UNIT- I

INTRODUCTION
The word polymer is derived from Greek words “poly”
means many and “mer” means unit or part.
Polymers are generally macromolecules formed by the
repeated linking of large number of small molecules
(monomers).
Polymers are widely used in Automobiles, Defence,
electrical goods, biomedical applications like artificial knee joints, hip
joints, heart valves and contract lens and computer components etc.
 Polymers are macro molecules (giant molecules of higher
molecular weight) formed by the repeated linking of large number of
small molecules called monomers.

Polyethylene is a polymer formed by the repeated linking of large

number of ethylene molecule.

Monomer is a micro molecule (small molecule) which combines

with each other to form a polymer.
Some monomers and repeating unit of the polymers are given below.
POLYMERISATION

Polymerisation is a process in which large number of small molecules (called

monomers) combine to give a big molecule (called a polymer) with or without
elimination of small molecules like water and HCl.

Polymerization
The number of repeating units (n) present in a polymer chain is known
as degree of polymerization. It is represented by the following relationship.

molecular weight of the polymeric network

Degree of polymerization (n)
molecular weight of the repeating unit

In this example, five repeating units are present in the polymer

chain. So, the degree of polymerization is 5.
 Polymers with low degree of polymerization are
known as Oligomers, their molecular weight ranges
from 500 - 5000.

Polymers with high degree of polymerisation are

known as High polymers, their molecular weight ranges from
10,000 - 2,00,000.
 FUNCTIONALITY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

The number of bonding sites or reactive sites or functional groups,

present in a monomer, is known as its
 Bifunctional monomers (i.e., functionality of the monomer is 2) mainly
form linear (or) straight chain polymer.
Each monomeric unit in the linear chain is linked by strong covalent
bonds (primary bonds), but the different chains are held together by
weak vanderwaal’s forces of attraction (secondary bonds).
Therefore, there is no restriction to movement of one chain over
another.
This type of polymers are soft and flexible, and possess less
strength, low heat resistance.
These are soluble in organic solvents.
 When a trifunctional monomer (i.e.,
functionality of the monomer is 3) is mixed in small
amounts with a bifunctional monomer, they form branched chain
polymer.
The movement of polymer chain in branched polymer is
more restricted than that of straight chain polymers.
 Poly functional monomers form cross-linked polymer
(three-dimensional network polymer).
All the monomers in the polymer are connected to each other by
strong covalent bonds.
Therefore the movement of polymer chain is totally restricted.
This type of polymers are hard and brittle and possess very high
strength and heat resistance.
They are insoluble in almost all organic solvents.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMERS

Based on the source, polymers are broadly classified into two types.
1. Natural polymers.
2. Synthetic polymers.
 The polymers obtained from nature (plants and animals) are called
natural polymers.

It is a polymer of glucose. It is a chief food reserve of plants.

It is also a polymer of glucose. It is a chief structural material of the plants.

Both starch and cellulose are produced by plants during photosynthesis.
 3. Proteins
These are polymers of α amino acids.
They have generally 20 to 100 α amino acids joined
together in a highly organized arrangement.
These are building block of animals.

4. Nucleic Acids
These are polymers of various nucleotides. RNA and
DNA are common nucleotides.

5. Natural Rubber
It is a polymer of unsaturated hydrocarbon,
2-methyl-1,3 butadiene, called isoprene. It is obtained from
latex of rubber trees.
 II. Synthetic Polymers
The polymers which are prepared in the laboratories, are called synthetic
polymers. These are also called man-made polymers.

PVC, polyethylene, nylon, teflon, bakelite, terylene, etc.,

1. Organic Polymers
These are polymers containing hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
and halogen atoms apart from carbon atoms.

Polyethylene, Polyvinyl alcohol, PVC, Epoxy polymers,

Polyurethane.
 2. Elemento-organic (or) Hetero-organic Polymers
These are polymers composed of carbon atoms and hetero-
atoms (like N, S & O).
The main chain consists of carbon atoms and whose side
groups contain hetero atoms linked directly to the C atoms in the
chain.

Polysiloxanes, Polytitoxanes

3. Inorganic Polymers
These are polymers with no carbon atoms.

The chains of these polymers are composed of different

atoms joined by chemical bonds.
PLASTICS

Plastics ar e high molecular weight of or ganic mater ials, that can be

molded into any desir ed shape by the application of heat and pr essure in the
pr esence of a catalyst.

