Biostatistics

Summary and MCQS

BY: MOHAMED SALAMA

Demography is the study of human populations, focusing on their size, composition, distribution, and
the processes that lead to population changes. The 'big Three' components influencing population dynamics are Births,
Deaths, and Migration, which determine whether a population will remain stable or undergo changes.

A census is a comprehensive process involving the collection, compilation, evaluation, analysis, and
publication of demographic, economic, and social data for all individuals in a country or a specific area at a given time.

There are two main methods of conducting a census:

1. De Facto Method:

• In this method, a specific date is chosen for the census, and the enumeration is carried out on that day
throughout the entire country.

• For example, if the census is scheduled for April 1st, everyone present in the country on that day is
included in the count.

2. De Jure Method:

• Instead of a single day, an enumeration period of two or three weeks is set.

• Only individuals who are permanent residents of a place are counted, excluding those who are there
temporarily.

• This method is also known as the real and direct enumeration method.

A population pyramid is a graphical representation illustrating the distribution of different age groups and genders
within a population. It typically resembles a pyramid, with the younger age groups at the bottom and the older age
groups at the top. This visual tool helps demographers analyze population structures and predict demographic trends.

Measures of Central Tendency:

1. Mean:

• The mean is a score that represents the center of a distribution.

• It is used when data is symmetrical and unimodal (has one peak).

• Formula for the sample mean: sum of all scores divided by the number of scores.

Example: Data: 0, 2, 5, 2, 1, 6, 4, 3, 4, 3 Mean = (0 + 2 + 5 + 2 + 1 + 6 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 3) / 10 = 30 / 10 = 3

2. Mode:

• The mode is the most frequently occurring score.

• Useful for nominal data (categories without inherent order).

Examples:

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 • Unimodal (one peak): 3, 4, 6, 5, 4, 1, 3, 3, 2, 7, 5 (Mode = 3)

• Bimodal (two peaks): 4, 3, 5, 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 4, 3, 1 (Modes = 3 and 4)

• No Mode: 2, 3, 5, 4, 6, 4, 3, 2, 6, 5

Problem:

• The mode may give limited information and can be misleading. For example, in the sequence 7, 7, 7, 20, 20, 21,
22, 22, 23, 24, the mode might be misleading.

3. Median:

• The median is the score at the 50th percentile, or the middle score.

• More reliable than the mode, especially with skewed data.

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Determining the Median:

• Arrange scores in ascending or descending order.

• If odd number of scores, the median is the middle score.

• If even, the median is the average of the two middle scores.

Examples:

• Odd number of scores: 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, 11 (Median = 4)

• Even number of scores: 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11 (Median = (4 + 6) / 2 = 5)

In Summary:

• Mean is the average, suitable for symmetrical data.

• Mode is useful for nominal data with distinct categories.

• Median is the middle score, a robust measure, especially with skewed data.

Measures of Dispersion:

1. Range:

• Definition: The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset.

• Calculation: Subtract the lowest value from the highest.

• Example: In a group of individuals arrested for DUI, ages 18, 18, 19, 21, 26, and 30, the range is 30 - 18 = 12
years.

2. Variance:

• Definition: It is the sum of squared deviations from the mean divided by the number of values minus 1.

• Calculation:

• Example: For the ages 18, 18, 19, 21, 26, and 30, the variance is 24.4 years².

3. Standard Deviation:

• Definition: The positive square root of the variance. It is a crucial measure of dispersion.

• Calculation:

• Example: If the variance is 24.4 years², the standard deviation is 24.4≈4.9424.4≈4.94 years.

4. Coefficient of Variation (CV):

• Definition: The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, expressed as a percentage.

• Calculation:

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 • Example: In a class of medical students with a mean weight of 60 kg and a standard deviation of 12 kg, the CV is
20%.

Deviation:

• A score's deviation is the distance from the mean

• The sum of deviations around the mean always equals zero.

• Deviations indicate the error in prediction when using the mean to predict scores.

Example 2:

• Verbal comprehension test scores for males and females.

• Females: 20 to 26

• Males: 17 to 26

• Calculate mean, mode, median for both males and females separately.

Bell Curve or Normal Curve:

• Definition: A continuous frequency distribution of infinite range.

