Unit 1 Water and Its Treatment 2022

CY3151/ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY / NOV 2022 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, MAILAM.
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PART – A
1. Write the different sources of water.
 Rain water
 Surface water (Eg. Pond, lake, river)
 Underground water (Eg.well, springs)
 Sea water
2. What are the various impurities present in water?
 Physical impurities
a) Suspended impurities like vegetable and animal matter, oil, etc
b) Colloidal impurities like organic waste products, clay, etc
 Chemical impurities (dissolved salts and dissolved gases)
 Biological impurities (bacteria , fungi, algae)
3. What are water quality parameters? Mention its types.

Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of
one or more biotic species and or to a human need or purpose.
There are three types of water quality parameters. They are
1. Physical parameters (colour, taste and odour, turbidity, etc)
2. Chemical parameters (pH, hardness, alkalinity, etc)
3. Biological parameters (bacteria, fungi, virus, etc)
4. Write the significance of presence of colour in water.

 Highly coloured water limits the penetration of light.
 Variation in colour of water from the same sources serves as the index of quality of
water.
5. Define taste and odour.
Taste: It is the sensation of flavour perceived in the mouth and throat on contact with a
substance.
Odour: It is a smell caused by one (or) more volatilized chemical compounds that are
generally found in low concentration.
6. What is turbidity?
It is the reduction of clarity of natural water due to the presence of finely divided,
insoluble impurities suspended in water.
It is the appearance of cloudiness or dirtiness in water.
7. Write the significance of turbidity in water.
 It increases the cost of water treatment for various uses.
 It has negative effects on aquatic life and blocks light to penetrate in water.
8. Define hardness of water. (A.U. MAY 2011), (A.U. Jan 2011).
Hardness is one of the chemical characteristics of water, which does not produce
lather with soap.
It is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Calcium and
Magnesium.
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO)2 Ca + 2NaCl
Soap hardness hard soap
Causing substance
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9. What is meant by soft water and hard water? ( A.U.Jan 2009)

Hard water: Water which does not produce lather with soap solution but produces
white precipitate is called hard water. This is due to the presence of dissolved
Ca and Mg salts.
Soft water: Water which produce lather readily with soap solution is called
soft water. This is due to the absence of Ca and Mg salts.
10. What are temporary hardness and permanent hardness? ( A.U Jun 2012)
Temporary hardness: presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Eg: Ca (HCO3)2, Mg (HCO3)2
Permanent hardness: presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium.

Eg: CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2, MgSO4
11. What is meant by BOD?[AU May 2022]

BOD (Biological oxygen Demand) is the amount of oxygen required for the
biological decomposition of organic matter present in the water.
12. Write the significance of BOD.[AU May 2022]

 It indicates the amount of decomposable organic matter present in the sewage.
 It helps to determine the degree of pollution in waste water.
13. What is COD?[AU May 2022]

COD (Chemical Oxygen demand) is the amount of oxygen required for the chemical
oxidation of organic matter using some oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.
14. Write the significance of BOD.[AU May 2022]

 It measures both the biologically oxidisable and biologically inert organic matter.
 It is used to monitor water treatment plant efficiently.
 It is used to measure pollutants in water and aqueous hazardous wastes.
15. Define alkalinity.

Alkalinity is a measure of acid neutralizing ability. Alkalinity in water is due to the
presence of hydroxide, carbonates and bicarbonates.
16. Write the effect of low and high pH in water. Or Significance of pH in water.
 A high pH makes the water taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine
disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine.
 The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises.
 Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances
17. Write the health effect of fluoride present in water.
 Excessive amount of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental

fluorosis.
 Low fluoride concentration in water causes dental caries for children.
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18. Write the significance of arsenic if present in water.
 Long term intake of arsenic in drinking water causes cancer of the bladder, skin,
kidney.
 Other health problem includes hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and
neurological disorders.
19. What are the various stages in the treatment of water for domestic supply?
Sources of water Screening Aeration Sedimentation
Sterilization (or) Disinfection Filtration Coagulation
20. What is aeration of water? Mention its purpose.

The process of mixing air with water is known as aeration. The main purpose of
aeration is
 To remove gases like CO2, H2S and other volatile impurities
 To remove ferrous and manganous salts as insoluble ferric and manganic salts.
21. Explain the function of a coagulant with example.

When the coagulant is added to water, it gets hydrolyzed to form a gelatinous
precipitate of Al(OH)3 which entraps the finely divided and colloidal impurities, settles to the
bottom and can be removed easily.
22. What is chlorination?

The process of adding chlorine to water is called chlorination. Chlorination can be
done by the following methods.
 By adding chlorine gas
 By adding chloramine
 By adding bleaching powder
23. Why is it necessary to chlorinate drinking water supply beyond break point?
It is necessary to chlorinate drinking water supply beyond break point because at
that point only all the impurities are destroyed and free chlorine begins to appear.
24. What is disinfection or sterilization? Mention various disinfection methods.