Or iginally, plastics were discover ed and then developed based on

tr ial and err or method.
The pr esent time is sometime r efer red as plastic age, because the
use of polymer ic mater ial is peculated in lar ge var iety of applications.
This rapid gr owth has taken place only in the last 50 year s.
It was man’s desir e to develop plastics for engineer ing
applications to r eplace, glass, metal, cer amic, wood and other
mater ials of constr uctions.
Since plastics possess the following advantages, they have wider
applications.
Advantages of Plastics Over other Materials

1. They are light in weight.

2. They possess low melting point.
3. They can be easily molded and have excellent finishing.
4. They possess very good strength and toughness.
5. They possess good shock absorption capacity.
6. They are corrosion resistant and chemically inert.
7. They have low co-efficient of thermal expansion and
possess good thermal and electrical insulating property.
8. They are very good water-resistant and possess good
adhesiveness.
Disadvantage of Plastics

1. Softness.
2. Embrittlement at low temperature.
3. Deformation under load.
4. Low heat-resistant and poor ductility.
5. Combustibility.
6. Degradation upon exposure to heat and UV- radiation.
7. Non bio-degradable.
Classification of Plastics

Based on the structure and type of resin used for the

manufacture of plastics, polymers are classified into two
main types.
1. Thermoplastics Polymers.
2. Thermosetting Polymers.
A resin is a basic binding material, present in plastics,
which undergoes polymerization reaction during molding.
1.Thermoplastic Polymers

Thermoplastics are prepared by addition polymerisation.

They are straight chain (or) slightly branched polymers and various
chains are held together by weak vanderwaal’s forces of attraction.
Thermoplastics can be softened on heating and hardened on
cooling. They are generally soluble in organic solvents.
2.Thermosetting Polymer (or) Thermosets

Thermosetting plastics are prepared by condensation

polymerisation.
Various polymer chains are held together by strong
covalent bonds (called crosslinks).
Thermosetting plastics get harden on heating and
once harden, they cannot be softened again.
They are almost insoluble in organic solvents.
Difference between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
TYPES OF POLYMERISATION
Polymerisation reactions may be carried out by any one of the
following methods.

1. Addition (or) chain growth polymerisation

2. Condensation (or) step wise polymerisation
3.Copolymerisation

It is a reaction that yields a polymer, which is an exact multiple of the

original monomeric molecule.

The original monomeric molecule usually, contains one or more

double bonds.

In this addition polymerization there is no elimination of any small

molecule.
 It is a reaction between simple polar groups containing
monomers with the formation of polymer and elimination of
small molecules like H2O, HCl, etc.,
 It is the joint polymerisation in which two (or) more different
monomers combine to give a polymer.
High molecular weight polymers, obtained by co-polymerisation, are
called copolymers.
Copolymerisation is mainly carried out to vary the properties of polymers
such as hardness, strength, rigidity, heat resistance etc.
Mechanism of Addition Polymerisation

The mechanism of addition polymerization can be

explained by any one of the following types.

All the above mechanisms occur in three major steps namely,

i). Initiation
ii). Propagation
iii). Termination
Free Radical Mechanism
1. Initiation
It is considered to involve two reactions.
(a) First reaction; It involves production of free radicals by
homolytic dissociation of an initiator (or catalyst) to yield a
pair of free radicals *R.

Thermal initiator is a substance used to produce free

radicals by homolytic dissociation at high temperature.
a) First Reaction involves production of free radicals:
(b). Second reaction; It involves addition of this free radical to
the first monomer to produce chain initiating species.

2. Propagation
It involves the growth of chain initiating species by
successive addition of large number of monomers.

The growing chain of the polymer is known as living

3.Termination

Termination of the growing chain of polymer may

occur either by coupling reaction or disproportionation.
(a) Coupling (or) Combination
It involves coupling of free radical of one chain end to
another free radical, forming a macromolecule.
 It involves transfer of a hydrogen atom of one
radical centre to another radical centre, forming two
macromolecules, one saturated and another unsaturated.

The product of addition polymerisation is known

as Dead polymer.
 IONIC MECHANISM (or) IONIC POLYMERISATION

Ionic polymerization is faster than the free radical

polymerization.
Ionic polymerization is initiated by a positive ion (cation)
or a negative ion (anion).