• Importance: Many variables are assumed to be normally distributed in the population.

• Characteristics:

• Bell-shaped, symmetrical, mean=median=mode.

• Asymptotic to the x-axis.

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 • Total area under the curve above the x-axis = 1 or 100%.

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Empirical Rule:

• Describes the percentage of data within specific standard deviations from the mean in a normal distribution.
(68%, 95%, 99.7%)

Characteristics of a Normal/Bell-Shaped Curve:

1. Bell-shaped and symmetrical.

2. Mean=Median=Mode.

3. Asymptotic to the x-axis.

4. Total area under the curve above the x-axis = 1 or 100%.

Vital Rates: Morbidity and Mortality

Morbidity:

• Morbidity measures characterize the number of individuals in a population who become ill (incidence) or are ill
at a given time (prevalence).

Mortality:

• Mortality rates measure the frequency of death occurrence in a defined population during a specified time
interval.

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Incidence:

• Incidence is a measure of disease representing a person's probability of being diagnosed during a given period.

• It is the number of newly diagnosed cases of a disease.

• Incidence rate = (Number of new cases) / (Number of persons at risk) during a specified time.

Example:

• In a gastroenteritis outbreak, 30 of 99 persons who ate potato salad developed the illness.

• Incidence rate = (30 / 99) × 100 = 30.3%.

Prevalence:

• Prevalence is a measure indicating a person's likelihood of having a disease.

• It is the total number of cases existing in a population.

• Prevalence rate = (Total cases of disease) / (Total population) during a specified time.

• The key difference: Incidence considers new cases, while prevalence includes both new and preexisting cases.

Important Mortality Rates:

1. Crude Death Rate:

• Total deaths during a time interval / Mid-interval population per 1,000.

2. Case Fatality Rate:

• Deaths assigned to a specific cause / Total number of cases per 1,000.

3. Proportionate Mortality Rate:

• Deaths assigned to a specific cause / Total deaths from all causes during the same time per 1,000.

4. Infant Mortality Rate:

• Deaths among children < 1 year / Number of live births during the same time per 1,000.

5. Maternal Mortality Rate:

• Deaths assigned to pregnancy-related causes / Number of live births during the same time per 100,000.

Natality Rates:

1. Crude Birth Rate:

• Number of live births in a geographical area during a year / Mid-year total population of the area per
1,000.

2. General Fertility Rate:

• Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years during a time period, divided by the length of the
period.

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 3. Fecundity Rate:

• Number of live births among married women in childbearing period in a geographical area during a year
per 1,000.

Sampling Methods: Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Sampling Techniques:

• Two main categories: Probability sampling and non-probability sampling.

• Probability Sampling: Every eligible individual has a chance of being chosen, allowing for more generalizable
results.

• Non-Probability Sampling: Some individuals have no chance of being selected, leading to a risk of non-
representative samples. However, these methods are often more cost-effective and convenient.

Probability Sampling Methods:

1. Simple Random Sampling:

• Each individual is chosen entirely by chance, with an equal probability of selection.

• A random sample can be obtained by assigning numbers to individuals and using a table of random
numbers.

2. Systematic Sampling:

• Systematic sampling is a method of selecting individuals from a sampling frame at regular intervals to
achieve a representative sample size. The process involves determining the appropriate interval, which is
calculated by dividing the population size (x) by the desired sample size (n). For instance, if a researcher
aims to obtain a sample size of 100 from a population of 1000, the selection would involve choosing
every 1000/100 = 10th member from the sampling frame.

• In practical terms, this means selecting every nth individual in a systematic manner, ensuring that the
intervals are determined systematically and consistently. This method provides a structured approach to
sampling, making it easier to manage and analyze, especially when dealing with large populations.
Systematic sampling helps strike a balance between the need for a representative sample and the
practical considerations of sampling logistics.

3. Stratified Random Sample:

• The target population is divided into strata based on attributes like age, sex, occupation, etc.

• Random samples are drawn from each stratum, and the final sample is the sum of samples from all
strata.

• Advantage: Provides accurate data when the distribution of the studied variable is not uniform among
strata.

4. Multistage Sampling:

• Sampling is done in stages, using smaller units at each stage.