The process of destroying harmful bacteria present in water is called as disinfection or
sterilization.
Methods: Chlorination, ozonation, boiling, UV treatment
25. What is meant by disinfectant? What is the advantage of using chloramines as a

disinfectant?
The chemicals used for destroying the harmful bacteria are known as disinfectants.
Eg. Bleaching powder
Advantages of chloramines:
 Chloramine compounds decompose slowly to give chlorine.
 It is a better disinfectant than chlorine. It also gives good taste to the treated water.
ClNH2 + H2O HOCl + NH3
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26. Define the term break point chlorination. (Or) What is break-point chlorination?
(A.U.MAY 2011)
Break point chlorination is the point at which all the impurities are removed and free
chlorine begins to appear when chlorine is added to water as disinfectant.
27. How is water sterilized by ozone? ( A.U. May 2010), ( A.U. Jul 2010)
 Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and is readily absorbed by water.
O3  O2 + [O] Nascent oxygen (powerful germicide which kills bacteria)
28. What are the disadvantages of using ozone in disinfection of water?

 This process is costly and cannot be used in large scale.
 Ozone is unstable and cannot be stored for long time.
29. Define desalination. (AU June 2008)

The process of removing common salt from brackish/sea water is known as
desalination.
30. Write the principle involved in the desalination of water by reverse osmosis. (Or)
What is meant by Reverse osmosis? How is it applied in the desalination of water?
(A.U. Jul 2010, Jan 2018)
If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure applied on the higher
concentration side, the solvent flow is reversed i.e. solvent flows from higher concentration
to lower concentration. The process is known as reverse osmosis.
31. Name some of the semi permeable membranes employed in reverse osmosis
process. State the advantages of this process.
Semipermeable membrane: Cellulose acetate, Cellulose butyrate.
Advantages:
 It removes ionic, non-ionic and colloidal impurities.
 The life time of the membrane is high and it can be replaced within few
minutes.
 Low cost, simple to operate.
32. Name the methods which separate both ionic and non-ionic impurities from
water.
Reverse osmosis process, Electro dialysis
33. What are the requisites of drinking and boiler feed water?
Boiler feed water: water which is fed into the boiler for steam production.
(i) Boiler feed Must be free from turbidity, oil, alkali and
water dissolved gases like O2, CO2.
(ii) Drinking (i) pH of water should be in the range of
water 7.0-8.5
(ii) Total hardness and dissolved solids of
water should be less than 500 ppm.
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34. Why is water softened before using in boiler? (Or) Why is hard water unsuitable for
boilers? (Or)Give the disadvantages of using hard water in boilers. What are the
various boiler troubles? (A.U. Jul 2010), (A.U.May 2010, Dec 2015, Jan 2018, 2019)
 Scale and sludge formation.

 Priming and foaming.
 Caustic embrittlement.
 Boiler corrosion.
35. What are sludges and scales?(TNV A.U May 2009)

Sludge: Soft and loose precipitate/deposits. MgCl2, MgSO4, MgCO3, CaCl2.
Scale: Hard and adherent deposits. Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4, Mg(OH)2.
36. Distinguish between scale and sludge. [AU Jan 2019]

S.No. Scale Sludge
1. Hard and adherent deposits. Soft, loose and slimy precipitate.
2. Formed by substances like Formed by substances like MgCl2,
Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4 and MgCO3 and CaCl2.
Mg(OH)2
3. Insoluble in hot water. Soluble in hot water.
4. Can be easily removed by Cannot be easily removed by boiling.
boiling.
37. What are the disadvantages of sludge/scale formation in boilers?

( A.U Jun 2009)
 It leads to wastage of fuel.
 It decreases the efficiency of boiler.
 Boiler explosion.
38. What is blow-down operation? (A.U. MAY 2011)
Blow – down operation is a process of removing a portion of concentrated water by
fresh water frequently from the boiler during steam production.
39. What is meant by priming and foaming? How can they be prevented?
Priming is the process of production of wet steam.

It can be prevented by controlling the velocity of steam and keeping the water level
lower.
Foaming is the formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water in boiler.
It can be prevented by adding coagulants like sodium aluminate and antifoaming
agents like synthetic polyamides.
40. What is meant by caustic embrittlement? How is it prevented? ( A.U. Jun 2012)
Caustic embrittlement means intercrystalline cracking of boiler metal.
It can be prevented by
 Using sodium phosphate as softening agent instead of sodium carbonate.
 Adding tannin, lignin to the boiler water which blocks the hair cracks.
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41. Mention any two compounds that cause caustic embrittlement in boilers.
(A.U. May 2014)
 NaOH
 Ca(OH)2
42. Write the reasons for the caustic embrittlement in boilers. [AU May 2022]
Caustic embrittlement is one of the boiler troubles caused by the use of water
containing high concentration of sodium hydroxide.
It leads to the formation of irregular cracks on the boiler parts such as bends and
joints.
43. What is boiler corrosion? Write its causes.

Decay of boiler metal by chemical or electrochemical reactions with its environment.
Causes:
 Dissolved oxygen, Dissolved carbon dioxide, Dissolved salts.
44. How is boiler corrosion removed due to dissolved oxygen?

Sodium sulphite and hydrazines are used for removing dissolved oxygen from water.
2Na2SO3 + O2 2Na2SO4
N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O
45. How is boiler corrosion removed due to carbondioxide?

Dissolved carbon dioxide is removed by adding NH4OH and also by mechanical de-
aeration process.
CO2 + 2NH4OH (NH4)2CO3 + H2O
46. Define softening / conditioning of water. How is it carried out?
The process of removing hardness producing salts from water is known as
softening (or) conditioning of water.
Softening of water can be done by two methods
1. External treatment (or) conditioning.
2. Internal treatment (or) conditioning.
47. What are internal and external treatment?