Depending upon the nature of ions (initiators), the ionic

polymerization takes place in two ways.

1. Cationic polymerization (or) Carbonium ion mechanism.

2. Anionic polymerization (or) Carbanion mechanism.
 1.Cationic polymerisation

This type of polymerisation takes place when

electron donating groups like CH3 , C6 H5 are present
in a monomer.

These groups stabilize the carbonium ion formation.

The catalysts (initiators) used to initiate the reaction

are Lewis acids like AlCl3, BF3 with a co-catalyst water.
It involves the formation of chain initiating species
 It involves the growth of chain initiating species by
successive addition of large number of monomers and the
positive charge simultaneously shifts to the newly added
monomer.
2.Anionic Polymerization

This type of polymerization takes place when electron

withdrawing groups like Cl , CN are present in a monomer.
These groups stabilize the formation of carbanion.

Vinyl chloride, Acrylonitrile.

The catalysts (initiators) used to initiate the reaction are

Lewis bases like NaNH2 , KNH2, LiNH2 etc.,
It involves the formation of chain initiating species.
 It involves the growth of chain initiating species
by successive addition of large number of monomers
and the negative charge simultaneously shifts to the
newly added monomer.
(iii) Termination
Termination of the growing chain occurs by adding
ammonia.
Properties of Polymers
(Tg)

Glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature at

which the amorphous solid state is transformed to the
melt state (or) the temperature at which a polymer
experiences the transition from rubbery to glassy state.

Below the glass transition temperature (Tg) the polymer is

hard and above which it is soft.
The hard brittle state is called as glassy state and the soft
flexible state is called as rubbery or viscoelastic state.
Thus the glass transition temperature is an important
property of a polymer and it decides whether the polymer behave
like glass or rubber.
 Polymer T g (oC)

Polyvinyl Chlor ide 87

Nylon 6,6 57
Polypr opylene -18
HDPE -90
L DPE -110
Factors influencing Tg
1. Chain flexibility
2. Geometric factors
3. Interchain attractive forces
4. Molecular weight
5. Cross-linking and branching
6. Crystallinity
7. Plasticization

The orientation of monomeric units or functional groups in

a polymer molecule can take place in an orderly (or) disorderly
manner with respect to the main chain is known as Tacticity.
Tacticity do affect the physical properties of the
polymer.
This orientation results in three types of
a. Isotactic Polymer

If the functional groups are arranged on the same side

of the main chain, the polymer is called Isotactic polymer.
b. Syndiotactic Polymer

If the functional groups are arranged in an alternating

fashion, the polymer is called Syndiotactic polymer.
c. Atactic Polymer

If the functional groups are arranged randomly, the

polymer is called Atactic polymer.
Molecular - Mass of Polymer

Soluble nature, softening temperature, tensile strength, impact

strength and heat resistance are influenced by molecular-mass.

Generally, low molecular weight polymers are soft and gum-like resins.
The high molecular weight polymers are tougher and more heat resistant.

Thus, control of molecular weight of polymers is very important for

industrial polymerization.

Most of the polymers are polydisperse the molecules of polymers do not

have identical molecular weight (M).

So it is necessary to take average molecular mass.

Therefore, determination of molecular weight is of greater importance.

Determination of Molecular mass of Polymers
The number average molecular weight ( )
measuring system requires
1.Counting the total number of molecules in a
unit mass of polymer irrespective of their
shape or size. This means all molecules are
treated equally.
2.This kind of measuring system is required in
cases where certain properties are dependent
only upon the number of molecules or
repeating units and not upon their weight or
sizes.
3.These are called colligative properties such
as boiling point elevation, freezing point
depression, vapor pressure depression, and
 Weight average molecular mass not only depends on
the number of particles, but also on the molecular size.
Hence, in the averaging process, molecular weight of
each individual species in multiplied by the mass and
not by the number. i.e.,
Determination

Weight - average molecular mass is determined by

light - scattering techniques and ultra-centrifugation
techniques.
 When a graph is ploted between molecular mass
of the polymer (M) to the weight fraction of the polymer
(w) the following graph is obtained.
 The molecular masses of a polymer can be
determined by the following methods.
1. Measuring colligative properties such
as osmometry, ebullioscopy and cryoscopy
2. Light scattering measurements.
3. Measuring viscosities of polymer
solutions.
4. By end group chemical analysis.
5. By ultracentrifuge.
TECHNIQUES OF POLYMERIZATON

The following methods are generally used for the

polymerization reaction

1. Bulk polymerization.
2. Solution polymerization.
3. Suspension polymerization.
4. Emulsion polymerization
 Bulk polymerization is the simplest method of polymerization.
The monomer is taken in a flask as a liquid form and the initiator, chain
transfer agents are dissolved in it.
The flask is placed in a thermostat under constant agitation and
heated.

