2 ND

QUARTER
FIRST LESSON
MOLECULES OF LIFE
 All living organisms and all the things in the physical
environment are made up of matter.
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Matter is present on Earth in four physical states- solid,
liquid and gas, and plasma.
 Living organisms, together with other non living
matter, are made up of matter in the form of
chemicals.
Functions of the Seven Major Elements in Living Systems
SYMBOL NAME FUNCTIONS

C Carbon The main composition of organic compounds

H Hydrogen The major source of fuel in the production of energy

O Oxygen Essential part of water molecule and organic

compounds
N Nitrogen Key element in proteins

P Phosphorus Major component of nucleic acids and energy-rich

compounds
S Sulfur Part of some amino acids and vitamins

Ca Calcium Major components of bones and acts as biological

signals in the body.
 Other elements in Living Systems and Their Functions

Symbol Name Functions

Na Sodium Essential for nerve function
K Potassium Essential for nerve function

I Iodine Acts as a thermostat to regulate body

temperature
Md Molybdenum Needed by plants to incorporate
nitrogen into a biologically useful
substance
Mg Magnesium Important component of bones, teeth,
and chlorophyll
Fe Iron Carrier of oxygen in the blood
Other elements found in tiny amounts in living
systems include iron (Fe), molybdenum (Md),
selenum (Se), vanadium (V), iodine (I), boron (B),
chromium (Cr), fluorine (F), silicon (Si), chlorine
(Cl, manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu),
and zinc (Zn).

These elements are called trace elements, are

present in small amounts, for survival.
 The bodies of all living organisms contain between

Water 45 to 95 % water.

Water has the unique properties that makes it suitable for maintaining
homeostasis among organisms.
The tendency of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds and its polarity
gives water its unique characteristics and function in living systems.

1. Water is a biological solvent.

 Ability to dissolve many substances

2. Water molecules stick to each other and to surface.

 Water molecules stick to one another through hydrogen atoms in a property called
cohesion, and cling to other polar surfaces through adhesion.

3. Water has high surface tension

 Due to hydrogen bonding

4. Water has high heat capacity.

 Large amount of energy (heat) is needed to raise the temperature of water .

5. Water has high heat of vaporization.

 Large amount of heat to turn liquid water into gas or vapor.
The tendency of water molecules to form hydrogen bonds and its polarity
gives water its unique characteristics and function in living systems.

6. Water has high heat of fusion

 Large amount of heat to removed from liquid water turn it into solid state or ice.

7. Water is a medium where chemical and physical processes take place.

 Medium for breakdown and the formation of food, absorption, secretion, and excretion.

3. Water serve as a moisturizer of surfaces

 Gas exchange in respiratory organs of animals takes place in a membrane moistened
with water.

4. Water is a lubricant
 Prevents friction in joints during movements

5. Water is a good cushion

 Water in the cerebrospinal fluid protects the brain and the spinal cord.
● Most organisms, such as animals and humans,
must maintain a neutral pH for normal functioning.
● pH value of a substance is a measurement of how
acidic or basic it is.
● The pH of the cell’s internal environment stay fairly
neutral, between 6.5 to 7.5, where most of the vital
cellular processes takes place.

Buffer is a mixture of weak acid and its corresponding base

that controls the pH of a given substance.
Electrolytes are minerals in your blood and other body
fluids that carry an electric charge. Electrolytes affect how
your body functions in many ways, including: The amount of
water in your body. The acidity of your blood (pH) Your
muscle function.
 Some important Electrolytes in the Body
Electrolyte Functions
Bicarbonate Regulates heat function
Maintain body’s pH
Calcium Component of bones and teeth
Plays important role in nerve impulses and muscle movement.
Chloride Maintain water balance
Magnesium Aids in production of DNA and RNA
Contributes to normal nerve and muscle function
Maintains normal heart rhythm
Enhances immune system
Regulates blood glucose levels
Phosphate Strengthens bones and teeth
Potassium Helps cells produce energy needed for tissue growth and repair
Aids in generating electrical impulses in the body for normal brain and muscle
functioning
Sodium Helps with electrical signals in the body
Part of water regulation
 Carbon dioxide is an inorganic compound that is
essential for organisms that perform photosynthesis.
Among animals, carbon dioxide is a waste product in the
breakdown of organic food substances, such as glucose, an
organic food rich in energy.
Because high level of carbon dioxide is harmful to
animal cells, it must be eliminated by the body through
respiration.
PAGE178E-178F
 DISCUSSION PER GROUP

PROTEINS
CARBOHYDRATES
LIPIDS
NUCLEIC ACID
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES- make up
cells in the body
Water is the main inorganic compound in all living organisms. If
water evaporated, the remaining dry weight of all living
organisms would consist of molecules containing carbon.

Carbon is often called the building block of life because these

atoms are the basis for forming the structures of living things and
carries out most od life’s functions.
● Carbon-containing molecules are called organic
compounds.

● Organic molecules are also known as

macromolecules due to their relatively large
size as compared to inorganic compounds.

● A chain of carbon atoms is called carbon

skeleton and this can bond with carbon rings to
form larger or more complex molecules.
Carbon- based molecules are often the results of smaller
molecules called subunits, link together in a chain. Each
subunit molecules is called monomers.