The process of removing hardness producing salts from water before feeding into the
boiler is known as external treatment or conditioning.
The process of removing hardness producing salts from water after feeding into the boiler
by using chemicals is known as external treatment or conditioning.
48. What are boiler compounds? Mention two different boiler compounds
and their actions.
The chemicals directly used in the boiler to remove scale forming salts are called as
boiler compounds.
Eg: Sodium aluminate and Sodium phosphate.
(i) NaAlO2+2H2O NaOH+ Al(OH)3
MgCl2+2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 +2NaCl
(ii) 3 CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
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49. What is sodium aluminate conditioning?

When Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2)is added to boiler feed water, it gets hydrolyzed
to form NaOH and a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
NaAlO2+2H2O NaOH+ Al(OH)3
The NaOH, so formed reacts with magnesium salt and convert it into Mg(OH)2
MgCl2+2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 + 2NaCl
50. What is phosphate conditioning? (OR)

What is the role of phosphates in the internal treatment of water? ( AU Jan 2010)
Sodium phosphate reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions to give soft sludges of calcium and
magnesium phosphates.
3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

51. What is calgon conditioning? How is it functioning in water treatment? (Or)
What is calgon? ( A.U. JAN 2012, .A.U. Jan 2010, A.U. May 2010)
Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6] which interacts with Ca/Mg
ions forming a highly soluble complex and thus prevents scale formation in boilers.
2CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
52. What is colloidal conditioning?

In low pressure boilers, colloidal conditioning agents like agar-agar, gelatin,
starch, kerosene, etc., are added to avoid scale formation.
These colloidal substances get coated over the scale forming particles and
convert them into sludge, which can be removed by blow down operation.
53. Soft water is not demineralised water where as demineralised water is soft water-
Justify.
 Soft water produced by lime-soda and zeolite processes does not contain hardness
producing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, but it contains other ions like Na+, K+, Cl- etc.
 Demineralised water does not contain both anions and cations.
54. What are ion exchange resins? (AU June 2010)

 Ion exchange resins are long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymers with a
microporous structure.
 The functional groups attached to it are responsible for the ion exchanging properties.
55. What are the types of ion exchange resin? Give some examples for cation and
anion exchange resin.
 Cation exchange resin:It contains acidic functional groups. Eg. Sulphonated coals,
Sulphonated polystyrenes.
 Anion exchange resin: It contains basic functional groups. Eg.Cross-linked
quaternary ammonium salts, Urea – formaldehyde resin.
56. How water is demineralised in an ion-exchange process? (AU Nov 2001)

When the water containing ions are passed through ion exchange columns, all
the hardness causing ions get exchanged with ion exchange resins.
Cation exchanger: RH2 + CaCl2 RCa+ 2HCl
Anion exchanger: R’(OH)2 + 2HCl R’Cl2 + 2H2O
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57. How is exhausted resin regenerated in ion-exchange process? ( A.U.Jan2010)

The cation exchange resin is regenerated by using dil. HCl or H2SO4.
RCa+ 2HCl RH2 + CaCl2
The anion exchange resin is regenerated by using dil. NaOH.
R’Cl2 + 2NaOH R’(OH)2 + 2NaCl
58. What are the advantages of ion–exchange process?

 Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated by this process.
 The water obtained by this process will have very low hardness.
59. What are the disadvantages of ion-exchange process?

 Water containing turbidity cannot be treated.
 Soluble Fe and Mn ions in water form stable compound with the resin.
 The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.
60. What is zeolite? What is its role in water technology? Write its formula.
Zeolite is a naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate. It is capable
of exchanging sodium ions with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ present in hard water.
Na2O. Al2O3. xSiO2.yH2O. (x=2-10,y=2-6)
61. How will you regenerate the exhausted zeolite?

The exhausted zeolite is regenerated again by treating with 10% solution of NaCl.
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
62. What are the advantages of zeolite process?
 Hardness will be of 1- 2 ppm.
 Cheap method because the regenerated zeolite can be used again.
 No sludge formation.
 The equipment is compact and occupies less space.
63. What are the disadvantages of zeolite process?

 Turbid and acidic water cannot be treated.
 The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts which leads to boiler
troubles(boiler corrosion and caustic embrittlement).
64. Write the differences between Zeolite process and Demineralisation

Process.
S.No. Zeolite Process Demineralisation Process
1. It is also called permutit It is also called ion exchange or
process. deionization process.
2. It exchanges only cations. It exchanges cations as well as anions.
3. Treated water contains more Treated water does not contain any
sodium salts. salts.
4. Leads to boiler troubles No boiler troubles
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65. Compare Internal treatment/conditioning and External treatment/

conditioning.(AU Jun 2015, Jan2018)
S.No Internal treatment /conditioning External treatment/conditioning
1. It is carried out in the boiler itself. It is carried out before its entry into
the boiler.
2. It is a corrective method. It is a preventive method.
3. Suitable for low pressure boilers. Suitable for high pressure boilers.
4. Carbonate, phosphate , Lime soda process, zeolite process and
sodium aluminate , calgon and ion exchange process.
colloidal conditioning .
66. Why do we express hardness of water in terms of calcium

