Weed, Hash,
Pot, Bang, Spliff, Dope, Puff, Shit and Ganja.
THREE FORMS CANNABIS:
a Marijuana: This comes from the dried leaves, flowers, or stems of the cannabis
plant. It has a concentration of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) of about 0-
12%.
b Hashish: This is made from the dark, sticky resin of the plant and contains THC
of about 12-18%.
c Hashish oil: This is made by compressing hashish to produce oil using a solvent.
The concentration of THC is about 18-25% and is much higher than that of
marijuana and hashish.
EFFECTS OF CANNABIS:
 Causing craving for certain foods (increasing appetite).
 Making most users relaxed or talkative.
 Making users paranoid and anxious, depending on their mood and situation.
 Causing health problems such as cancer and respiratory disorders.
 Affecting the reproductive system by reducing sperm count in males while irregular
menstrual cycles in females.
 Affecting memory and coordination.
 Leaving users feeling exhausted.
II. HEROIN – Heroin is a brown or white speckled powder made from juice extract from the
unripe capsule of the poppy plant. The seed capsule of the green opium produces a milky
juice (latex) from which many drugs can be made such as morphine. Morphine is used for
medicinal purposes.
Heroin is mainly taken by smoking, sniffing, and swallowing or injecting into the veins. It is
known on the street as Brown Sugar, Skag, Smack and Horse.
EFFECTS OF HEROIN:
 Depresses some brain cells or stimulates other types of brain functions leading to
disturbed pattern of nerve activity, perception.
 Loss of appetite.
 Chronic constipation.
 Death due to overdose.
 Urge to commit suicide.
 Irregular menstrual cycles in woman
 Suppresses understanding of the real world by distorting vision, hearing, and other
senses.
 Loss of alertness at first, then drowsiness and drunken appearance later.
 Damages the heart and kidneys
 Causes mood swings
 Transmission of diseases such as HIV/AIDS by sharing hypodermic needless
III. COCAINE – Cocaine is white powder made from the leaves of a Coca plant. The leaves of a
coca plant when chewed can relieve hunger and fatigue. The coca plant is mainly grown in
coastal plains of the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. Cocaine is usually smoked, be
injected into the blood, and can also be taken orally by mixing with liquid or in a capsule
form. The street names for cocaine are Coke, Charlie, Snow Lady and Dust.
EFFECTS OF COCAINE
 Irregular menstrual circles
 Transmission of diseases such Hepatitis and HIVAIDS using hypodermic needles
 Over alertness and elevation of mood
 Dry mouth
 Sweating
 Severe weight loss
 Exhaustion and lack of sleep (insomnia)
 Digestion problems
 Ulceration of the nasal passage
 Heart and blood circulation problems
 Death due to overdose
REASONS FOR SUBSTANCE ABUSE:

A. Curiosity: Some people are tempted to try out substances. They would like to taste how it feels like to take
substances, especially young people.
B. Peer pressure: Young people end up taking substances because they want to do what their friends are
doing. They want to fit in or conform to their peer group.
C. Ignorance: People begin to take substances on experimental basis and may not be aware of the dangers of
the substance they abuse. By the time dangers are fully realised, it may be too late to stop taking the
substance or to reverse the damage done.
D. Stress: Adolescence can be a particular difficulty period. One may be under a conflicting pressure from
parents, school, friends, and many difficulty choices might be made. Adolescence can as well be a time
frustration and boredom; as a result, young people are usually vulnerable to peer pressure.
E. Availability of substances: There are several substances that are readily available on the market. These
include alcoholic beverages and solvents such as glue, tipex and methylated spirits
F. Changing social structures: A family is a unity that serves as a support group for its members. When a
family begins to change in a negative way, for example: loss of a family member.
G. Alienation: We all have the sense of belonging to a family, group, community, or country. When we feel
isolated, we try to find a group to belong to by associating with people who also feel isolated.
H. Unemployment: In Zambia, we have high levels of unemployment which led to employment.
I. Lack of Recreational Facilities: Recreation facilities are lacking in Zambian communities. Young people
have nowhere to spend their leisure time as a result they may resort to substance abuse.
J. Enhancement of self-confidence: Some believe that taking substances may help them to improve in their
self confidence in sports, sexual intercourse examinations and other activities.
SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 Sudden change in personality
 Unusual mood swings, restlessness, or irritability
 Decline in school performance
 Spending more time away from home
 Stealing money or goods and excessive spending or borrowing of money
 Heavy use of perfumes to disguise the smell of the substances
 Associating with a particular group especially one that abuses substances
 Lack of interest in schoolwork and absenteeism from work
 Loss of appetite
 Wearing of sunglasses at inappropriate time to disguise the appearance
HOW TO AVOID SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 Say no thanks: If you are offered dangerous substances always say no thank you.
 Giving reason or excuse: Always give a reason for declining an offer
 Changing the subject: If someone is enticing you to use dangerous substances you should change the
subject to discourage him or her
 Walking away: You can also walk away to avoid being tempted to take dangerous substances
 Avoiding the situation: If you know places where they abuse substances stay away from such places.
 Associating with non-users: Make yourself always busy by doing something like sports.
DEPENDENCE ON SUBSTANCE
Two forms of dependence:
(i) Physical dependence: is when one tries to withdraw from using a certain substance but experiences
physical effects such as shaking.
(ii) Psychological dependence: Moods, depression, and anxiety.
EFFECTS OF DRUGS:
Authorities prohibit certain drug usage because of their harmful effects on individuals and society. It is a way of
protecting them from dangers that come because of abusing drugs. There are several ways in which substance abuse
can affect individuals and society. These are as follows:
a High Crime Rate – there are many occurrences of criminal offences among people who depend on
drugs than those who do not use them. The effects of drugs tend to vary from one individual to another,
depending on the type of drugs one uses. Different drugs have different effects. Drug abuse interferes
with a person’s normal lifestyle and therefore, affects his or her general responsibilities and what he or
she is expected of.
b It interferes with the normal life of a person – most of the drugs affect the normal function of the
brain. The brain is normally weakened in making the right decisions. A normal person can have some
desires that are not proper to fulfil and restrains him/herself. However, in most cases, one who abuses
drugs loses the ability to restrain oneself. He does whatever he/she feels is fit for him/her. It can be
attacking someone who has annoyed him/her. Drug abuse influences a person’s personality in a
negative way. This leads to anti-social behaviours. Such behaviours are harmful to social relations. It
weakens one’s ability to relate normally with other people. It can lead one to develop excessive anger,
suspicion, fears, and bitterness. These attitudes do not support healthy interpersonal relations. Any
negative influence on the brain can lead to unprotected sex, and abuses, road accidents, aggression,
suicides, or homicide.
c It leads to Legal Problems – these drugs are illegal by law. Therefore, substance abuse is largely
forbidden by law in most countries of the world. Its use can lead to criminal penalty. Since it affects the
normal understanding of those of consume them, they can influence consumers to commit offenses such
as rape, fighting and breaking traffic regulations. Such offenses lead to prosecution in courts of law.
d It normally causes distress – overconsumption of these substances usually causes severe anxiety and a
feeling of uselessness. As a result, the consumer feels dejected (sad and dispirited) and troubled.
e Leads to decreased productivity – substance abuse affects one’s responsibility. It normally leads to
failure to meet one’s responsibilities at school, home, or workplaces. At school, it can lead to poor
performance in class, withdraw from other people, repeated absenteeism and failing to cope with other
people.
f It can lead to memory loss – drugs cause temporary loss of memory and feeling out of control. One
gets difficulties in learning, grasping, and organizing new information. It impairs one’s attention rate as
one’s concentration is weakened. In this way, one’s ability to recall is reduced, leading to severe
anxiety, hopelessness, and negative mood swings.
g It causes health problems – there are different healthy problems that develop from drug abuse. These
include developing diseases such as lung cancer, bronchitis, heart attack, peptic ulcers, brain damage
emphysema and staining of the teeth. Most of the substances lead excessive mucus collection in the
bronchi. As a result, one develops frequent cough which usually lasts for a long time.
IMPACT OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS

 At Individual Level:
 A substance abuser is likely to experience health problems
 Relationships with friends and family may become strained because of substance abuser may not
have support from the loved ones
 People who abuse substances risk heavy fines or imprisonment.
 At Family Level:
 Most substance abusers tend to spend a lot of money to sustain the habit and end up neglecting
their families
 Substance abusers cause disruption and disharmony within the family. Hence everyone in the
family is affected.
 Young people in homes where they abuse substances, think substance abuse is normal and
accepted in society hence they get influenced and become abusers
 At Community Level:
 Substance abusers tend to commit crimes such as murder and aggravated robbery to acquire more
money to support their habit.
 Other may be involved in vices like prostitution and drug trafficking
 The spread of HIV/AIDS is likely to become rampant among abusers especially if they are using
needles
 Abusers who become terminally ill, it is the community that usually take care of them
 There is also loss of money in terms of production in industrial accidents, violence crime,
treatment and rehabilitation and care for substance abusers.
 At International Level:
 Increase in drug trafficking
 Money laundering is also common in drug trafficking, drug traffickers use their money to
destabilize governments through corruption, intimidation, violence and buying of the votes.
 Governments of many countries spend a lot of money trying to eradicate drug trafficking.
ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY IN COMBATING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 Abolishing the cultivation of drugs.
 Educating the people.
 Taking keen interest in what is going on in the community.
 Changing people’s attitudes toward substance abuse.
 Establishing groups and clubs.
MEASURES TO FIGHT SUBSTANCE ABUSE
The public is sensitized on the dangers of substance abuse and its legal implications.
 Drug abuse is liable for punishment by imprisonment for a period not exceeding 10 years if found guilty.
 The government of Zambia also works with other countries to exchange information on drug trafficking
and related crimes to arrest offenders.
INSTITUTIONS THAT FIGHT SUBSTANCE ABUSE

