Factors that affect DO levels:

MIDTERM EXAM REVIEWER 

- Temperature
BIO TREATMENT OUTLINE - Photosynthetic activity
FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOLOGICAL WASTE - Decomposition activity
- Mixing and turbulence
TREATMENTS - Salinity
 The world is not short of water, the world is short of
water management.
WATER QUALITY ppm at DO 20 ° C
Good 8 to 9 mg/L
POLLUTING PARAMETERS IN WASTEWATER
Slightly polluted 6.7 to 8 mg/L
 Raw wastewaters from urban or industrial discharges
Moderately polluted 4.5 to 6.7 mg/L
may contain many substances which can cause
Heavily polluted below 4.5 mg/L
pollution to the environment and can cause in the end
very negative effects on human life and earth. Gravely polluted below 4 mg/L

 Main parameters or substances that needs to be

Raw wastewater from municipal Treatment Effluenttotothe
Effluent thereceiving
receivingwater
water
removed from wastewater:
or industrial discharges. body.
body.
process - Suspended solids
- Soluble organic matter
 Wastewater cannot in general be discharged to the - Heavy metals
receiving water body, unless they have been treated to - Toxic organic chemicals
remove the polluting substances or to reduce the - Nitrogen and Phosphorus
concentration of these substances below some safe
levels. Suspended Solids
 Visible and in suspension in the water.
Dissolved Oxygen  Includes sand, grit, clay, fecal solids, paper, pieces of
 Most important water quality parameters are the wood, particles of food and garbage, and similar
amount present. materials.
 Amount of oxygen in the dissolved state in the  Measured as Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Volatile
water/wastewater. Suspended Solids (VSS).
 Helps to find the efficiency of biological treatment and  Suspended solids are 70% organic solids and 30%
good quality of fresh water. inorganic solids
Total Solids
 Includes all of the solid constituents of water and
wastewater.
 It is the total organic and inorganic solids or the total of
the suspended, colloids and dissolved solids.
 Total solids are 50% organic and 50% inorganic, and
about two-thirds in solution (dissolved) and one-third
in suspension.
 It constitutes main problem in wastewater treatment.
Dissolved Solids (DS)
 Homogenous and of a single phase
 90% are in true solution and about 10% colloidal.
 Dissolved solids are about 40% organic and 60%
inorganic.
Colloidal Solids
 It is not truly dissolved and yet they do not settle
readily.
 Uniformly dispersed in solution but form a solid phase
that is distinct from the water phase.
 Colloidal solids are about 65% organic and 35%
inorganic.
 Important factor in the treatment and disposal of
wastewater.
Soluble Organic Matter
 In wastewaters it is generally expressed via two lump
parameters, the BIO-CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND
(BOD) and CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD).
BOD
 Amount of oxygen that microorganisms require to
grow on a certain organic compound or on the organic
species contained in a certain wastewater.
COD
 Considered an indicator of the biodegradable organic
matter in that wastewater.
 Measures the amount of oxygen that is necessary for
the complete oxidation of all the organic matter
contained in the sample.
 COD and BOD are the two key parameters used to
characterize the organic content of wastewaters and
the efficiency of biological wastewater treatment
plants.
The BOD is always lower than the COD for two reasons:
 Some organic substances might not be biodegradable,
at least under the conditions (temperature, pH, type of
inoculum, etc.) used in the BOD test. Organic
substances which are not biodegradable contribute to
the COD but not to the BOD.
 Even for totally biodegradable substances the BOD will
be lower than the COD, because the COD is
proportional to all the electrons that an organic
compound can donate to oxygen, whereas the BOD
measure only the electrons that have actually been
donated to oxygen during microbial growth.