The reaction is slow but becomes fast as the temperature rises.

After a known period of time, the whole content is poured into
a methanol (non-solvent) and the polymer is precipitated out.

Polystyrene, PVC, PMA are prepared

by this method
Advantages
1. It is quite simple and requires simple
equipments.
2. Polymers are of high-purity obtained.
3. As the monomer is solvent, excess monomer
can be removed by evaporation.
4. The polymer has high optical clarity.
Disadvantages
1. During polymerisation, viscosity of the
medium increases, hence mixing and control of
heat is difficult.

2. Polymerisation is highly exothermic.

Applications
1. The polymers obtained by this method are used in
casting formulations.

2. Low molecular weight polymers, obtained by

this method, are used as adhesives, plasticizers
and lubricant additives.

3. It is used for the production of organic glass of

Poly methyl methacrylate.

4. It is used to get PVC resin from vinyl chloride.

5. It is used for fabrication of polystyrene pellet from

 In solution polymerisation, the monomer,
initiator and the chain transfer agents are taken in
a flask and dissolved in an inert solvent.
The whole mixture is kept under constant
agitation.
After required time, the polymer produced is
precipitated by pouring it in a suitable non-polar
solvent.

The solvent helps to control heat and reduces viscosity built up.

Polyacrylic acid, polyisobutylene and polyacrylonitrile are

prepared by this method.
Advantages
1. Heat control is easy.
2. Viscosity built up is negligible.
3. The mixture can be agitated easily

Disadvantages
1. The removal of last traces of solvent is
difficult.
2. This polymerization requires solvent
recovery and recycling.
3. It is difficult to get very high molecular
weight polymer.
4. The polymer formed must be isolated from
Applications

• As the polymer is in solution form, it can be directly

used as adhesives and coatings.
It is used in production of Sodium polyacrylate, a
super absorbent polymer (used in disposable
diapers).
It is used to produce the polymers such as Poly
acrylonitrile (PAN) and Poly acrylic acid.
 Suspension polymerisation is used only for water
insoluble monomers.
This polymerisation reaction is carried out in
heterogeneous systems.
At the end of polymerisation, polymer is separated
out as spherical beads or pearls.
This method is also called pearl polymerisation.

Polystyrene, Polystyrene-divinyl benzene

 The water insoluble monomer is suspended in
water tiny droplet and a initiator is dissolved in
it by continuous agitation.

The suspension (droplets) is prevented from

coagulation by using suspending agents like PVA,
gelatin, methyl cellulose. Each droplet of the
monomer contains dissolved initiator.

The whole content is taken in a flask and

heated at constant temperature with vigorous
agitation in a thermostat with nitrogen
atmosphere. After the end of 8 hours, pearl-like
polymers are obtained, which is filtered and
Advantages
1. Since water is used as a solvent, this method
is more economical.
2. Products obtained is highly pure.
3. Isolation of product is very easy.
4. Efficient heat control.
5. Viscosity build up of polymer is negligible.
Disadvantages
1. This method is applicable only for water
insoluble monomers.
2. Control of particle size is difficult.
Applications

1. Polystyrene beads are used as ion

exchangers.
2.This technique is used in heterogeneous system.
3.It is used for making plastic resins.
4.All the thermoplastic resins are made by this
technique.
5.This method is used to get polymers like PS,
PVC, Polyvinyl acetate etc.
Advantages

1. The rate of polymerisation is high.

2. Heat can be easily controlled and hence

viscosity built up is low.

3. High molecular weight polymer can be

Disadvantages
obtained
1. Polymer needs purification.

2. It is very difficult to remove entrapped

emulsifier and de-emulsifiers.

3. It requires rapid agitation.

Applications
1. Emulsion Polymerisation is used in large -
scale production like water-based paints,
adhesives, plastics, etc.,

2.This method is also suitable for

manufacturing tacky polymers like butadiene
and chloroprene.