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 • It involves dividing the population into clusters and taking samples from these clusters.

5. Clustered Sampling:

• Subgroups or clusters of the population are used as the sampling unit instead of individual members.

• Clusters are randomly selected to be included in the study.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods:

1. Convenience Sampling:

• Individuals are selected based on ease of access or convenience.

• This method is often quick and cost-effective.

2. Quota Sampling:

• Researchers establish quotas for different categories and then sample individuals who fit those
categories until the quota is met.

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling:

• Researchers use their judgment to select individuals who meet specific criteria for the study.

4. Snowball Sampling:

• Existing participants recruit new participants, creating a chain or "snowball" effect.

Types of Data: Numerical and Qualitative

Numerical Data (Quantitative):

• Definition: Data that have meaning as a measurement, such as a person's height, weight, IQ, or blood pressure.

• Discrete Data:

• Definition: Represents items that can be counted.

• Examples: Pulse rate, number of children per family, parity.

• Continuous Data:

• Definition: Represents measurements where possible values cannot be counted and are described using
intervals on the real number line.

• Examples: Body weight in kg, height in meters.

Qualitative Data:

• Categorical Data:

• Definition: Represents characteristics like a person's gender, marital status, hometown, or movie
preferences.

• Examples: Male (1) or Female (2), categories without mathematical meaning.

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 • Other Names: Qualitative data, non-numeric data.

In summary:

• Numerical Data is about measurements, and it can be either discrete (countable items) or continuous
(measurable intervals).

• Qualitative Data is about characteristics, and it falls into the category of categorical data, which includes non-
numeric attributes like gender or hometown.

MCQS
MCQ 1:

Question: What is the primary focus of demography?

a) Economic structures
b) Human populations
c) Political systems
d) Environmental sustainability

Answer: b) Human populations

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MCQ 2:

Question: In the De Facto Method of conducting a census, when are individuals included in the count?

a) Only permanent residents

b) Only those present on a specific date
c) Both permanent and temporary residents
d) Only those absent on a specific date

Answer: b) Only those present on a specific date

MCQ 3:

Question: What is the primary purpose of a population pyramid?

a) Economic analysis
b) Political forecasting
c) Analyzing population structures and trends
d) Environmental conservation

Answer: c) Analyzing population structures and trends

MCQ 4:

Question: When is the De Jure Method used in census enumeration?

a) On a single specific date

b) Over a period of two or three weeks
c) Only during emergencies
d) Quarterly throughout the year

Answer: b) Over a period of two or three weeks

MCQ 5:

Question: What is the mean in statistics?

a) The most frequently occurring score

b) The middle score
c) The average of a distribution
d) The difference between the highest and lowest values

Answer: c) The average of a distribution

MCQ 6:

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Question: When is the mode most useful?

a) With symmetrical data

b) With skewed data
c) With nominal data
d) When calculating the range

Answer: c) With nominal data

MCQ 7:

Question: How is the median calculated for an odd number of scores?

a) The average of the two middle scores

b) The middle score
c) The difference between the highest and lowest values
d) The sum of squared deviations

Answer: b) The middle score

MCQ 8:

Question: What is the range of a dataset?

a) The average of the values

b) The difference between the mean and the median
c) The difference between the highest and lowest values
d) The ratio of standard deviation to the mean

Answer: c) The difference between the highest and lowest values

MCQ 9:

Question: What does the variance represent?

a) The average of the values

b) The sum of squared deviations from the mean
c) The middle score
d) The ratio of standard deviation to the mean

Answer: b) The sum of squared deviations from the mean

MCQ 10:

Question: What is the Coefficient of Variation (CV) used for?