Heavy Metals
 Such as chromium, copper, palladium, and nickel, are
usually not present at harmful concentrations in urban
wastewaters.
 They may be present in some industrial wastewater,
depends on the nature of industrial discharge.
Toxic Organic Chemicals
 Substances that can be toxic or harmful to living
organisms even when present in wastewaters at very
low concentrations.
 Also called xenobiotics, micropollutants or priority
pollutants such as:
- Pharmaceuticals
- Detergents
- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
- Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Nitrogen and Phosphorus
 Can be present in municipal and industrial
wastewaters.
 Nitrogen is present as ammonia (NH3 or NH4+) or as
organic nitrogen.
 Phosphorus is mainly present as phosphates (PO43-).
 In municipal wastewaters, nitrogen is mainly present as
a product of human metabolism, whereas phosphorus
may be present due to its presence in laundry liquid.
 A wastewater treatment plant for municipal
wastewaters typically consists of a sequence of three
types of treatment; primary, secondary, and tertiary
treatment.
THE ROLE OF BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
 The purpose of a secondary wastewater is to remove
soluble organics and suspended solids that escape the
primary treatment.
 These removals are typically achieved by biological
treatment process.
MICROORGANISM’S GROWTH ON SUBSTRATE
 Substrate is the term used to denote organic matter
that are present in wastewater.
 The microorganisms are used to consume organics,
nitrify ammonia, denitrify nitrate, and release and
uptake phosphorus.
 Microbiology is a mixed culture of microorganisms
that plays a vital role in biological waste treatment.
 The basic requirements of aerobic biological waste
treatment are:
- presence of mixed population of active
microorganisms,
- good contact between microorganisms and
substrates,
- availability of oxygen,
- availability of nutrients, and maintenance of other
favorable
 - environmental conditions such as temperature and
pH,
- sufficient contact time between food and
microorganisms, and;
- effective separation of microorganisms from the
treated effluent.
Conditions that are achieved in a wide variety of ways:
 Proper equipment and reactor design, and selection
assembly or hardware,
 Effective ways to bring contact between the food and
microorganisms,
 Innovative ways to supply oxygen and maintain mixing,
and;
 Efficient ways to separate microorganisms and release
the treated effluent.
Growth Phase
 The bacteria reproduce by binary fission (division of
original cell into two new cells).
 It varies from less than 20 minutes to several days.
 The growth is slow because the microorganisms
become adjusted to the food and to the new
environment. This is called as the lag growth phase.
Microbial Metabolism
 It involves source of cell carbon, electron donor,
electron acceptor, and end products.
 The carbon sources are organic compounds and CO2.
 The electron donors are the reducing compounds, such
as NH3, NO2-, Fe2+, H2S, S, S2O32-, and others.
 The electron acceptors are oxidants, such as O2, NO2-,
NO3, SO22-, Fe3+, organic compounds and CO2.
Energy, Nutritional, and Growth Factor:
- For growth and survival of microorganisms, there must be:
 Source of energy,
 Sufficient carbon for synthesis of new cells, and,
 Inorganic elements or nutrients.
 Energy needed for the cell synthesis may be supplied
by light or by chemical reactions.
 If oxygen is the electron acceptor, the reaction is
aerobic.
 Reactions involving any other electron acceptors are
considered anaerobic.
 When nitrite and nitrate serve as designated electron
acceptors, the reaction is distinguished as anoxic.
 Obligate aerobes are microorganisms that utilize
oxygen only and die in the absence of oxygen.
 Facultative anaerobes are microorganisms that utilize
oxygen if oxygen is present and switch to other
electron acceptors in the absence of oxygen.
 The principal inorganic nutrients needed by
microorganisms are N, P, S, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, and Cl.
 The major factors are;
- Amino acids
- Purines and Pyrimidines
- Vitamins