3.Polymers produced by this technique can be

classified into three types such as

(i) Synthetic rubbers (Eg:

Acrylic rubber);

(ii) Plastics (Eg: Poly vinyl

fluoride);
IMPORTANT POLYMERS

Polyethylene is a thermoplastic, and as such, plays a distinct role in

the manufacturing of plastic products. A thermoplastic is any
polymer that can be shaped and molded as a liquid and remain in
that shape as a solid.
The two most common types of polyethylene compounds are high
density polyethylene (HDPE) and low density polyethylene (LDPE).
Both compounds have very different physical properties. For
example, while LDPE compounds have a melting point of 115º C,
HDPE compounds melt at 135º C. LDPE is more flexible than HDPE,
but when it comes to strength, HDPE is the winner. Although we
know what a general polyethylene looks like, both HDPE and LDPE
have their own unique structure.
Physical Properties
•The mechanical strength of polyethylene is relatively lower than
other plastics. The rigidity and the hardness of these polymers are
also relatively low.
•Polyethylene is known to be highly ductile. Furthermore, this plastic
is known to possess very high impact strength.
•This synthetic polymer exhibits strong creep when placed under a
persistent force.
•Polyethylene's usually have a waxy texture.
•The melting points of commercial grades of high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) lie in
the range of 120 – 180 degrees Celsius.
•The melting point of the commercially available low-density
Uses of Polyethylene
•The most important application of polyethylene is in
packaging products. This plastic is often employed for the
production of plastic bags, plastic films, bottles,
geomembranes, and containers.
•Polyethylene is also used in crates, trays, jugs that carry milk
or fruit juices, and other food packaging products.
•High-density polyethylene is used in toys, garbage containers,
ice trays, and other housewares. The versatility of this plastic
makes it ideal for a wide spectrum of applications.
•HDPE is also used in ropes, fishing nets, agricultural nets, and
industrial fabrics. It is not uncommon for this plastic to be
used in wirings and cables as well.
•Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is widely used in the
production of squeeze bottles, garbage bags, laminations, and
food packaging due to its high flexibility and low cost.
•LDPE is also used in pipes and fittings. It is ideal for such
applications due to its low water absorption and also due to its
 The full form of PVC is Poly Vinyl Chloride. PVC is
a polymer which is made from vinyl chloride polymerization.
PVC is being used in a variety of products, including raincoats,
wires, pipes, bottles, credit cards, flooring, etc. Since it resists
water and fire, it is useful in producing many products. PVC is a
thermoplastic polymer which undergoes melting on heating and
solidification and cooling with chemical formula -[CH2=CHCl]n-.
A manufacturing method of PVC
Polyvinyl chloride is synthesized by polymerization of vinyl
monomer (VCM) and VCM is synthesized from the chlorination
of ethylene. The resulting ethylene dichloride (EDC) undergo
pyrolysis in a cracking device.
CH2=CHCl → -[CH2-CHCl]n-
A number of vinyl chloride monomers undergo Addition
polymerization to produce polyvinyl chloride. Famous
polymerization process to synthesis PVC is
Important properties of PVC
•PVC is tough, lightweight and abrasion-resistant.
•PVC has good physical as well as mechanical properties.
•It has long life span and need low maintenance.
•PVC is resistant to climate, chemicals, corrosion, abrasion and
shock. Hence, it is the preferred method for several outdoor
and long-life products.
•PVC is an excellent material for insulation due to its high
dielectric strength.
•PVC products are self-extinguishing due to high chlorine
content.
Applications of PVC
•Pipe construction
•Profile applications like doors and
windows
•Food covering sheets
•Bottles
•Cards such as credit or debit cards
•Electrical cable insulation,
•Plumbing
•Signage
•phonograph records
•Imitation leather
•Flooring
 Polycarbonate is a
high-performance tough, amorphous and
transparent thermoplastic polymer with
organic functional groups linked together
by carbonate groups (–O–(C=O)– O–) and
offers a unique combination of properties.
PC is popularly used as an engineering
plastic owing to its unique features that
include:

•High impact strength

•High dimensional stability
•Good electrical properties amongst others
Polycarbonates are manufactured by condensation polymerization
of bisphenol A (BPA; C15H16O2) and phosgene (COCl2).