Monomers that linked together, to form complex molecules

are called polymers.
Polymer is a macromolecules consisting of a series
carbohydrates, but may also be different as in the case of
protein.
 PROTEINS
Protein are the most abundant
organic compounds in living
organisms that is responsible for
as much 15% of the body’s dry
weight.

Protein are polymers made up of

a chain of the basic building
blocks called amino acids.
Amino Acids are composed of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
 Organisms use 20 essential
amino acids that serve as
building blocks in the
formation of different
proteins.

An amino acid is made up of an amino group (-NH2), a

carboxyl group (- COOH), and hydro’carbon the R group,
which is a side chain.
The different amino acid differ only on their side chain.
Human body is capable of producing about 12 amino acids to
form proteins. Other amino acids that human body cannot
synthesize, called essential amino acids are directly or
indirectly obtained from animals and plat source.

Beans are good source of

isoleucine and lysine.
TYPE FUNCTION EXAMPLE
STRUCTURAL Form the structural parts of cells and keratin, collagen, myosin
tissues
ENZYMATIC chemical reactions in human body; amylase, protease, lipase
formation of new molecules by reading Trypsin
the genetic information stored in DNA
and for digestive system
TRANSPORT membrane protein in form of channel channel proteins, carrier proteins,
and carrier protein sodium-potassium pumps, GLUT1,
proton pump, calcium ATPase,

DEFENSE defense system against disease-causing keratin, collagen, and elastin

foreign organisms Salivary amylase,ptyalin
REGULATORY/ SIGNAL regulates body function-growth factors peptidase or amylase

CONTRACTILE allow movement and cause muscle actin, mysosin

contraction
STORAGE reserves of amino acids for growth and albumin
development
Proteins carry out
almost all activities
inside the cell. Many
other protein help
form blood clots,
activate genes, and
function as
membrane receptors,
transporters, and
contractile elements.
Carbohydrates serves as the cell’s source of
energy and building material.
-> made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
molecules, 1:2:1

Carbohydrate may be monosaccharides,

disaccharides and polysaccharides
Are simple sugars with only one sugar unit.
They are identified based on the number of carbon
atoms they are made up.
Triose, such as glyceraldehyde (C3H6O3), is a
monosaccharide with three carbon atoms,
Pentose, such as ribose (C5H12O5), is a monosaccharide
with five carbon atom.
Hexose, with six carbon atoms (C6H12O6) fructose( corn
sugar), galactose, mannosem and glucose (dextrose-
blood sugar)
 Monosaccharides are highly soluble in water and can easily pass through
membranes such as cell membrane.
Glucose are instant sources of energy in the cell

Fructose is commonly found in palnts, but rarely found in animals. Sweetest known
sugar fruits, such as ripe mangoes, melon and sugar apple.

Glucose is an indispensable component of the mammalian blood and is found at least

small amount in all animals.

Ribose and deoxyribose are simple sugar forming the backbones of RNA and DNA.
 Are complex sugars made up of two molecules of
monosaccharides chemically joined together.
 The chemical formula of a disaccharide is C12H22O11
 The chemical process where two monosaccharides are joined
together to form a disaccharide with the loss of water
molecule is called condensation or dehydration synthesis.
 Sucrose, the common table sugar, is a disaccharide formed
from the chemical combination of glucose and fructose.
 Sucrose is found in sugercane, sugar beets, carrots, and other
sweet fruits.
 It is not found in mammals.
Diagram showing the formation of disaccharides, particularly the synthesis of sucrose.
 Maltose are malt sugar is made up of two
glucose molecules, which occur in malted
cereals and sprouting grains.
 Lactose or milk sugar is composed of one
molecule of galactose and one molecule of
glucose.
 A disaccharide can be broken down into
simple sugars by heating it with acids or
heating it with acids or treating it with suitable
enzyme. The chemical reaction where water
molecule is added to split a disaccharide into
its component units is called hydrolysis or
hydrolytic reaction.
 Are complex sugars made u of chains or
branches of monosaccharides formed by
condensation reaction.
 The basic formula for a polysaccharide is
(C6H12O5)n, where n refers to the number of
monosaccharides present.

Polysaccharides are capable of acting as energy storage or

structural molecules as parts of cell structures.
 Starch and glycogen are examples of storage polysaccharides,
while cellulose and chitin are examples of structural
polysaccharides.
 Starch is a storage of carbohydrate
in plants composed entirely of
glucose molecules.
 It is commonly found in potato
tubers, cassava, carrots, corn, and
cereals.

Glycogen is a storage carbohydrates in animals, which accumulates in

the liver and muscle cells of vertebrates.
Glycogen and starch are ideal storage
polysaccharides for the following reasons:

Both can easily broken down into glucose

molecules when needed
Both are insoluble in water, thus, do not affect
osmotic pressure in cell.
Both have compact shape, thus, occupy less space.
Both cannot diffuse through cell membranes
because of their relatively large size
Cellulose, the most abundant
organic compound on Earth, is a
structural of polysaccharide
found in plant cell walls.
 It is highly insoluble
carbohydrate that functions
fro support and protection for
plants.