STOICHIOMETRY AND BACTERIAL ENERGETICS
 Balanced chemical equations are based upon the
concept of stoichiometry.
MASS BALANCE
 It is an important concept in the engineering design of
biological treatment processes for an environmental
application as well as many other physical/chemical
processes.
 Determine the amount of chemicals that must be
supplied to satisfy the energy, nutrient, and
environmental needs of the microorganisms.
 The amount of end products generated can be
estimated.
 The stoichiometry for microbial reactions is
complicated because;
 Microbial reactions often involve oxidation and
reduction of more than one species.
 Microorganisms have dual roles,
- as catalysts for the reaction
- as products of the reaction
 Microorganisms carry out most chemical reactions.
Energy Reactions
 Oxidation – Reduction reactions
 Provide microorganism’s energy for growth and
maintenance.
Electron donor
 Chemoorganothrophs: organic matter (most common)
 Chemolithotrophs: inorganic compound (NH3, S2-(H2S))
Electron acceptor
 Oxygen under aerobic conditions
 Nitrate, sulfate, carbon dioxide under anaerobic
conditions
 Fermentation: organic matters work as both the
electron donor and acceptor.
 Microorganisms would like to obtain as much energy as
possible from a reaction
 Preference for electron acceptors: oxygen > nitrate >
sulfate > carbon dioxide > organics (fermentation)
 Aerobic organisms need to send less electrons from
their donor substrate to oxygen (the largest energy = -
2,880 kJ) than anaerobic organisms in order to
generate the energy required to synthesize a given
amount of new biomass.
Overall Reactions for Biological Growth
 How to write an overall reaction (Energy + Synthesis)
 Bacterial growth involves two basic reactions:
- Energy production
- Cellular synthesis
Re = Ra – Rd 1 1 1 1 1
= Rs: C6H5COO- + NH4 + → C5H7O2N + H 2O
Rs = Rc – Rd 30 20 60 20 60
HCO3
 General equation for constructing stoichiometric
equations for microbial synthesis and growth:
 Obtain the overall reaction overall reaction (R)
R = fe * Re + fs + Rs including energy and synthesis using portions of
R = f e * R a + fs * R c – R d electrons, fe = 0.6 and fs = 0.4

EXAMPLE: f e * Re
e-donor, C-source: Benzoate 13 1 1 1 1 1
0.6 * C H COO- + NO3- + H+ + e- → CO2 + N +
e-acceptor: Nitrate 30 6 5 5 5 5 10 2 30
N source for cell synthesis: Ammonium 1
HCO3- + H2O
Assumption on a net yield (Yn) basis: fe = 0.6 ; fs = 0.4 6
= 0.02 C6H5COO- + 0.12 NO3- + 0.12 H+ → 0.12 CO2 + 0.06 N2 +
0.02 HCO3- + 0.1 H2O
Energy Reaction: Re = Ra + Rd
1 6 1 3 fs * R s
Ra: NO3- + H+ + e- → N2 + H2O 1 1 1 1 1
5 5 10 5 0.4 * C6H5COO- + NH4 + HCO3 → C5H7O2N +
1 13 1 1 30 20 60 20 60
- Rd: C H COO- + HO → CO2 + HCO3- + H+ + e
30 6 5 30 2 5 30 H 2O
1 1 1 1 1 1 = 0.0133 C6H5COO- + 0.02 NH4 + 0.0067 HCO3 → 0.02 C5H7O2N +
= Re: C6H5COO- + NO3- + H+ + → CO2 + N2 + HCO3
30 5 5 5 10 30 0.0067 H2O
e- H 2O

Synthesis Reaction: Rs = Rc - Rd R = f e * Re + f s * Rs
1 1 1 1 9 fe * Re : 0.02 C6H5COO- + 0.12 NO3- + 0.12 H+ → 0.12 CO2 + 0.06
Rc: CO2- + NH4+ + HCO3- + H+ → C5H7O2N + H 2O
5 20 20 20 20 N2 + 0.02 HCO3- + 0.1 H2O
+ e- fs * Rs : + 0.0133 C6H5COO- + 0.02 NH4 + 0.0067 HCO3 → 0.02
1 13 1 1 C5H7O2N + 0.0067 H2O
- Rd: C6H5COO- + HO → CO2 + HCO3- + H+ + e
30 30 2 5 30
R = 0.0333 C6H5COO- + 0.12 NO3- + 0.02 NH4 + 0.12 H+ → 0.02
C5H7O2N + 0.12 CO2 + 0.06 N2 + 0.1067 H2O (final answer)