Main Characteristics and Properties of Polycarbonate

PC is an ideal material well known and widely used in the

industry for its versatile characteristics, eco-friendly processing
and recyclability. Comprising a unique set of chemical and
physical properties makes it suitable over glass, PMMA and PE.
Toughness and High Impact Strength – Polycarbonate has
high strength making it resistant to impact and fracture, and
further providing safety and comfort in applications that
demand high reliability and performance. The polymer has
density 1.2 – 1.22 g/cm3), maintains toughness upto 140° C
and down to -20° C. Also, PCs are virtually unbreakable.

Transmittance – PC is an extremely clear plastic that can

transmit over 90% of light as good as glass. Polycarbonate
sheets are available in a wide range of shades that can be
customized depending on an end-user application.

Lightweight – This feature allows virtually unlimited

possibilities to OEMs to design as compared with glass. The
property also allows to increase efficiency, make installation
process easier and reduce overall transportation costs.

Protection from UV Radiations – Polycarbonates can be

Optical Nature - For having amorphous structure, PC offers
excellent optical properties. The refractive index of clear
polycarbonate is 1.584.

Chemical Resistance – Polycarbonate exhibits good chemical

resistance against diluted acids, aliphatic hydrocarbons and
alcohols; moderate chemical resistance against oils and
greases. PC is readily attacked by diluted alkalis, aromatic and
halogenated hydrocarbons. Manufacturers recommend to clean
PC sheets with certain cleaning agents which do not affect its
chemical nature. It is sensitive to abrasive alkaline cleaners.

Heat Resistance - Offering good heat resistance, Polycarbonates

are thermally stable up to 135° C. Further heat resistance can
be improved by adding flame retardants without impacting
material properties
Polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE is the
commonly used versatile, high-performance
fluoropolymer made up for carbon and fluorine
atoms. One of the common applications of
this polymer is non-stick coating in kitchen
cookware (pans, baking trays etc.), hence, you
can easily find this in your kitchen.

Apart from used in the kitchen, PTFE is used

as a cost-effective solution for industries
ranging from oil & gas, chemical processing,
industrial to electrical/electronic and
construction sector, etc.
PTFE is a linear polymer of tetrafluoroethylene (TFE). It is
manufactured by free-radical polymerization mechanism in an
aqueous media via addition polymerization of TFE in a batch
process.

The chemical structure of PTFE [CF2-CF2]n is like that

of polyethylene (PE), except that the hydrogen atoms are
completely replaced by fluorine (hence it is referred as perfluoro
polymer). However, it is important to note that in practice PTFE
and PE are prepared and used in totally different ways.

Molecular Structure of PTFE

It is the size of fluorine atom which forms a uniform and
continuous sheath around carbon-carbon-bonds and
hence imparts good chemical resistance and stability to the
molecule. This uniform fluorine sheath also provides
electrical inertness to the molecule.
The fluorine content in PTFE is theoretically 76% and it has
The basic properties of PTFE which make it an interesting
material with high commercial value are:

•Exception chemical resistance

•Good resistance to heat and low temperature
•Good electrical insulating power in hot and wet environments
•Good resistance to light, UV and weathering
•Low coefficient of friction
•Low dielectric constant/dissipation factor
•Strong anti-adhesion properties
•Flexibility
•Good fatigue resistance under low stress
•Availability of food, medical and high-purity grades
•Low water absorption
Polypropylene is a tough, rigid and crystalline thermoplastic
produced from propene (or propylene) monomer. It is a linear
hydrocarbon resin. The chemical formula of polypropylene is
(C3H6)n. PP is among the cheapest plastics available today.

Molecular Structure of Polypropylene

PP belongs to polyolefin family of polymers and is one of the

top three widely used polymers today. Polypropylene has
applications both as a plastic and a fiber in:
Automotive Industry
•Industrial Applications
•Consumer Goods, and
•Furniture Market
 Some Material Properties of Polypropylene