Cellulose is a rich supply of glucose, but human and many animals

are not capable of digesting it.
Ruminants, eat cellulose-rich materials such as grass and hay but
rely on bacteria present in their digestive tract to digest cellulose.
Chitin is a structural polysaccharide in the outer coverings of
crustaceans and insect.
 It has protective and supportive functions.
 It is highly insoluble and does not expand in water, making
animals survive aquatic environments.
 Chitin is also effective source of surgical sutures or threads due
to its flexibility an strength.
 Aside from medical uses chitin is also used in industrial,
pharmaceutical, and biotechnological purposes.
 Lipids are organic substances that include fats and fat-lie
substances, such as phospholipid, wax, steroid, and
sphingolipid.
 Lipid are generally hydrophobic substances and are insoluble
in water but soluble in organic solvents, such as benzene, ether,
and chloroform.
 Lipids is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but
contain less oxygen in proportion to hydrogen.
 Tristearin, the primary fat in beef, has formula C57H110O6
Lipids in living organisms have the following functions:

 Solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and hormones.

 Prevents water loss from skin surface. The thin layer
of oil secreted by sebaceous glands in the skin
prevents water evaporation.
 Essential parts of cell structures such as cell
membrane.
 Insulating material to prevent heat loss and
protection against extreme cold.
 Source and storage of energy. Lipids provide twice
as much energy per pound as carbohydrates.
Fats are lipids composed of one molecule of glycerol (an alcohol
containing 3 carbon) and three fatty acid molecules.
 Fats can be broken down into simpler compounds by the
addition of water or hydrolysis. Three molecules of water are
needed to break one molecule of fat into its component
glycerol and three fatty acids with the aid of an enzyme
called lipase.

There are two types of fatty acids- saturated and unsaturated.

Saturated fatty acids are solid at room temperature. These are
mostly found in animals. Lard, margarine, and butter

Unsaturated fatty acids occur in liquid state at room temperature.

They are mainly found in plants- vegetable oil and corn oil.
 Other examples of lipids
Phospholipids are important components of cell
membrane. They are made up of two fatty acid
molecules and one phosphate group.
Waxes are lipids, which are important components for
many organisms, such as the cuticle covering the surface
of leaves and stems of plants, and protective coverings
on the skin and fur of some animals.
Steroids are lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused
rings. Cholesterol, bile salts, sex hormones, and vitamin D
are examples of steroids.
Other examples of lipids
Triglycerides, also known as blood fats, circulate in
the bloodstream along with cholesterol.

Sphingolipids are specifically found in the brain, lungs,

and nerve tissues. They also serve as surfactants that
help reduce tension on the lungs to maintain its right
shape.
Nucleic acids are organic compounds that
function for the storage of genetic
information, which is transmitted from one
generation to the next in all living organisms.
 The physical carrier of inheritance that is
passed from parents to offspring.
 Nucleic acids also function in protein
synthesis, as they carry the code needed
in the formation of specific proteins.
The types of nucleic acids in living organisms are
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
Both types of nucleic acids are made up of the basic
building blocks called nucleotide.
A nucleotide is made
up of a five-carbon
sugar, phosphate
group, and
nitrogenous base. The
nitrogenous bases are
either double-ringed
purines, such as
guanine (G) and
adenine (A), or single-
ringed pyramidines,
such as cytosine (C ),
thymine (T0, and
uracil (U)
The structure of DNA as a double-stranded helix molecule was first described by
James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
The two strands that make up a DNA molecule winds around each other, forming
a double spiral molecule that resembles a twisted ladder.
Summary of the Differences Between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

(C5H10O9) (C5H10O5)
Strand Double-stranded Single-stranded

Nitrogenous bases Adenine Adenine

Thymine Uracil
Cytosine Cytosine
Guanine Guanine
Location Mainly in nucleus but also found Found in cytoplasm and nucleus
in mitochondria and chloroplast
Grading Rubric
4 pts
Biomolecules Carbohydrates Topic has 10-20
accurate details w hich
Lipids include examples,
definitions, and locations
Proteins or functions, subtopics
are included, includes
Nucleic Acids 1-2 sketches per topic
Overall Graphic organizer is a
Organization map (not a list or
outline), individual details
are short phrases and
are linked to other
details. Map uses color
or shapes to make it
easy for reader to follow.
3 pts
Topic has 5-9 details
w hich include examples,
definitions, and locations
or functions, subtopics are
included. May include
minor errors with details.
Includes at least 1 sketch.
Graphic is mostly mapped,
though some details are
listed and not linked to
other details. Somew hat
difficult to follow , or minor
problems w ith
organization.
2 pts 1 pt
Topic has at least 4 Few er than four
details w hich include accurate details,
examples, definitions, major errors in details
and locations or and examples.
functions, subtopics are
included, some errors in
details, sketches not
included
Graphic is not w ell Graphic is poorly
mapped, created as lists organized, difficult to
or as paragraphs, details follow ing, lacking links
are not linked, but may or clarity.
be included otherw ise,
somew hat difficult to
read or follow .
Total:
out of 20