Master M1 EEA EECS

“High frequency electronics”

TP 1 – Propagation on a cable
1 Equipement
Pulse Generator
1 coaxial cable drum
1 unknown coaxial cable drum
Potentiometer (tunable impedance): from 0 to 100 W
A load of 50 W

2 PW Goal
The first objective is to study the response of a coaxial cable excited by a step voltage shape input signal
(Heaviside). It is a classical measurement known as Time Domain Reflectometry which is used, for
example, on the cable testers to detect and locate the defects on a cable.
The second objective is put a RJ45 connector at the end of a cable.
And the last one is to use a cable tester to test cables.

3 Theoretical approach
3.1 Temporal study
3.1.1 Pulse response
The generator is supposed matched (Zg = Zc) and the line is lossless.
How to measure the amplitude of the pulse emitted?
We suppose to have a cable with a length l. We set at the input the pulse generator with an output
impedance matched with the line impedance.

We suppose at t = 0 that a narrow pulse voltage is applied to the input line. As there is still no
propagation, the generator sees only a line cable with an impedance ZC. At the time t=0+, the amplitude at
the line input is:
Ve =V + = ZC ´E = ZC ´E = E
ZC + ZG ZC + ZC 2

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 How do you calculate the reflection coefficient ?
This previous amplitude induce a propagative wave V+ which needs a time T to go from the input to the
end of the line. If the end impedance is ZT, the knowledge of the reflection coefficient G =V- allow us to
V+
have the amplitude of the reflected wave. The relationship between R and ZT is: R= ZT -ZC and
ZT + Z C
ZT =1+ R ´ZC
1- R

Case n°1: Matched line terminated by a matched load (ZT = Zc)

It is the ideal case:

The propagative wave V+ requires a time T to reach the end of the line. The reflection will be:
R= ZT -ZC = ZC -ZC =0 :
ZT + Z C Z C + Z C
No reflection waves V- is observed at the beginning of the line.

Application: Zc measurement:
A tunable impedance RT is set at the end of the line. Its value is changed until to cancel the reflected
pulse amplitude (Reflection coefficient is cancelled). In this case, RT=Zc. The value of the impedance
RT is measured with a multimeter.

Line not matched at the end of the line

We suppose that the load at the end of the line is ZT ¹ ZC (for example ZT = 3 * ZC)

The propagative wave V+ requires a time T to reach the end of the line and a part of the signal is
reflected characterized by the contra-propagative wave V-, with the reflection factor :
R= ZT -ZC = 3´ZC -ZC =0,5 :
ZT + ZC 3´ZC + ZC
At the time 2T, this last wave comes back to the generator with an amplitude of: V - = RT ´V + =V + . At
2
the input line, the pulse is absorbed (Rg=0) and we observe only the reflected amplitude pulse with the
previous amplitude

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 Application : vj measurement: we mesure the time 2T required to the pulse to come back at the line
input. From this value, we deduce the propagation speed vj knowing the line length  .

3.1.1 Response to a step amplitude voltage (Reflectometry)

The generator is supposed to be matched (Zg = Zc) the line is lossless.

Line finished by a matched load (ZT = Zc)

It is the ideal case: the line is continuous.
After a time 2T, there is no reflection at the input line. The amplitude is not changed, the reflected
amplitude V- being null.

Line not matched at the output

We suppose to have a load impedance ZT ¹ ZC (For example ZT = 3 * ZC)

The reflected amplitude V+ requires a time T to reach the end of the line. The reflection coefficient will
be : R= ZT -ZC = 3´ZC -ZC =0,5 :
ZT + ZC 3´ZC + ZC
After the time 2T, this reflected amplitude comes back to the input line with the following amplitude :
V - = RT ´V + =V + . So the input amplitude becomes: Ve = E /2 - E /4 = E/4 : there is a discontinuity
2
observed on the oscilloscope trace

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 Case n°2: End of the line terminated by a short circuit (ZT = 0)

The propagative wave V+ takes a time T to reach the end of the line and a part of the signal is reflected
characterized by the contra-propagative wave V-, with the reflection factor : R= ZT -ZC = 0-ZC =-1 :
ZT + ZC 0+ ZC
At the time 2T, this last wave comes back to the generator with an amplitude of : V - = RT ´V + =-V +
giving a total amplitude of : Ve = E /2 - E /2 = 0 : there is a discontinuous part on the line observed at
the input of the line. The time measurement of 2T allows localizing the short circuit.