 R represents the overall reaction for net synthesis of EXAMPLE

bacteria that are using benzoate as an e-donor, nitrate
as an e-acceptor, and ammonium as a nitrogen source.
Yield Coefficient and Reaction Energetics
∆ G s: the energy required to synthesize one equivalent of cells
from a given carbon source (when NH4+ in N-source)
Compare estimated for f 0s and Y for aerobic oxidation of
acetate, assuming ε = 0.4, that pH = 0.7, and that all other
reactants and products are at unit activity. Ammonium is
available for synthesis. Since the reaction is heterotrophic,
using reaction acetate ∆ G d0’ = 27.40 kJ/e- eq. Therefore,
∆ G p =35.09−27.40=7.69 kJ /e
−¿¿

∆ G p : the energy required to convert the carbon source to

pyruvate Since this is an aerobic reaction, ∆ G a0’ = -78.72 kJ/e-. Thus,
0' 0' −¿ ¿
∆ G pc : the energy required to convert the pyruvate carbon to ∆ Gr =∆ G a −¿ ∆ G d =−78.72−27.40=−106.12kJ /e
cellular source
∆ G c0’: the energy of half reaction for the given e-donor Since ∆ G p is positive, n = +1. Also, since ammonium is
(=carbon source) available for cell synthesis, ∆ G pc equals 18.8 kJ/ e- eq. Hence,
∆ Gr : free energy released per equivalent of donor oxidized for 7.69 18.8
+
energy generation +1
(0.4) (0.4 )
A: equivalents of electron donor A=
−106.12(0.4)
A∆ Gr : the energy released by donor oxidized for energy e-donor: acetate
generation e-acceptor: oxygen
Aε ∆G r: the energy transferred by carrier. n-source: ammonium

∆ G p ∆ G pc 1 +¿+e
1
−¿→ H 2 O ¿
2
¿
n
+ Ra: O2+ H
ε ε 4
A= 1 9

−ε ∆ Gr
−¿ → C H O + H O¿
1 +¿ +e
20 5 7 2 20 2
¿

Rc: 1 CO 2+ 1 HCO 3
+ ¿+ H ¿
−¿+ NH 4 ¿
20
0 1 0 0 A 5 20
f s= and f e =1−f s =
1+ A 1+ A
3
−¿+ H O ¿

1 1
1 8 2
−¿ → CH COO ¿
8 3
+¿+ e ¿

f 0 (M c ) Rd: CO 2+ HCO−¿+3
H ¿

Y= s 8 8
(n e )(8)
 – Flow, Mixing
fe * Ra: – Organic loading (how much and where/when)
1
1 +¿+e ¿
−¿→ H 2 O ¿
2
– Integrated with N & P removal
0.61∗¿ O +H
4 2
−¿ →0.305 H2 O ¿

¿ 0.1525 O2 +0.61 H +¿+ 0.61 e ¿

Biological Filters (Trickling Filters)

fs * Rc:  Conventional biological filters: rectangular or circular
0.39∗¿ [4 - 20m diameter]
 Further reduce the organic matter in the partially
−¿→ 0.0195 C H O +0.1755 H O ¿
5 7 2 2
+¿ +0.39e ¿

−¿+0.0195 NH +4 ¿+0.39 H ¿
¿
¿ 0.078 CO 2+ 0.0195 HCO 3
treated wastewater: 65 - 85% removal of BOD5 (and
3
remaining suspended solids) in appropriate conditions.
1 −¿+ H O¿ 1 1 −¿+H + ¿+e
−¿ ¿
¿
¿
 Bacterial removal rates: 95-99%
→ CO2 + HCO 3
2
Rd: CH 3 COO 8
8 8 8