1. Drug Enforcement Commission (DEC):
It was established in 1989. It is a government institution charged with the responsibility of curbing
substance abuse. It investigates and prosecutes cases related to drug trafficking and substance abuse. It also
sensitises the public on the dangerous effects of substance abuse. Other functions of the Commission in
controlling substance abuse are as follows:
 It fights any unlawful manufacture of narcotic drugs
 It fights and discourages cultivation of plants for narcotic substances
 It fights schemes (plans) to commit any offense related to drug abuse
 It fights and discourages creation of any form of advertising narcotic substances.
 It fights and discourages creation of centres or locations where narcotic substances are sold.
2. Zambia Medicines Regulatory Authority (ZAMRA):

It is formerly known as Pharmaceutical Regulatory Authority. It controls all medicine that is marketed in
Zambia. It makes sure that wrong drugs are not sold, given, or administered on people. It checks the quality
and the safety of drugs distributed in Zambia. In this way, ZAMRA controls the sale and use of substance
drugs on the Zambian market.
3. The Police Service:

The Police plays a significant (important) role in preventing crime. Since narcotic drugs and their abuse are
very much related to crime, the Police is engaged in fighting it. It investigates and arrests suspects. It is
always on the lookout for those who grow, traffic, or sell the drug substances. Other groups that work with
the police in fighting drug abuse include:
 Churches
 Society for Family Health (SFH)
 Sport in Action
 Youth Media (Trend Setters)
 Youth alive
 Young Men Christian Association (YMCA)
 Young Women Christian Association (YWCA)
END OF GRADE 10 WORK.

2024 Cve G10 Updated Notes - Southern

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2024 Cve G10 Updated Notes - Southern

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TOPIC 1

THE STRUCTURE AND THE MAIN PARTS OF THE ZAMBIAN CONSTITUTION

PART TITLE CONTENT

THE PROCESS OF CONSTITUTION MAKING AND ITS ADOPTION

YEAR YEAR OF FIRST NAME OF THE NAME OF MAIN NAME OF YEAR

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CONSTITUTION

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE (CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE)

CHARACTERISTICS OF BAD GOVERNANCE:

GOVERNANCE SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA

1. SINGLE MEMBER MAJORITARIAN SYSTEM (SMMS)

2. FIRST PAST THE POST or SINGLE MEMBER PLURALITY SYSTEM (SMPS):

4. MIXED MEMBER PROPORTIONALITY SYSTEM (MMPS)

CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTIONS IN GOOD GOVERNANCE

TYPES OF ELECTIONS IN ZAMBIA:

ZAMBIA’S ELECTORAL SYSTEM

ZAMBIA’S ELECTORAL PROCESS:

LOCAL GOVERNMENT SYSTEM IN ZAMBIA

FUNCTIONS OF LOCAL COUNCILS:

THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL LEADERS IN GOVERNANCE

QUALIFICATIONS OF A ZAMBIAN CITIZEN.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD CITIZEN

FACTORS THAT HINDER GOOD CITIZENSHIP

RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF CITIZENS

DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF A CITIZEN

 Civic Responsibilities or Duties of the Citizen include:

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

 The Charter of Mande – 1222

 The United Nation’s Universal Declaration of Human Rights – 1948

CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

CATEGORIES OF HUMAN RIGHTS

WAYS BY WHICH HUMAN RIGHTS ARE VIOLATED

OTHER FORMS OF CORRUPTION

A. WIDESPREAD DISATISFACTION AMONG CITIZENS – citizens feel cheated by those in

INSTITUTIONS THAT SPEARHEAD THE FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION

2) The Zambia Police Service

3) The Directorate of Public Prosecution (DPP)

4) Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU)

5) The Office of the Auditor General

CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANISATIONS (CSOs) INVOLVED IN THE FIGHT AGAINST CORRUPTION

WHISTLE-BLOWERS’ PROTECTION ACT

THE ROLE PLAYED BY DIFFERENT GROUPS IN FIGHTING CORRUPTION

ZAMBIA’S SOCIETAL CORE VALUES

CULTURAL PRACTICES IN ZAMBIA

APPRECIATION OF THE CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN ZAMBIA

INSTITUTIONS THAT PRESERVE CULTURAL HERITAGE IN ZAMBIA

SUBSTANCE AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE:

SUBSTANCES AND THEIR EFFECTS

REASONS FOR SUBSTANCE ABUSE:

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

HOW TO AVOID SUBSTANCE ABUSE

IMPACT OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE AT DIFFERENT LEVELS

ROLE OF THE COMMUNITY IN COMBATING SUBSTANCE ABUSE

INSTITUTIONS THAT FIGHT SUBSTANCE ABUSE

2. Zambia Medicines Regulatory Authority (ZAMRA):

3. The Police Service:

END OF GRADE 10 WORK.

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