carbonate equivalent? [AU Jan 2022]
The hardness in water is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
equivalent because it is the most insoluble salt in water and its
molecular weight/Equivalent weight is a simple whole number.
67. What is brackish water? [AU Jan 2022]
The water containing dissolved salts with peculiar salty or
brackish taste is called brackish water.
Brackish water contains less than 1000 and more than 35,000
ppm of dissolved solids.
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PART – B
1. Explain briefly about Water quality parameters in detail. [AU Jan 2022]
The quality of water is a very important parameter to be determined in order to decide
the type of application or treatment required. The quality of water varies from place to place
and seasons.
 It is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water.
Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or
more biotic species and/ or to a human need or purpose.
There are three types of water quality parameters. They are
1. Physical parameters
2. Chemical parameters
3. Biological parameters
i) Colour ii) Taste and odour iii) Turbidity
i)Colour:
 It is a shade imparted by organic or inorganic material which changes the appearance
of the water.
 Pure water should be colourless.
Sources:
Organic sources: Algae, tannins, organic dyes, humic acids,etc
Inorganic sources: Fe and Mn Compounds, chemical wastes from industries, etc
Significance:
 Highly coloured water limits the penetration of light.
 Variation in colour of water from the same sources serves as the index of quality of
water.
 It has been used as a quantitative assessment of the presence of potentially
hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.
Removal:
It can be removed by coagulation, settling, adsorption and filtration process.
ii) Taste and odour:

Taste: It is the sensation of flavour perceived in the mouth and throat on contact with a
substance.
Odour: It is a smell caused by one (or) more volatilized chemical compounds that are
generally found in low concentration.
Odour and taste in water originate from natural or biological sources or processes, from
contamination by chemicals or as a byproduct of water treatment.
Sources:
Organic sources: Algae, decayed vegetation, etc
Inorganic Sources: Dissolved gases, chemical and industrial wastes, etc
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Significance:
 Disagreeable odours and tastes are objectionable for various industrial processes
such as textiles, paper and pulp, etc.
 Senses of smell and taste are vital in identification of valuable nutrients.
Removal:
Odour in water is measured in terms of threshold odour number (TON)
 Aeration (or) activated carbon treatment
 It can be removed by chemical methods(oxidation, chlorination, precipitation)
iii)Turbidity:
It is the reduction of clarity of natural water due to the presence of finely divided,
insoluble impurities suspended in water.
It is the appearance of cloudiness or dirtiness in water.
Sources:
Organic sources: Finely divided vegetable or organic matter, oils, fats, greases, etc, etc
Inorganic Sources: Clay, silt, silica, ferric hydroxide, etc
Significance:
 It affects the taste and odour of drinking water.
 It increases water temperature because a suspended particle absorbs more heat.
 The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby
shield them from the disinfection process.
 It increases the cost of water treatment for various uses.
 It has negative effects on aquatic life and blocks light to penetrate in water.
Removal:
Turbidity in water can be removed by coagulation, settling and filtration process.
Chemical Parameters:
pH, Hardness, Alkalinity, COD and BOD,TDS, Fluoride, Arsenic
i) pH: It is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.

pH = - log10 [H+]
 pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution.
 Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C.
 Normal rainfall has a pH 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric CO2 gas.
Significance:
 It determines the solubility and biological availability (aquatic life)
 pH indicates chemical pollution (or) acid rain.
 A high pH makes the water taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine
disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine.
 The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises.
 Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances
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 Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly
acidic water and become more toxic.
 Acidic water can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic
insects and damage membranes.
ii)Hardness:
Hardness is one of characteristics of water. Hardness in water is due to the presence
of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and Magnesium.
Types:
i) Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness:
It is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and Magnesium.
ii) Permanent hardness or non carbonate hardness:
It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and Magnesium
Significance:
 Hard water does not produce lather with soap solution.
 In industries, use of hard water causes scale formation in boilers and heat
exchangers.
 It mitigates metal toxicity.
Removal:
Hardness in water is removed by Internal and external treatment methods.
Alkalinity:
Alkalinity is a measure of acid neutralizing ability. Alkalinity in water is due to the
presence of hydroxide, carbonates and bicarbonates.
Sources:
Domestic and Industrial wastes.
Significance:
 Use of alkaline water in boiler causes caustic embrittlement.
 The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime
and soda needed for water softening.
 Alkalinity in natural waters provides a buffering action that protects fish and other
aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH.
iii)TDS:
TDS stands for Total Dissolved solids.
It is defined as the measure of all inorganic and organic substances present in water.
Sources:
Agricultural runoff, domestic and industrial wastes, etc
Significance:
 TDS impacts salinity in water.
 Water with TDs level higher than 300 ppm may not be potable as it can taste salty.
 Water with high level of TDS impacts colour, odour and taste dramatically.
 High level of TDS in water causes scale forming in boilers, heat exchangers, water
pipelines, household appliances, etc
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iv) COD and BOD:

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
It is the measure of amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize all the oxidisable
impurities present in the sewage using an oxidizing agent like acidified K 2Cr2O7.
Significance:
 It measures both the biologically oxidisable and inert organic matter.
 It takes only 3 hours for determination of COD in water.
 COD is used to measure pollutants in waste water and aqueous hazardous wastes.
 It provides an index to assess the effect of discharged waste water on the
environment.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
It is the amount of free oxygen required by bacteria for the biological oxidation of the
organic matter under aerobic condition at 20ºC for a period of 5 days.
Significance:
 It indicates the amount of decomposable organic matter present in the sewage.
 It helps to determine the degree of pollution in waste water.
 Lesser the BOD, better is the quality of water. Water with BOD less than 3ppm is
pure and more than 4 ppm is polluted.
 BOD5-the period of 5 days for complete oxidation at 20˚C.
Fluoride:
Fluoride is found in ground water as a result of dissolution of geological formulation.
Sources:
Fluoride containing mineral like fluorapatite, domestic sewage, runoff from
agricultural lands, etc
Significance:
 Optimum fluoride concentration in water ranges from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/l.
 A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental
health
 Excessive amount of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental
fluorosis.
 Low fluoride concentration in water causes dental caries for children.
Removal:
 By precipitation with aluminium salts in alkaline medium.
 Using anion exchange resin.
 Adsorption by activated carbon.
Arsenic:
Arsenic is a semi metallic element that forms a number of poisonous compounds.
It is found in nature mostly in compounds with oxygen, chlorine and sulphur.
Sources:
Natural deposits, agricultural runoff, industrial wastes, etc
Significance:
 Long term intake of arsenic in drinking water causes cancer of the bladder, skin,
kidney.
 Other health problem includes hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and
neurological disorders.
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Removal:
Treatment depends on the level of contamination. It includes the addition of an anion
filter or tank media.
2. Write the detailed description about the Municipal water treatment process.
(OR) Describe briefly the different steps in the purification of water for drinking
purposes. Describe briefly the different steps involved in Municipal water treatment.
(OR) Outline the various stages of domestic water treatment in sequence of water for
drinking purpose. (A.U. Jan 2010, Jul 2010, May 2022 )
The following steps are involved in the purification of domestic or municipal water.
Source of water  Screening  Aeration  Sedimentation  Coagulation

FiltrationSterilization.
Sources of water : Water taken from rivers and lakes.
Screening :
 Process of removing floating materials like leaves, plastics, wood pieces etc., by
passing water through a screen.
Aeration:
 The process of mixing water with air is known as aeration.
 Passing sufficient amount of air into water.
 It removes gases like CO2, H2S , iron and manganese as insoluble salts.
Sedimentation:
 It is done by allowing the water to stand undisturbed for 2-6 hours in a big tank.
 75% of the suspended impurities are deposited.
Coagulation:
 Finely divided clay or silica can be removed by adding Aluminum sulphate to water
which forms gelatinous precipitate of Aluminium hydroxide and entraps the finely
divided impurities.
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → Al(OH)3↓ + 3H2SO4
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Filtration:
 It is the process of removing colour, taste, odour, suspended impurities and bacteria.
 The sand filter with several layers of sand and gravel is used.
 When the rate of filtration becomes slow, the filtration is stopped and the top layer of
the fine sand is scrapped off and replaced with new sand.
Sterilization (or) disinfection:

It is the process of destroying harmful bacteria.
 By Boiling.
 By using Ozone
 By UV radiation
 By Chlorination
Break point chlorination - Break point chlorination is the point at which all the impurities
are removed and free chlorine begins to appear.
3. Explain how sterilization of water carried out? (Or) Explain the necessity for
sterilization of domestic water and discuss the various methods of sterilization.
Discuss in detail about break point chlorination. (A.U Jun 2009), (A.U.MAY.2012)
Sterilization or disinfection: It is the process of destroying harmful bacteria.

Sterilization methods:
 By Boiling - Water boiled for 10-15minitues all the harmful bacteria are killed and
the water becomes safe for use.
 By Ozonation –Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and is readily absorbed by water.
O3 O2 + [O] Nascent oxygen (powerful germicide which kills
bacteria)
 By UV radiation – UV rays obtained by passing electric current through mercury
vapour lamp and use to sterilize water in swimming pool.
 By Chlorination – The process of adding chlorine to water.
a) By adding chlorine gas.
b) By adding Chloramine(Chlorine + ammonia in the ratio of 2:1)
c) By adding bleaching powder (CaOCl2) which produces HOCl, acts as powerful
germicide.
The amount of chlorine added is based on break point chlorination.
It is “the point at which all the bacteria, reducing substances and organic
substances are removed and free residual chlorine begins to appear”.
4.What is break-point chlorination? State its significance (OR) Explain break-point

chlorination. What is the usage of breakpoint chlorination? (Or) Discuss in detail
about break point chlorination. (A.U Jun 2009,2010, Jun 2005, May 2003)[AU Jan 2022]
When chlorine is added to the water as sterilizing agent the following processes
happened
CaOCl2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O → HCl + HOCl
Cl2 + NH3 → ClNH2 + HCl
ClNH2 + H2O → HOCl + NH3
HOCl + Bacteria → bacterias are killed
16
 When the amount of chlorine added is low, it is used to kill bacteria and oxidize
reducing substances. There is no free residual chlorine.
 As the amount increases, chloramines and other chloro compounds are formed and
the amount of residual chlorine also increases.
 On further chlorination oxidation of impurities and chloro compound starts.
 Residual chlorine decreases to minimum and at one point it starts increasing again as
shown in fig 1.1. This point is called Break point chlorination.
Fig 1.1 Break point chlorination

Significance/Uses: It gives an idea about the exact amount of chlorine required for
complete sterilization of the water.
5. What is boiler feed water? Discuss the requirements of boiler feed water.
(AU Dec 2015, Jan 2018)
The water which is fed into the boiler for steam production is called boiler feed water.
The boiler feed water must have the following requirements:
Hardness <0.2 ppm

Soda alkalinity 0.15 – 1.0 ppm
Caustic alkalinity 0.15 – 0.45 ppm
Excess soda ash 0.3 – 0.55 ppm
Dissolved gases like O2, 0 ppm
CO2
17
S.No. Specifications Disadvantages