R = f e * Ra + f s * Rc – Rd −¿+ 0.8555 H O ¿
2

−¿+0.1525 O2+0.0195 NH +¿→ 0.0195C 5 H 7 O2 + 0.047 CO2 +0.1055 HCO3 ¿

¿
R=0.125 CH 3 COO 4

Important note:
: if ammonium is the n-source, then ∆ G pc is equals to 18.8
kJ/e-.
: if nitrogen is the n-source, then ∆ G pc is equals to 13.5 kJ/e-.

 The microorganisms in the inert support material uses

the organic components (as substrate) in the
Aerobic Wastewater Treatment Systems wastewater, thereby removing them from the
 Uses aerobic microorganisms wastewater as the latter passes down through the
– aeration is essential bed.
– Must maintain a sufficient population of aerobic  The effluent (together with the excess/dead biomass
microorganisms in the system that has been flushed out of the filter) passes out
 Modification
 through the underdrains and into final settling tanks
('humus' tanks).
 The basic elements of a biological filter include:
- Support media with a large surface area and usually ~
2m deep (depth is ultimately governed by structural
rather than process considerations)
- A (settled sewage) distribution system
- An air ventilation system
- Underdrains to collect treated effluent
- Humus tanks (post-filter settler) to allow settling of
the suspended solids in the effluent: about 1.5 hours
retention time at peak flow.
Biofilter: Filter Media
 Important factors include:
- Durability.
- Large surface area.
- High voidage (porosity or void ratio of 0.45 - 0.55 for
conventional media and 0.90 - 0.97 for plastic media).
Nitrification in Biofilters
 Full nitrification (ammonium  nitrite  nitrate) with a
specific ammonia removal rate of 120 - 180 mgNH3 m-
2
d - 1.
 As hydraulic loading increases, so the rate of
nitrification decreases, until at loadings > ~2.5 m3 m-2d
-1, nitrification virtually ceases.
Biofilter: Mode of Operation
 Double (or two-stage) filtration
- A high-rate filter [plastic media] is used to remove
some of the BOD (in high strength WW), followed by a
low-rate filter which can then also enable nitrification
to take place under appropriate circumstances.
 Alternating Double Filtration (ADF)
- Enables a higher organic loading to be applied onto a
given filter volume.
Factors Affecting Biofilter Performance
 The organic strength of the feed sewage.
 The efficiency of the distribution mechanism.
 The effectiveness of the ventilation system.
 The frequency of the dosing (if it is not a continuous
process) and/or the rate of dosage.
 The weather conditions.
 Seasonal variation in performance
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTORS
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs)
 A fixed biofilm supported on a rotating disc that is
partially submerged in the wastewater. The disc
rotates and moves the biomass passes alternately
through sewage and air.
  Require an integral [prior] primary settling tank and a
[subsequent] humus tank.
 Periodic removal of sludge from the primary settling
tank → sludge in the humus tank is usually pumped
into the primary settling tank.
 Four zones of RBC:
- the primary settling zone
- the biozone (rotating disc with attached biofilm)
- the sludge storage zone
- the final settling zones
Rotating Activated Bacillus-Contactor
 made of Polyvinylidene Chloride
 is able to stably treat water by fixing to the rotating
axis to meet the influents at around 2~4 rpm with
immersion of approximately 40% of the disc.
 is cultured on the RABC system to a high level of
concentration to treat micro-organism, nitrogen and
phosphorous
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS
 Sludge return facility: Return Activated Sludge (RAS) is
returned as quickly as possible to the aeration tanks
– It is removed from the clarifiers under hydrostatic
head pressure by pumping or with siphons.
– The pumping system is designed such that the flocs
are not stressed nor sheared (use centrifugal rather
than positive displacement pumps).
 The surplus sludge (waste activated sludge or WAS) is;
– usually returned to the primary settlement tank inlet
to allow co-settlement with the primary sludge.
– Or dewatered using centrifuge (to increase its dry
solids concentration and reduce its volume) before
further treatment.
AERATION SYSTEMS FOR AS PROCESS

