Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S.

Kadhim)

References

1. Richard Bateman, “Open-hole Log Analysis and Formation Evaluation”, IHRDC Publishers
New York

2. Hilchie, D. W. (1982). Applied open-hole log interpretation (for geologists and engineers), USA DW
Hilchie.

3. Serra, O. (2008). Well logging handbook. Editions Technip.

4. Serra, O. E. (1983). Fundamentals of well-log interpretation. Elsevier

5. Bessiouni, Z. (1994). Theory, Measurement and Interpretation of Well Logs, Texas, SPE text book
series, Vol.4.

6. Kadhim F.S., and Samsuri A. (2015), Cementation Factor Relationships to Carbonate Rock
Properties, Lambert Academic Publication , Germany

7. Schlumberger, (1989). Log Interpretation-Principles/Applications, Eight Printing, Sugar Land,

Texas.

8. Toby, D. (2005). Well Logging and Formation Evaluation, USA, Elsevier .

9. Pradyut B. (2012). Formation Evaluation Based on Logging Data,

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Formation Evaluation

Introduction:
Formation evaluation is the application of scientific principles, engineering concepts and technological
innovations in the exploration and prospecting of hydrocarbon resources in geological formations in an
environmentally sustainable and responsible manner. It involves detailed and systematic data acquisition,
gathering, analysis and interpretation both qualitatively and quantitatively while applying scientific and
engineering principles. It is an ever growing and evolving field of petroleum engineering.

Objectives
The main objectives of formation evaluations based on Well logs and core analysis data which are the
keys of information about the reservoir formation can be summarised as follows:
1. To estimate the porosity and permeability.
2. To detect reservoir type (lithology) and thickness.
3. To determine clay volume from well logging data.
4. To determine fluid type present in the pores and saturation level.
5. To find the prospective zones of hydrocarbon.
6. To economically establish the existence of producible hydrocarbon reservoirs (oil and gas).
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

:
Steps of Reservoir Evaluation
A continuous profile of petrophysical is calculated for the reservoir in the selected
oilfield.The approach of evaluation is based on steps as shown in the following Figure. These steps
are started by selected well in the studied oilfield which are used to provide data for studied
formation. Then the available well logs are converted to LAS files by using Neura-log software.
Consequently, the Interactive Petrophysics software is used to find petrophysical and dynamic
elastic properties after making depth matching and environmental corrections for digitalizing data..
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Field and wells selection

Core analysis and Digitalize logs using NL software

Depth Matching and Environmental Corrections by using IP software

Using the IP Software to determine the following Petrophysical Properties

Lithology Porosity Archie’s Parameters Resistivity Formation Factor (F) Clay Volume Permeability

Calculate the water saturation, Sw

Calculate the OOIP and detect the perforation zones

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

1. Field and Well Selection

The first stage of the formation evaluation is selection of the studied well in the oilfield.

2. Core Analysis and Digitizing Logging Data

A. Core Analysis

Coring, Preservation and Handling

Large financial resources are invested in Routine Core Analysis (RCAL) and Special Core
Analysis (SCAL) core analysis programmes, and a wide range of accurate experimental
determinations can be carried out. However, cores are expensive to obtain and represent a very
dilute sampling of the reservoir rock. It is clear that the samples used in such studies should be as
representative as possible of the reservoir rock at depth if the final data is to be credible, and an
efficient use of the financial resources devoted to them. Samples of the reservoir rock and the
fluids they contain can be, and are commonly, altered by the process of obtaining them (coring,
recovery, wellsite handling, shipment, storage, and preparation for experimentation). This
chapter gives an overview of the alteration processes that may be at work, together with some of
the techniques available to reduce alteration, and preserve the rock and fluid properties. The
choice of core preparation techniques is increasingly being made by using pre-screening
information on the preserved core. This approach is highly recommended.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The set of measurements normally carried out on core plugs or whole core. These generally
include porosity, grain density, horizontal permeability, fluid saturation and
a lithologic description. Routine core analyses (RCAL) often include a core gamma log and
measurements of vertical permeability. Measurements are made at room temperature and at
either atmospheric confining pressure, formation confining pressure, or both. Routine core
analysis is distinct from special core analysis (SCAL).