1. It must be of zero hardness. Scales and sludges will be produced.
2. It must be free from dissolved It leads to boiler corrosion
gases like O2, CO2.
3. It should be free from Produces wet steam
suspended impurities.
4. It should be free from Produces caustic embrittlement.
dissolved salts and alkalinity.
5. It should be free from oil and Produces priming and foaming
turbidity
6. It should be free from total Produces priming, foaming and
dissolved salts. caustic embrittlement etc.,
6. What are scales and sludges? Describe the disadvantages of scale and sludge
formation. (Or) Discuss in detail the causes and remedial measures (preventive
measures)of sludge and scale.( Or) what are the various boiler troubles and how they
can be prevented? Or Disadvantages of using hard water in boilers.( AU Jan 2010 AU
June 2015, 2017, Jan 2018, Jan 2019, May 2019,Jan 2022)
In a boiler, water is continuously converted into steam. Due to this continuous

evaporation of water, concentration of dissolved salts increases progressively.
When it reaches the saturation point, salts starts separating out in the form of
precipitates.
Sludge (Soft Deposits):

 If the precipitate formed is soft, loose and non-adherent, it is called sludge.
 It remains in water and do not stick to the inner walls as shown in fig 1.2 (a)
 It is formed due to the presence of salts like CaCl2 ,MgCl2, MgSO4, MgCO3.
Disadvantages:
 Poor conductors of heat.
 Decreases the efficiency of boiler.
Prevention:
 By using softened water.
 Removed by blow down operation.
Blow down operation:

It is a process of removing a portion of concentrated water by fresh water frequently
from the boiler during steam production.
18
(a)Sludge (b) scale

Fig.1.2
Scale (Hard Deposits):

 If the precipitate is hard and adherent, then it is called scale.
 It sticks firmly on the inner wall of the boiler as shown in Fig 1.2 (b).
 It is formed due to the presence of Ca (HCO3)2, CaSO4, Mg(OH)2, CaSiO3.
Disadvantages:
 Wastage of fuel: Scales have low thermal conductivity, so overheating is done which
leads to wastage of fuel.
 Decrease in efficiency: scales get deposited on the valves and condensers which
results in decrease in efficiency of boilers.
 Boiler explosion: sometimes at high pressure, scales may crack and water comes in
direct contact with overheated iron plates. This results in sudden formation of large
amount of steam with high pressure which leads to explosion of boilers.
 Lowering of boiler safety.
Prevention:
 For brittle scale-apply thermal shock
 For soft scale –use scrapers, wire brush or by blow down operation.
 For hard and adherent scale - By using chemicals [CaCO3 scale – HCl,
CaSO4 scale - EDTA]
 External treatment and internal treatment.
7. Discuss the causes and prevention of priming and foaming. (OR) Discuss in
detail the causes and remedial measures of priming and foaming.
(AU June 2006, Dec 2015)
Priming: It is the process of production of wet steam in boilers.
Causes:
 High steam velocity.
 High water level in the boiler.
 Sudden boiling.
 Poor boiler design.
19
Prevention:
 Controlling the steam velocity.
 Keeping the water level lower.
 Good boiler design.
 Using treated water.
Foaming: Formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water in boilers is called
foaming.
Causes:
 Presence of oil and grease in water.
 Presence of finely divided particles.
Prevention:
 Adding coagulants like Sodium aluminate, Aluminium hydroxide etc.,
 Adding anti-foaming agents like synthetic poly amides
8. What is caustic embrittlement? How can it be prevented? (OR) Discuss in

detail the causes and remedial measures of caustic embrittlement.
(AU Jan 2013, Jun 2016)
Caustic embrittlement: (Intercrystalline Cracking)

Caustic embrittlement means inter crystalline cracking of boiler metal.
Causes: In high pressure boilers, the Na2CO3 present in boiler water is converted into
NaOH. When the concentration of NaOH increases it flows into minute cracks by capillary
action and dissolves iron as sodium ferroate.
Na2CO3 + H2O  NaOH + CO2
Fe + 2 NaOH  Na2FeO2 + H2↑
Prevention:
 Uses of sodium phosphate as softening agent instead of Na2CO3
 By adding tannin, lignin.
9. What is Boiler corrosion? How will you protect boiler from corrosion? (OR) Discuss
in detail the causes and remedial measures of boiler corrosion. (AU May 2015)
Boiler corrosion is defined as the decay of boiler metal by chemical or electrochemical
reaction with its environment.
Boiler corrosion in water is due to the presence of
i. Dissolved oxygen,
ii. Dissolved carbon dioxide
iii.Dissolved salts
i. Dissolved oxygen: The dissolved oxygen in water attacks the boiler material at high
temperature forming Fe(OH)3 .
4Fe + 6 H2O + 3O2 4 Fe(OH)3
20
Removal:
 By adding Na2SO3 and hydrazine,
 By mechanical deaeration: Water is passed through the perforated plates inside the
tower at high temperature and low pressure. This reduces the dissolved oxygen in
water.
ii. Dissolved CO2: Dissolved CO2 in water produces carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Removal:
 By adding NH4OH.
 By mechanical de-aeration:
iii.Dissolved salts – Salts like MgCl2, CaCl2 etc., undergo hydrolysis at high temperature
and produce HCl, which corrodes the boiler parts.
MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2+ 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
Removal :
 By adding calculated amount of NaOH.
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O
10. What are Zeolites? How is the softening of water carried out using the zeolite
process? Explain with neat diagram ( AU Jan 2010, AU June2015, Dec 2019)
Zeolite (or) Permutit Process:

Zeolite is a naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate.
General formula:
Na2O. Al2O3. xSiO2.yH2O. (x=2-10,y=2-6)
 The synthetic form of zeolite is known as permutit is used for water softening.
 Synthetic zeolite is represented by Na2Ze.
Process:
 Hard water is passed through a bed of sodium zeolite (Na2Ze) as shown in fig 1.3.
 Sodium ions present in sodium zeolite exchanges with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present in
hard water to form calcium and magnesium zeolites.
CaCl2/ MgCl2 + Na2Ze CaZe/ MgZe + 2NaCl
CaSO4/MgSO4 + Na2Ze CaZe/ MgZe + Na2SO4
21
Fig 1.3 Zeolite process
Regeneration:
The exhausted zeolite bed is regenerated by treating with 10% solution of NaCl.
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2
Advantages:
 Hardness will be of 1- 2 ppm.
 It is a cheap method because the regenerated zeolite can be used again.
 The equipment is compact and occupies less space.
 Its operation is easy.
Disadvantages:
 Turbid and acidic water cannot be treated.
 The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts like NaHCO3, Na2CO3 etc.
When such water is boiled in boilers, causes boiler troubles (boiler corrosion and
caustic embrittlement)
 Water containing Fe, Mn cannot be treated.
 This process cannot be used for treating brackish water.
11. Explain the softening of water by deionization process/Ion-exchange process.

(OR) Explain how demineralization of water is done in water technology.
( AU Jan 2009, ,Dec 2015, Jun 2017, Jan 2019, May 2019)
Demineralization:
The process of removing hardness causing ions ( both anions and cations) from water
before feeding into the boiler is known as demineralization process.
 It is carried out using ion exchange resins.
 Ion exchange resins are long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymer with a
microporous structure.
 The functional groups attached to it are responsible for ion exchange properties.
 Demineralised water does not contain both cations and anions.
22
Types of Ion exchange resin:

i. Cation exchange resin or Cation exchanger
ii. Anion exchange resin or Anion exchanger
Cation exchanger:
 It is a cross-linked polymer containing acidic functional groups like –COOH, -
SO3H.
 It is capable of exchanging H+ ions with Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, ions.
 It is represented as RH2.
 Eg: Sulphonated coal or polystyrene
Anion exchanger:
 It is a cross-linked polymer containing basic functional groups like –NH2,
-OH.
 It is capable of exchanging OH- ions with Cl-, SO42-, and HCO3-.
 It is represented as R’(OH)2.
 Eg: Urea formaldehyde resin, Cross-linked quaternary ammonium salts, etc.
Process:
The hard water is first passed through a cation exchanger where all the cations are
removed except H+ ions as shown in fig 1.4.
RH2 + CaCl2 RCa + 2HCl
RH2 + MgSO4 RMg + H2SO4
The cations free water is then passed through an anion exchanger where all the
anions are removed except OH- ions.
R’(OH)2 + 2HCl R’Cl2 + 2H2O
R’(OH)2 + H2SO4 R’SO4 + 2H2O
23
Fig 1.4 Demineralization process

Regeneration:
Exhausted cationic resin is regenerated by adding dil. HCl or dil. H2SO4 solution.
RCa + 2HCl RH2 + CaCl2
Exhausted anionic resin is regenerated by adding dil. NaOH solution.

R’Cl2 + 2NaOH R’(OH)2 + 2NaCl
Advantage:
 Highly acidic and alkaline water can be used.
 Treated water contains very low hardness (2 ppm)
Disadvantage:
 Turbid water cannot be treated.
 Equipment is Costly.
 More expensive chemicals are needed.
12.How is internal treatment of water carried out? (OR) Give an account of
Internal treatment of boiler water. Discuss the various methods available for internal
conditioning. (AU Dec 2006, 2015, 2017,Jan 2013, June 2009, 2015, 2017, Jan 2018,
2019, May 2019)
Internal Conditioning (or) Internal Treatment (or) Boiler Compounds:

The process of removing hardness and scale producing ions from water after feeding
into the boiler by adding chemicals are called internal conditioning.
The chemicals like carbonates, phosphates, calgon, etc directly added to the boiler for
softening purpose are called boiler compounds.
1. Phosphate conditioning: (AU May 2019)

In high pressure boilers, sodium phosphate is added to convert hard scales into soft
sludges .
3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
24
Trisodium Phosphate- Na3PO4 (highly alkaline) - Used for highly acidic water.
Disodium hydrogen phosphate - Na2HPO4 (Weakly alkaline)- Used for weakly acidic water.
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate - NaH2PO4 (acidic)- Used for alkaline water.
2. Calgon Conditioning:
Calgon is the trade name of Sodium hexameta phosphate (Na2[Na4(PO3)6]).
When it is added to boiler feed water it converts scale forming salts into highly water
soluble complex.
2CaSO4 + Na2 [Na4 (PO3)6] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
Highly water soluble complex
So, Calgon conditioning is better than phosphate conditioning.
3. Sodium aluminate conditioning: (AU May 2019)

When Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) is added to boiler feed water, it gets hydrolyzed to
form NaOH and a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3
The NaOH, so formed reacts with magnesium salt and convert it into Mg(OH)2
MgCl2 + 2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 + 2NaCl
The gelatinous precipitate of Mg(OH)2 and Al(OH)3 entraps finely suspended and Colloidal
impurities along with oil drops and silica. They are removed as soft sludges by blow down
operation.
4. Colloidal Conditioning:
In low pressure boilers, colloidal conditioning agents like agar-agar, gelatin,
kerosene,etc., are added to avoid scale formation.
These colloidal substances get coated over the scale forming particles and convert
them into soft sludge which can be removed by blow down operation.
13.Define the term desalination with a neat diagram. (Or) Describe desalination of
brackish water by reverse osmosis method. Mention its advantages.
(AUJun 2009,2010,2015, 2017 AU Jan 2013, Jan 2019,2022,May 2022)
Desalination:
The process of removing common salt from water is known as desalination.
Osmosis:
 When two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi permeable
membrane, the solvent flows from lower concentration to higher concentration side.
This process is called osmosis.
 The driving force for this is osmotic pressure.
25
Reverse Osmosis:
 If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on higher
concentration side, the solvent flow is reversed (i.e.) solvent moves from higher
concentration to lower concentration side. This is called reverse osmosis.
Fig 1.5 Reverse Osmosis

Process:
 If high pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on sea water or brackish
water side, the semipermeable membrane allows only pure water to pass through it.
 Thus the dissolved ionic salts and nonionic substances left behind. So this process is
also called super filtration process.
 The semipermeable membranes used are cellulose acetate, cellulose butyrate, etc.
Advantages:
 It removes ionic, non-ionic and colloidal impurities.
 The life time of the membrane is high and it can be replaced within few
minutes.
 Low cost
 Simple to operate.
26
Anna University Important Questions:
1. Explain briefly about water quality parameters in detail.

2. Write the detailed description about the Municipal water treatment process.
3. Explain how sterilization of water carried out (Or) explain the necessity for
sterilization of domestic water and discuss the various methods of sterilization.
4. Discuss in detail about break point chlorination.
5. What are scales and sludges? Describe the disadvantages of scale and sludge
formation. (OR) Discuss in detail the causes and remedial measures of sludges and
scales.
6. Explain the softening of water by deionization process (OR) Demineralization of water
is done in water technology.
7. How is the softening of water carried out using the zeolite process? What are zeolites?
How do they function in removing the hardness of water?
8. How is internal treatment of water carried out? (Or) Give an account of Internal
treatment of boiler feed water.
9. Define the term desalination. Describe desalination of brackish water by Reverse
osmosis method with a neat diagram. Mention its advantages.
27

Unit 1 Water and Its Treatment 2022

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CY3151/ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY / NOV 2022 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, MAILAM.

3. What are water quality parameters? Mention its types.

4. Write the significance of presence of colour in water.

9. What is meant by soft water and hard water? ( A.U.Jan 2009)

Permanent hardness: presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium.

11. What is meant by BOD?[AU May 2022]

12. Write the significance of BOD.[AU May 2022]

13. What is COD?[AU May 2022]

14. Write the significance of BOD.[AU May 2022]

15. Define alkalinity.

17. Write the health effect of fluoride present in water.

 Excessive amount of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental

18. Write the significance of arsenic if present in water.

Sources of water Screening Aeration Sedimentation

Sterilization (or) Disinfection Filtration Coagulation

20. What is aeration of water? Mention its purpose.

21. Explain the function of a coagulant with example.

22. What is chlorination?

24. What is disinfection or sterilization? Mention various disinfection methods.

25. What is meant by disinfectant? What is the advantage of using chloramines as a

28. What are the disadvantages of using ozone in disinfection of water?

29. Define desalination. (AU June 2008)

 Scale and sludge formation.

35. What are sludges and scales?(TNV A.U May 2009)

36. Distinguish between scale and sludge. [AU Jan 2019]

37. What are the disadvantages of sludge/scale formation in boilers?

Priming is the process of production of wet steam.

43. What is boiler corrosion? Write its causes.

44. How is boiler corrosion removed due to dissolved oxygen?

45. How is boiler corrosion removed due to carbondioxide?

47. What are internal and external treatment?

MgCl2+2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 +2NaCl

(ii) 3 CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

49. What is sodium aluminate conditioning?

50. What is phosphate conditioning? (OR)

3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

52. What is colloidal conditioning?

54. What are ion exchange resins? (AU June 2010)

56. How water is demineralised in an ion-exchange process? (AU Nov 2001)

57. How is exhausted resin regenerated in ion-exchange process? ( A.U.Jan2010)

58. What are the advantages of ion–exchange process?

59. What are the disadvantages of ion-exchange process?

61. How will you regenerate the exhausted zeolite?

63. What are the disadvantages of zeolite process?

64. Write the differences between Zeolite process and Demineralisation

65. Compare Internal treatment/conditioning and External treatment/

66. Why do we express hardness of water in terms of calcium

ii) Taste and odour:

i) pH: It is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.

iv) COD and BOD:

Source of water  Screening  Aeration  Sedimentation  Coagulation

Sources of water : Water taken from rivers and lakes.

Sterilization (or) disinfection:

Sterilization or disinfection: It is the process of destroying harmful bacteria.

4.What is break-point chlorination? State its significance (OR) Explain break-point

Fig 1.1 Break point chlorination

Hardness <0.2 ppm

S.No. Specifications Disadvantages

In a boiler, water is continuously converted into steam. Due to this continuous

Sludge (Soft Deposits):

Blow down operation:

(a)Sludge (b) scale

Scale (Hard Deposits):