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a) Calculating the mean
b) Measuring the spread of data relative to the mean
c) Determining the mode
d) Analyzing population structures

Answer: b) Measuring the spread of data relative to the mean

MCQ 11:

Question: What does the Empirical Rule describe in a normal distribution?

a) The average value

b) The percentage of data within specific standard deviations from the mean
c) The range of values
d) The mode

Answer: b) The percentage of data within specific standard deviations from the mean

MCQ 12:

Question: In a normal distribution, what is the total area under the curve above the x-axis?

a) 50%
b) 75%
c) 100%
d) 25%

Answer: c) 100%

MCQ 13:

Question: What is the characteristic shape of a normal or bell-shaped curve?

a) Triangular
b) Asymptotic
c) Square
d) Exponential

Answer: b) Asymptotic

MCQ 14:

Question: Which measure of central tendency is most suitable for skewed data?

a) Mean
b) Mode

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c) Median
d) Range

Answer: c) Median

MCQ 15:

Question: What does the deviation of a score from the mean indicate?

a) The error in prediction when using the median

b) The error in prediction when using the mode
c) The distance from the mean
d) The range of values

Answer: c) The distance from the mean

MCQ 16:

Question: In which method of conducting a census are only permanent residents counted?

a) De Facto Method
b) De Jure Method
c) Both methods
d) Neither method

Answer: b) De Jure Method

MCQ 17:

Question: When is the mode considered limited and potentially misleading?

a) In symmetrical data
b) In skewed data
c) In sequences with distinct categories
d) In sequences with similar values

Answer: c) In sequences with distinct categories

MCQ 18:

Question: What is the primary purpose of the De Facto Method in census enumeration?

a) To count only permanent residents

b) To count individuals over a period of weeks
c) To count everyone present on a specific date
d) To count only individuals absent on a specific date

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Answer: c) To count everyone present on a specific date

MCQ 19:

Question: In the context of a population pyramid, where are younger age groups typically represented?

a) At the top
b) In the middle
c) At the bottom
d) In the center

Answer: c) At the bottom

MCQ 20:

Question: Which method of conducting a census is also known as the real and direct enumeration method?

a) De Facto Method
b) De Jure Method
c) Both methods
d) Neither method

Answer: b) De Jure Method

MCQ 21:

Question: What does the Coefficient of Variation express?

a) The difference between the mean and median

b) The ratio of standard deviation to the mean
c) The range of values
d) The average of the values

Answer: b) The ratio of standard deviation to the mean

MCQ 22:

Question: What does the range represent in a dataset?

a) The sum of squared deviations from the mean

b) The difference between the highest and lowest values
c) The middle score
d) The average of the values

Answer: b) The difference between the highest and lowest values

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MCQ 23:

Question: In which situation might the mode be misleading?

a) In symmetrical data
b) In skewed data
c) In sequences with similar values
d) In sequences with distinct categories

Answer: d) In sequences with distinct categories

MCQ 24:

Question: What is the primary characteristic of a normal or bell-shaped curve?

a) Triangular shape
b) Asymptotic to the x-axis
c) Square shape
d) Exponential shape

Answer: b) Asymptotic to the x-axis

MCQ 25:

Question: Which measure of central tendency is suitable for nominal data?

a) Mean
b) Mode
c) Median
d) Range

Answer: b) Mode

MCQ 26:

Question: What is the purpose of the Empirical Rule in statistics?

a) To calculate the range

b) To describe the percentage of data within specific standard deviations from the mean
c) To determine the mode
d) To analyze population structures

Answer: b) To describe the percentage of data within specific standard deviations from the mean

MCQ 27:

Question: In a normal distribution, what does the mean equal?

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a) The median
b) The mode
c) The range
d) The standard deviation

Answer: a) The median

MCQ 28:

Question: What does the variance measure in a dataset?

a) The middle score

b) The range of values
c) The sum of squared deviations from the mean
d) The average of the values

Answer: c) The sum of squared deviations from the mean

MCQ 29:

Question: What is the primary use of a population pyramid?

a) Economic forecasting
b) Analyzing population structures and trends
c) Political analysis
d) Environmental conservation

Answer: b) Analyzing population structures and trends

MCQ 30:

Question: What does the sum of deviations around the mean always equal?

a) The median
b) The mode
c) The range
d) Zero

Answer: d) Zero

MCQ 31:

Question: What does morbidity measure in a population?

a) Number of live births

b) Number of deaths

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c) Number of individuals who become ill
d) Number of individuals who migrate

Answer: c) Number of individuals who become ill

MCQ 32:

Question: What is incidence in the context of disease measurement?

a) The total number of cases existing in a population

b) The number of newly diagnosed cases of a disease
c) The total number of deaths in a population
d) The probability of having a disease