COMPLETE-MIX AS
 The aeration tank is rapidly mixed to provide a
uniform distribution of organic load (BOD),
microorganisms, and DO.
 Operation: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR). RAS
and influent wastewater are introduced at several
points in the reactor.
 Organic loading and aeration are uniformly distributed
throughout the reactor.
TAPERED AERATION AS
 Tapered aeration: modification of the conventional
plug-flow process.
 Aeration rate varies depending on oxygen demand:
Greater at the head end and decreases towards the
effluent end. The D.O. concentration near the inlet may
be up to twice that at the outlet - catering for the high
initial organic loading on the biomass at that point.
Aerators spacing varies along the length of the plug-
flow regime.
STEP FEED AS
 The primary effluent is added at two or more points
along the length of the aeration tank.
 Spreads out the organic load (F/M) and evens out the
oxygen uptake rate throughout the length of the
aeration tank.
 Allows for better control of shock loads; Lower MLSS to
the secondary clarifiers.
 Advantage: Operational flexibility
 In the completely mixed system, there is no BOD
gradient within the tank and, ideally, a uniform loading
throughout the system.
 In tapered aeration, the intensity of the aeration
decreases as one moves through the system.
 Step-feed aeration overcomes the problem of an initial high
oxygen demand [at the plant inlet] by staging the
introduction of wastewater feed down the length of the
tank.
CONTACT STABILIZATION AS
 The first tank (contact tank) has a short detention time,
followed by clarification. The settled sludge is pumped
to a second tank (re-aeration tank) with a much longer
detention time.
  Advantages: less total tank volume, 50% lower (vs.
conventional AS); reduced risk of sludge washout.
HIGH PURITY OXYGEN AS
 High-purity oxygen is used instead of air.
EXTENDED AERATION AS  Oxygen is diffused into a covered aeration tank and
 Extended aeration: similar to conventional plug-flow recirculated. A portion of the gas is exhausted to
process. It operates at the endogenous respiration reduce the CO2 level. pH adjustment may be needed.
phase of the growth curve. →low organic loading; long  The amount of oxygen added is 4x more than that of
aeration time. conventional AS.
 It is extensively used for prefabricated package for
small communities.

KRAUS PROCESS
 Variation of Step aeration process;
 For waste with low N levels
 Digester supernatant is added as nutrient source to a
portion of RAS in a separate aeration tank designed to
nitrify.
 The resulting mixed liquor is added to the main plug-
flow aeration system
SEQUENCING BATCH REACTOR (SBR)
 A single complete-mix reactor in which all steps of AS
occur.
 No need for separate sludge settler.
 In most facilities the use of an SBR requires at least two
reactor vessels (filling one while the other is full and in
REACT mode
DEEP SHAFT REACTOR SINGLE-STAGE NITRIFICATION
 A vertical shaft (120 – 150 m deep) replaces the primary
clarifiers and aeration basin.
 The shaft is lined with steel shell and fitted with concentric
pipe to form an annular reactor.
 Mixed liquor and air are forced down the center of the shaft
and allowed to rise upward though the annulus
SEPARATE STAGE NITRIFICATION

SLUDGE BULKING
 Sludge bulking: a situation when the sludge in the
clarifier is poorly settling.
 This arises because the process conditions happen to
be favorable for the proliferation of filamentous
bacteria and these dominate other (more favorable
floc-encouraging) bacteria.
MEMBRANE BIOREACTOR

 Membrane bioreactor (MBR): combination of a

membrane process (microfiltration or ultrafiltration)
with a suspended growth bioreactor.