3.2 Link characterization

L dx R dx
3.2.1 Primary parameters
The equivalent diagram is a section with a length dX described in the C dx G dx
next figure :
dx
Linear resistivity :
RL = R/l in W/m
At low frequency : R = r l (r resistvity, l length and S surface)
S
At high frequency (F> 100 kHz) an electromagnetic effect induces a concentration of the current near
the surface: the resistivity increases proportional to ÖF .
Remark : for a twin cable or a coaxial cable, the resistances add together

Linear electrical conductance :

GL = G/l in S/m

The conductance characterize the dielectric losses along the link. It is nearly negligible for the
dielectric used and for frequencies smaller than 1 GHz.

Linear inductance
LL = L/l in H/m
It is due to the magnetic field between the conductors (external inductance) and for a small part to the
magnetic field inside the conductor (internal inductance).

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 Linear capacity
CL = C/l in F/m
It is relied to the dielectric permittivity between the two conductors.

3.2.2 Secondary parameters

Impedance characteristics :
It is the impedance measured at the input of the line if its length is very high or if the line is finished by
this same impedance.
R L + jLLw
Zc = - If the line is lossless : R = 0 ; G = 0 >>> Zc = L L
G L + jCLw CL
Propagation speed
It is defined by the imaginary part of the propagation constant
( g = (R L + jL Lw ) × (G L + jCLw ) = a + jb )
Its value is : vj = jbw = 1
L×C
b is the linear phase difference (or phase constant) in rad/m : b=w LC = w
Vj
Insertion loss
It is the real part of the propagation constant g = (R L + jLLw)(
× G L + jCLw)=a+ jb
It is the attenuation measured corresponding to the ratio between the received power and the emitted
power.

3.2.3 Secondary paramters for several twin cables

NEXT (Near End Cross Talk)
It is the ratio between the emitted power on one twin cable at one side of the link and the noisy power
received on a second twin cable at the same side of the link. Higher is the value and better is the link.

ELFEXT (Equal Level Far Cross Talk)

It is the ratio between the emitted power on one twin cable at one side of the link and the noisy power
on another twin cable at the second side of the link. Higher is the value and better is the link.

Return Loss
It is the power reflected to the source due to impedance mismatch along the link. Its measurement is
given by the ratio of the emitted power and the received power back reflected on the same twin cable.

4 Preparation
4.1 Response to a pulse (Time Reflectometer) on a lossless line
We suppose to have a load impedance ZT = 3 * ZC

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 • Calculate the reflection coefficient
• If the generator gives an amplitude of 1V in an open configuration, calculate the amplitude V+
and the amplitude V-.
4.2 Response to a step voltage
We suppose to have a load ZT. The response to the step voltage is the following.

• Calculate the reflexion coefficient

• Deduce the load at the end of the line

4.3 Parameter characterizations of the line with the reflectometer

4.3.1 Impedance of the line measurement
• You have an oscilloscope to observe the amplitude Ve at the line input and a tunable
impedance. Propose a method to measure Zc.

4.3.2 Propagation speed

The time 2T is 800 ns and the length of the line is 100 m.
• Calculate the propagation speed in m/s.

5 Measurements
5.1 Hardware used
5.1.1 Signal Generator
On CH1 select Pulse shape. Adjust the pulse frequency at 100 kHz, HighL at 4V and LowL at 0V
Adjust the leading and trailing times to the minimum values of 22.5 ns. Change Duty cycle to 2%.
Check on the scope the pulse duration close to 200ns.

You can use the external trigger “Sync” given by the generator to solve trigger problem.
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 5.1.2 The studied coaxial cable
The length of the cable is =100 m.
Connect the coaxial cable to the pulse generator. There is also another BNC connector to observe the
input of the line with the oscilloscope.
At the output of the connect you can insert between the two banana connectors a load.

Oscilloscope

ExtTrig Ch1 Ch2

Trig
Zg
Out Ve
E Cable coax 1m

Cable coax 100 m

The input line diagram can be simplified by :

5.2 Pulse voltage response

5.2.1 Open load at the end of the line
Do not set a load at the end of the line: it is finished by an open circuit ( ZT ¥ ).
Observe at the oscilloscope the output signal of the generator.