Answer: b) The number of newly diagnosed cases of a disease

MCQ 33:

Question: How is the incidence rate calculated?

a) (Number of new cases) / (Total population)

b) (Number of new cases) / (Number of persons at risk)
c) (Total cases of disease) / (Total population)
d) (Total cases of disease) / (Number of persons at risk)

Answer: b) (Number of new cases) / (Number of persons at risk)

MCQ 34:

Question: What is the key difference between incidence and prevalence?

a) Incidence includes both new and preexisting cases, while prevalence considers only new cases.
b) Incidence and prevalence measure the same aspect of disease occurrence.
c) Incidence considers only new cases, while prevalence includes both new and preexisting cases.
d) Incidence and prevalence are interchangeable terms.

Answer: c) Incidence considers only new cases, while prevalence includes both new and preexisting cases.

MCQ 35:

Question: What does prevalence measure?

a) The number of deaths in a population

b) The probability of having a disease
c) The total number of cases existing in a population
d) The number of live births

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Answer: c) The total number of cases existing in a population

MCQ 36:

Question: What is the Crude Death Rate?

a) Number of live births during a specified time per 1,000

b) Total deaths during a time interval / Mid-interval population per 1,000
c) Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years
d) Number of live births in a geographical area during a year

Answer: b) Total deaths during a time interval / Mid-interval population per 1,000

MCQ 37:

Question: What is the Case Fatality Rate?

a) Number of live births during a specified time per 1,000

b) Deaths assigned to a specific cause / Total number of cases per 1,000
c) Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years
d) Number of live births in a geographical area during a year

Answer: b) Deaths assigned to a specific cause / Total number of cases per 1,000

MCQ 38:

Question: What is the primary purpose of Natality Rates?

a) Measure the frequency of death occurrence

b) Measure the frequency of disease occurrence
c) Measure the frequency of live births
d) Measure the frequency of migration

Answer: c) Measure the frequency of live births

MCQ 39:

Question: What is the Crude Birth Rate?

a) Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years

b) Number of live births in a geographical area during a year / Mid-year total population of the area per 1,000
c) Number of live births to women in childbearing years during a time period
d) Number of live births among married women in childbearing period in a geographical area during a year per 1,000

Answer: b) Number of live births in a geographical area during a year / Mid-year total population of the area per 1,000

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MCQ 40:

Question: What is General Fertility Rate?

a) Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years during a time period

b) Number of live births among married women in childbearing period in a geographical area during a year per 1,000
c) Number of live births in a geographical area during a year / Mid-year total population of the area per 1,000
d) Deaths among children < 1 year / Number of live births during the same time per 1,000

Answer: a) Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years during a time period

MCQ 41:

Question: What is Fecundity Rate?

a) Ratio of live births to women in childbearing years during a time period

b) Number of live births in a geographical area during a year / Mid-year total population of the area per 1,000
c) Number of live births among married women in childbearing period in a geographical area during a year per 1,000
d) Number of newly diagnosed cases of a disease

Answer: c) Number of live births among married women in childbearing period in a geographical area during a year per
1,000

MCQ 42:

Question: What is the purpose of Simple Random Sampling?

a) Select individuals based on ease of access

b) Select individuals using their judgment
c) Ensure that every eligible individual has an equal chance of being chosen
d) Divide the population into strata based on attributes

Answer: c) Ensure that every eligible individual has an equal chance of being chosen

MCQ 43:

Question: In Systematic Sampling, how are individuals selected?

a) Using random numbers

b) Based on ease of access
c) At regular intervals from the sampling frame
d) Using their judgment

Answer: c) At regular intervals from the sampling frame

MCQ 44:

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Question: What is the primary advantage of Stratified Random Sampling?

a) It is quick and cost-effective

b) It ensures every eligible individual has an equal chance of being chosen
c) It provides accurate data when the distribution of the studied variable is not uniform among strata
d) It involves dividing the population into clusters

Answer: c) It provides accurate data when the distribution of the studied variable is not uniform among strata

MCQ 45:

Question: What is the key characteristic of Non-Probability Sampling?

a) Every eligible individual has an equal chance of being chosen

b) Some individuals have no chance of being selected
c) It ensures a representative sample
d) It is more cost-effective and convenient