•In the petroleum industry, special core analysis, often abbreviated SCAL, is a laboratory
procedure for conducting flow experiments on core plugs taken from a petroleum reservoir.
Special core analysis is distinguished from "routine or conventional core analysis" by adding
more experiments, in particular including measurements of two-phase flow properties,
determining relative permeability, capillary pressure, Steady-state and Unsteady state,
Wettability Determination, Reservoir Condition Core floods, Improved Oil Recovery (IOR,
EOR) Studies, Petrophysical Correlation Measurements, and Archie Exponents a, m, n
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The Coring Process

Reservoir rock undergoes changes during the coring process and on storage before
reaching the laboratory. The changes which occur are shown in the following Figure. Some of
the changes are reversible whilst others are irreversible but preventable. In most cases it is
possible to leave all or part of the core in a usable state. It is essential to use preserved core for
certain SCAL tests and for meaningful assessment of routine data.

Drilling of the core is invariably carried out at very high bottom hole pressure
differentials, thus the core is effectively water-flooded with mud filtrate, and the original
contents partly displaced. The outer surface of the core will be invaded by mud particles; the
depth of invasion being dependent upon permeability. This zone should be avoided when
sampling. The rest of the core will have had its original hydrocarbon content, and formation
water displaced by mud filtrate; the extent depending upon the core permeability and original
fluid saturations. These changes are not always harmful as the core can usually be restored in
the laboratory.

More important changes can occur if the rock contains minerals sensitive to water
salinity. For example, contact with low salinity water can mobilise poorly adhered clay
particles, giving a small possibility that core can arrive in the laboratory with mobilised fines,
which are not significantly mobile in the reservoir.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

In a similar fashion the wetting characteristics of the rock may be altered by surfactant
mud additives. These changes are usually unavoidable but if formations are known to be
particularly sensitive, it may be possible to modify mud composition and reduce overpressure
to minimise damage. For complete preservation of wettability on cores above the transition
zone, coring with lease crude is necessary. Water saturation may then also be retained intact,
allowing better estimation of initial reservoir oil saturation. For transition and water zone a
bland mud formulation will do the least harm to original rock properties.

Drying can be the worst that can happen to core after removal from the barrel. If
interface sensitive clays, e.g., fibrous illite are present they can be irreparably damaged by
drying and any permeability measurements made on such core will be valueless. Thus it is
necessary to preserve some core in the state that it leaves the barrel either by immersion in
simulated formation brine or by wrapping in foil and wax. The latter technique is the
minimum required for samples intended for wettability measurements, but for straightforward
assessment of water zone permeabilities immersion in brine is adequate. The necessity for
preserved core will be more fully covered under relevant sections below.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Plug Sampling and Cleaning (Unpreserved Core)

Standard techniques are applied unless the core is very heterogeneous or likely to be damaged
by routine cleaning methods. One or one and a half inch diameter sample plugs are drilled and
trimmed to between two and three inches long with simulated formation brine as lubricant. If the
composition of formation brine is unknown, a five percent sodium chloride brine is used.

Plugs are taken at regular intervals (often every 25 cm), parallel to bedding planes for
horizontal permeability as shown in the following figure. Further plugs normal to the bedding plane
are taken if required for vertical permeability. The sampling interval can either, be increased, if the
core is from a formation known to be homogeneous; or varied if the core contains thin shaly bands
making it difficult to produce intact plugs.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Thin shaly bands are avoided unless frequent and representative. The following Figure shows
the analyses the suitability of core plugs for homogeneous, thickly bedded and thinly bedded
whole core.

Tests may also be carried out on full diameter core samples. This is necessary if plug sized
samples do not contain a representative pore size spectrum. Fractures, vugs (very large pores)
and stylolytes are typical structural features which necessitate measurement on full diameter
(whole core) samples. The measurements made are the same as for plug samples, but a
special core holder is necessary if horizontal permeability is required.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Plugs are cleaned by alternate extraction with hot toluene and methanol in Soxhlet extractors
(Figure 4.4a and 4.4b) until no further discolouration of solvent occurs. This may take from a few,
to several hundred hours depending upon permeability. Low permeability plugs are seldom
completely free of residual brine and oil at this stage. Complete removal of residual fluids can only
be achieved by prolonged Soxhlet extraction.