1.Melting Point of Polypropylene - The melting point of polypropylene

occurs at a range.
1. Homopolymer: 160 - 165° C
2. Copolymer: 135 - 159° C
2.Density of Polypropylene - PP is one of the lightest polymers among all
commodity plastics. This feature makes it a suitable option for
lightweight\weight saving applications.
1. Homopolymer: 0.904 – 0.908 g/cm3
2. Random Copolymer: 0.904 – 0.908 g/cm3
3.Polypropylene Chemical Resistance
1. Excellent resistance to diluted and concentrated acids, alcohols and
bases
2. Good resistance to aldehydes, esters, aliphatic hydrocarbons,
ketones
3. Limited resistance to aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons and
oxidizing agents
4.Flammability: Polypropylene is a highly flammable material
5.PP retains mechanical & electrical properties at elevated temperatures, in
humid conditions and when submersed in water. It is a water-repellent
plastic
i. Nylon-6:6 is a less soft and stiff material when
compared to nylon
ii. Its melting point is 2640C.
iii. It has good toughness upto 1500C
iv. Abrasion resistance is better, good tensile strength.
v. Its melt instead of burning.
General Properties of Nylons

(i) Nylon-6 is a light weight, soft and less stiff material.

ii. Its melting point is 2250C.
(iii) They behave as plastic as well as fiber.
(iv) They are translucent, white, horny and high melting
polymers.
(v) They are insoluble in common organic solvents but
soluble in phenol and formic acid.
(vi) They possess good mechanical properties and fairly
resistant to moisture.
(vii) They are characterized by combination of high strength,
elasticity, toughness and abrasion resistance. `
Uses of Nylons

(i) Nylon-6:6 is used for fibers, which are used in

making socks, ladies shoes, dresses, carpets, etc.,

(ii) Nylon-6 is mainly used for moulding purposes for

gears, bearings, electrical mountings, etc., Nylon
bearings work without any lubrication.

iii.Nylons are used for making filaments for ropes, bristles

for tooth-brushes, films and tyre-cords,conveyor belts.

iv.It is used to make parachutes and swim wear.

Bakelite is a polymer made up of the monomers phenol and
formaldehyde. This phenol-formaldehyde resin is a thermosetting
polymer. is the commercial name for the polymer obtained by
Bakelite
the polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde. These are one
of the oldest polymers that were synthesized by man. Phenol is
made to react with formaldehyde. The condensation reaction
of the two reactants in a controlled acidic or basic medium
results in the formation of ortho and para hydroxymethyl
phenols and their derivatives.
Some important properties of Bakelite are listed below.
•It can be quickly molded.
•Very smooth molding can be obtained from this polymer.
•Bakelite moldings are heat-resistant and scratch-resistant.
•They are also resistant to several destructive solvents.
•Owing to its low electrical conductivity, Bakelite is resistant to
electric current.
Uses of Bakelite
Now coming to the uses of Bakelite, since this element has a
low electrical conductivity and high heat resistance it can be
used in manufacturing electrical switches and machine parts of
electrical systems.
It is a thermosetting polymer and Bakelite has high strength
meaning it basically retains its form even after extensive
molding. Phenolic resins are also extensively used as
adhesives and binding agents. They are further used for
protective purposes as well as in the coating industry.
Further, Bakelite has been used for making the handles of a
 These are cross-linked thermosetting resins.

They are polyether because the monomeric units

in the polymer have an ether type of structure i.e.,
R - O - R.
Preparation

Epoxy polymer (or) Epoxy resins are prepared by

condensing epichlorohydrin with bisphenol.

The reactive epoxide and hydroxyl groups give a

three dimensional cross-linked structure.

The value of n ranges from 1 to 20.

Properties

. Due to the presence of stable ether linkage,

epoxy resin possess high chemical-
resistance to water, acids, alkalis, various
solvents and other chemicals.
. They are flexible, tough and possess very good
heat resisting property.
. Because of the polar nature of the molecules,
they possess excellent adhesion quality.
They have excellent mechanical strength.
Uses