Answer: b) Some individuals have no chance of being selected

MCQ 46:

Question: What is Convenience Sampling based on?

a) Ease of access or convenience

b) Quotas for different categories
c) Judgment of the researchers
d) Random numbers

Answer: a) Ease of access or convenience

MCQ 47:

Question: What is the purpose of Quota Sampling?

a) Ensure every eligible individual has an equal chance of being chosen

b) Provide accurate data when the distribution of the studied variable is not uniform among strata
c) Establish quotas for different categories and sample individuals who fit those categories until the quota is met
d) Use judgment to select individuals who meet specific criteria

Answer: c) Establish quotas for different categories and sample individuals who fit those categories until the quota is met

MCQ 48:

Question: In which sampling method do existing participants recruit new participants, creating a chain effect?

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a) Simple Random Sampling
b) Systematic Sampling
c) Snowball Sampling
d) Stratified Random Sampling

Answer: c) Snowball Sampling

MCQ 49:

Question: What is Numerical Data?

a) Characteristics like gender or hometown

b) Data that have meaning as a measurement
c) The total number of cases existing in a population
d) Data that represents items that can be counted

Answer: b) Data that have meaning as a measurement

MCQ 50:

Question: What is Categorical Data?

a) Characteristics like gender or hometown

b) Data that represents items that can be counted
c) The total number of cases existing in a population
d) Data that have meaning as a measurement

Answer: a) Characteristics like gender or hometown

TESTS BY SALAAALALALALALALALALAMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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TEST 1
ection 1: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. What is demography? a. The study of rocks and minerals b. The study of human populations and their changes c.
The study of weather patterns d. The study of ancient civilizations

2. Which method of conducting a census involves an enumeration period of two or three weeks? a. De Facto
Method b. De Jure Method c. Both methods involve the same duration d. None of the above

3. What is the mean in statistics? a. The most frequently occurring score b. The score at the 50th percentile c. A
score that represents the center of a distribution d. The difference between the highest and lowest values

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 4. What does the mode measure? a. The middle score b. The most frequently occurring score c. The average of the
two middle scores d. The distance from the mean

5. What is the primary characteristic of a bell-shaped curve? a. Asymptotic to the y-axis b. Mean ≠ Median ≠ Mode
c. Bell-shaped and symmetrical d. Total area under the curve below the x-axis = 1

Section 2: Matching

Match the following:

A. Crude Death Rate B. Incidence C. Clustered Sampling D. Continuous Data E. Stratified Random Sample

1. Measure of disease representing a person's probability of being diagnosed during a given period.

2. Subgroups or clusters of the population are used as the sampling unit instead of individual members.

3. Represents measurements where possible values cannot be counted and are described using intervals on the
real number line.

4. Total deaths during a time interval divided by the mid-interval population per 1,000.

5. The target population is divided into strata based on attributes, and random samples are drawn from each
stratum.

Section 3: Written Response

Explain the significance of the "Empirical Rule" in the context of a normal distribution. How does it help researchers in
understanding and interpreting data? Provide examples to illustrate its application.

Answers:

1. b

2. b

3. c

4. b

5. c

Matching:

1. B - Incidence

2. C - Clustered Sampling

3. D - Continuous Data

4. A - Crude Death Rate

5. E - Stratified Random Sample

Written Response:

The Empirical Rule is crucial in understanding and interpreting data in a normal distribution. It states that in a normal
distribution, approximately 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within two standard

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deviations, and 99.7% within three standard deviations. This rule helps researchers assess the spread of data and identify
the probability of data falling within specific ranges. For example, if a variable follows a normal distribution, researchers
can use the Empirical Rule to predict that about 95% of the values will fall within two standard deviations from the
mean. This aids in making statistical inferences and understanding the distribution's characteristics, facilitating more
informed decision-making in various fields.