Cores can also be cleaned by flushing the core with alternate miscible solvents (e.g. toluene (for the
oil phase) and methanol (for the water phase)) done hot or cold in a Hassler core holder as shown in
the following Figure. Both the aqueous (methanol) and oleic (toluene) cleaning phases exiting the
rock can be bulked and submitted for analysis of the amount of water and individual hydrocarbons
present.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

B. Digitizing Logging Data

Neura-Log (NL) software is common software which used to digitize recorders of well logs
in the oil and gas wells. NL software automated tracing streamlines data workflow, enhancing
productivity by obtaining reliable information for time-critical projects.In this stage, the
available logs such as deep induction laterolog (ILD), micro spherical focused log (MSFL),
spherical focused log (SFLU), bulk density (ROHB), sonic log (DT), calliper log (CAL),
spontaneous log (SP)and gamma ray log (GR) should be scanned and converted to soft copy,
after that the Neura-Log software (V 2008.5) is used to digitize the scanned copies of logs for
studied well.

LAS files are produced from this phase, and then these files have been loaded into the
Interactive Petrophysics software (IP).The reading measurements are taken as one reading per
0.1524 meter along the depth of the formation. The following main steps are used to digitalize
the well logs images from left side tool par as shown on the main page of the NL software in the
following Figure.
 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

1. Open log image from files on the computer.

2. Create depth and scale axis for each log curve by select the top and bottom depth of curve
reading as well as select the depth measuring unit.
3. Edit scale axis: in this step, the scale of log curve reading from left to right is selected
depending on the log type. Furthermore, the unit of log recording tool is selected by a special
icon.
4. Edit depth grids by selecting the vertical interval for each depth reading
5. Edit scale grids by detecting the horizontal interval for each scale of tool reading
6. Digitalize curve by moving the cursor on the selected curve and save it as Las Files

Finally, the validation of the digitalized data with the actual scanned logs should be done to find
the mean square error and the correlation coefficient between these data.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The main page of NL software

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

3. Depth Matching

Deep induction laterolog (ILD), Micro spherical focused log (MSFL), spherical focused
log (SFLU), bulk density (ROHB), sonic log (DT), calliper log (CAL), spontaneous log (SP) and
gamma ray log (GR) are the available tool logs from five wells in the NS oilfield. The log
curves are checked to be in depth with each other for every well to avoid the out of depth
reading in the digitalized data.

All log curves then depth-matched according to the geological depth of the top for each
formation, the available gamma ray readings taken as a reference guide for depth matching.
The following figure shows the log reading tools after digitalized to LAS data and plotted in
tracks from 2 to 4. The left side block shows the main steps of depth matching by using IP
software.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

depth matching steps in the IP software (Schlumberger, 2008)

 Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

4. Environmental Corrections
Environmental corrections were made using the current Schlumberger charts (SLB, 2005), which
are supplied to (IP) as the environmental correction module, actual mud properties, calliper log,
hydrostatic pressure and temperature gradient were provided to get accurate corrections. The
effects of drilling fluids type (FCL-CL) on the well geometry were clear by inducing wash out zones
in most formations. Washing effects on the readings of logging tools were eliminated especially on
neutron.
All input data in the IP software used measurement reading per 0.1524 m along the depth
interval to achieve corrections. This small interval reading leads to avoiding erroneous in
petrophysical results interpretations. By using Schlumberger, 2005 correction charts in the IP
software the log reading were corrected to actual well conditions, these are deep induction laterolog
(ILD), micro spherical focused log(MSFL), spherical focused log (SFLU), bulk density (ROHB),
neutron log (NPHI)and gamma ray log (GR). There are five main steps to achieving environmental
corrections, firstly upload the Las files from computer, and then click on the calculation option in
the toolbar on the main page of the IP software. Thirdly choose the environmental correction option,
after that, select the Schlumberger corrections option. Finally upload the requirement data of the
drilling and well log header information such as bit size, mud weight, mud resistivity, mud cake
resistivity and depth for each formation. The following Figure shows an output sample of
environmental correction on the main page of IP software. In this figure, each track contains the
correction of log tool with depth, for example, the neutron log (NPHI) reading is corrected to a new
curve (NPHIC) in track 5.
Well Logging Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Example of environmental correction in the IP software.