Epoxy resins are used as surface coatings,

adhesives like araldite, glass-fibre- reinforced plastics.
These are applied over cotton, rayon and
bleached fabrics to impart crease-resistance and
shrinkage control.
These are also used as laminating materials in
electrical equipment.
Moulds made from epoxy resins are employed
for the production of components for aircrafts
and automobiles.
Polyaniline was discovered in the early 1860s by
Lightfoot through studies on the oxidation of aniline,
which had been isolated only 20 years previously. He
developed the first commercially successful route to the
dye called Aniline Black. The first definitive report of
polyaniline did not occur until 1862, which included
an electrochemical method for the determination of
Polymerized from the inexpensive aniline, polyaniline
small quantities of aniline.
can be found in one of three idealized oxidation states:
•leucoemeraldine – white/clear & colourless
(C6H4NH)n
•emeraldine – green for the eme raldine salt, blue for
the emeraldine base ([C6H4NH]2[C6H4N]2)n
•(per)nigraniline – blue/violet (C6H4N)n
Synthesis
Although the synthetic methods to produce polyaniline are
quite simple, the mechanism of polymerization is probably
complex. The formation of leucoemeraldine can be
described as follows, where [O] is a generic oxidant:
n C6H5NH2 + [O] → [C6H4NH]n + H2O
A common oxidant is ammonium per sulfate in 1
M hydrochloric acid (other acids can be used). The
polymer precipitates as an unstable dispersion with
micrometer-scale particulates.
(Per)nigraniline is prepared by oxidation of the emeraldine
base with a per acid:[12]
{[C6H4NH]2[C6H4N]2}n + RCO3H → [C6H4N]n + H2O + RCO2H
APPLICATION OF POLYANILINE
Polyaniline (PANI) is a conductive polymer with useful
electrical, optical, and thermal properties. Moreover, the use of
PANI is cost-effective.
In various applications such as supercapacitors,
biosensors, and electrical devices, one may expect to see high-
performance PANIs.
Using surfactant dopants, the polyaniline can be made
dispersible and hence useful for practical applications. Bulk
synthesis of polyaniline nanofibers, which has been
researched extensively.
The major applications are printed circuit
board manufacturing: final finishes, used in millions of m²
every year, antistatic and ESD coatings, and corrosion
protection.
Polyaniline and its derivatives are also used as the
precursor for the production of N-doped carbon materials
Polypyrrole (PPy) is a type of organic polymer formed by the
polymerization of pyrrole. It is a solid with the formula H(C4H2NH)nH.
Upon oxidation, polypyrrole converts to a conducting polymer.

Polypyrrole can be polymerized electrochemically as follow

 Synthesis
Polypyrrole is prepared by oxidation of pyrrole:
n C4H2NH + 2n FeCl3 → (C4H2NH)n + 2n FeCl2 + 2n HCl

The process is thought to occur via the formation of the

pi-radical cation C4H4NH+. This electrophile attacks the C-2
carbon of an unoxidized molecule of pyrrole to give a dimeric
cation (C4H4NH)2]++. The process repeats itself many times.

Conductive forms of PPy are prepared by oxidation

("p-doping") of the polymer:
(C4H2NH)n + 0.2 X → [(C4H2NH)nX0.2]

The polymerization and p-doping can also be effected

electrochemically. The resulting conductive polymer are peeled
off of the anode. Cyclic
voltammetry and chronocoulometry methods can be used for
electrochemical synthesis of polypyrrole.
Properties
Films of PPy are yellow but darken in air due to some
oxidation.
Doped films are blue or black depending on the degree of
polymerization and film thickness. They are amorphous,
showing only weak diffraction.
PPy is described as "quasi-unidimensional" vs
one-dimensional since there is some crosslinking and chain
hopping. Undoped and doped films are insoluble in solvents but
swellable. Doping makes the materials brittle.
PPy is an insulator, but its oxidized derivatives are good
electrical conductors. The conductivity of the material depends
on the conditions and reagents used in the oxidation.
Conductivities range from 2 to 100 S/cm. Higher
conductivities are associated with larger anions, such
as tosylate.
Doping the polymer requires that the material swell to
accommodate the charge-compensating anions.
APPLICATION
PPy is a potential vehicle for drug delivery. The polymer
matrix serves as a container for proteins.
Polypyrrole has been investigated as a catalyst support for
fuel cells and to sensitize cathode electrocatalysts.
Together with other conjugated polymers such as polyaniline,
poly(ethylenedioxythiophene) etc., polypyrrole has been
studied as a material for "artificial muscles", a technology that
offers advantages relative to traditional motor actuating
elements.
Polypyrrole was used to coat silica and reverse phase silica
to yield a material capable of anion exchange and exhibiting
hydrophobic interactions.
Polypyrrole was used in the microwave fabrication of
multiwalled carbon nanotubes, a rapid method to grow CNT's.
A water-resistant polyurethane sponge coated with a thin
layer of polypyrrole absorbs 20 times its weight in oil and is