TEST 2
Section 1: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. What is the primary purpose of a census? a. To study weather patterns b. To collect and analyze data about a
population c. To analyze economic trends d. To examine geological formations

2. Which sampling method involves selecting individuals based on ease of access or convenience? a. Simple
Random Sampling b. Clustered Sampling c. Convenience Sampling d. Stratified Random Sample

3. What is the mode in statistics? a. The average of the two middle scores b. The score at the 50th percentile c. The
most frequently occurring score d. The difference between the highest and lowest values

4. What does the coefficient of variation (CV) measure? a. The difference between the highest and lowest values
b. The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean c. The middle score d. The average of the two middle scores

5. In a population pyramid, where are the older age groups typically represented? a. At the bottom b. In the
middle c. At the top d. Throughout the pyramid

Section 2: Matching

Match the following:

A. De Facto Method B. Variance C. Quota Sampling D. Prevalence E. Multistage Sampling

1. Involves selecting individuals based on ease of access or convenience.

2. The sum of squared deviations from the mean divided by the number of values minus 1.

3. An enumeration method where a specific date is chosen for the census, and everyone present on that day is
included.

4. Measures indicating a person's likelihood of having a disease.

5. Sampling is done in stages, using smaller units at each stage.

Section 3: Written Response

Explain the differences between the De Facto and De Jure methods of conducting a census. Provide examples to illustrate
when each method might be more appropriate.

Answers:

1. b

2. c

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 3. c

4. b

5. c

Matching:

1. C - Quota Sampling

2. B - Variance

3. A - De Facto Method

4. D - Prevalence

5. E - Multistage Sampling

Written Response:

The De Facto method involves choosing a specific date for the census, and the enumeration is carried out on that day
throughout the entire country. Everyone present in the country on that day is included in the count. On the other hand,
the De Jure method sets an enumeration period of two or three weeks, and only individuals who are permanent
residents of a place are counted, excluding those who are there temporarily.

The choice between De Facto and De Jure methods depends on the study's objectives and the population's
characteristics. For example, the De Facto method might be more suitable for capturing the actual population present in
a country at a specific moment, such as for assessing real-time demographic trends. In contrast, the De Jure method
might be preferred in situations where temporary residents significantly affect the population but are not the focus of
the study, ensuring a more accurate representation of the permanent population.

TEST 3
Section 1: Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

1. What is the primary purpose of a population pyramid? a. To study economic trends b. To represent the
distribution of different age groups and genders within a population c. To analyze weather patterns d. To
measure mortality rates

2. Which measure of central tendency is most reliable with skewed data? a. Mean b. Mode c. Median d. Range

3. What does the Empirical Rule describe in a normal distribution? a. The difference between the highest and
lowest values b. The percentage of data within specific standard deviations from the mean c. The most
frequently occurring score d. The total area under the curve below the x-axis

4. Which vital rate measures the frequency of death occurrence in a defined population during a specified time
interval? a. Crude Birth Rate b. Case Fatality Rate c. Crude Death Rate d. Maternal Mortality Rate

5. What is the primary characteristic of a bell-shaped curve? a. Mean ≠ Median ≠ Mode b. Asymptotic to the y-axis
c. Total area under the curve above the x-axis = 1 d. Bell-shaped and symmetrical

Section 2: Matching

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Match the following:

A. Judgement Sampling B. Standard Deviation C. General Fertility Rate D. Mode E. Infant Mortality Rate

1. A measure of dispersion, representing the positive square root of the variance.

2. The most frequently occurring score in a dataset.

3. Deaths among children less than 1 year old divided by the number of live births during the same time.

4. A sampling method where researchers use their judgment to select individuals who meet specific criteria for the
study.

5. The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, expressed as a percentage.

Section 3: Written Response

Explain the significance of the "Clustered Sampling" method in research. Provide examples of situations where clustered
sampling might be more practical or advantageous compared to other sampling methods.

Answers:

1. b

2. c

3. b

4. c

5. d

Matching:

1. B - Standard Deviation

2. D - Mode

3. E - Infant Mortality Rate

4. A - Judgement Sampling

5. C - General Fertility Rate

Written Response:

Clustered Sampling involves using subgroups or clusters of the population as the sampling unit. This method is
advantageous in situations where the population is naturally grouped or when it is more practical to sample clusters
rather than individual members. For example, in a study involving schools in a city, clusters of schools could be randomly
selected, and then all students within those schools would be included in the sample. This approach is more efficient and
cost-effective than attempting to sample individual students from across the entire city. Clustered Sampling is particularly
useful when there is heterogeneity within clusters but homogeneity between clusters.

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