• Observe the pulse coming back, connecting and disconnecting the line (from the source side)
and justify the fact that the amplitude at the beginning goes from 4V to 2V.
• Pick up the signal adding two cursors to show the time 2T. Measure it.
• The length of the line being 100m, deduce the propagation speed Vj of the waves in the line.
Deduce the dielectric constant er given by the following relation: C0 =V´ er with C0 the speed
of the light in the air.
• Comparing the incident amplitude with the reflected one, deduce the reflection coefficient G
Compare it with the theoretical one (Do not forget the losses of the cable in the real case)

5.2.2 Impedance of the line

Set the tunable impedance at the end of the line.

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 • Observe the pulse at the input line when the load impedance ZT changes.
Adjust ZT in order to cancel the pulse coming back : the line is mismatched.
Measure ZT with the multimeter.
Deduce the impedance of the line ZC
Remark : you must not confuse the impedance of the line ZC with the serial resistor of the cable which
will be measured latter in the PW.

5.2.3 Line finished by a short circuit

Set a short circuit at the end of the line (ZT = 0),.

• Pick up the signal at the input line adding two cursors to measure the time 2T.
• Comparing the incident amplitude with the reflected one, deduce the reflection coefficient G.
Compare it with the theoritecal one.

5.3 Response to a step voltage (Time Reflectometer)

5.3.1 Generator settings
To obtain a step voltage, the pulse width must be large compared to the time
2T. Change the shape to “square” on CH1
You must have a correct time base to only see the front edge of the step
voltage as shown in the next figure.

5.3.2 Matched load

Set a matched load BNC- 100 W at the end of the line.

• Pick up the signal observed at the input line. No discontinuity must appear on the step voltage.
Which is the case? Why?

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 5.3.3 Line finished by an open circuit
Set a matched an open load BNC- ¥ W at the end of the line.

• Pick up the input signal adding the two cursors to measure the time 2T.
• Justify the amplitude and the sign of the discontinuity which appears at the time 2T.

5.3.4 Line finished by a short circuit

Set a short circuit at the end of the line (ZT = 0).

• Pick up the input signal adding the two cursors to measure the time 2T.
• Justify the amplitude and the sign of the discontinuity which appears at the time 2T.

5.3.5 Links study

The role of the reflectometer is to test cable link, only connecting to the input of the line. Analyzing
the different discontinuities, we are able to know the impedance step on the cable. For each
discontinuity, a part of the voltage step will be reflected going to the input line.

5.3.5.1 Case of two cables relied by a short cable

With a short cable rely the two long cables of 100 m. The second cable is loaded with a short
circuit.

• Pick up the signal at the input of the line.

• Do you observe some discontinuities?

5.3.5.2 Case of two cables relied by a two short wires

With two short wires connect the two long cables of 100 m. The second cable is loaded with a short
circuit.

• Pick up the signal at the input of the line.

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 • Do you observe some discontinuities?
• How do you verify that the two cables are the same length?

5.3.5.3 Case of two cables relied by unknown cable

Insert between the two cables the black cable.

• Pick up the signal at the input of the line.

• Justify all the discontinuities observed?
• Measure the impedance and the length of the second cable. We suppose to have the same
velocity in this cable as one measured previously.

6 Measurement 2 : harmonic analysis on network cable

6.1 Measurement with opened circuit for ZT load
The harmonic study of a cable consists to study the frequency evolution of a sinus signal applied at the
input of the cable.
Change the generator to sine waveshape voltage.

• Without connecting the 100m coaxial cable, observe the variation of the voltage Vch1 (channel 1 of the
oscilloscope) as the frequency chnges from 10 kHz to 2 MHz?
• With the coaxial cable connected, what is observed the same voltage Vch1 as the frequency increases
between 0 and 2 MHz? Give frequencies for minimum and maximum values of the voltage Vch1.
• For each of these particular frequencies, what is the wavelength associated to these frequencies?
Determine the ratio of length of the cable to the wavelength.
• Then explain what is the impedance at the input of the coaxial cable used as a stub (this will require a
comparison of the length of the cable to the wavelength) for these frequencies.

6.2 Measurement with short-circuit for ZT load

Replace the open circuit by a short circuit at the end of the 100 m coaxial cable
• Answer the same questions as in case of an opened circuit.
• Compare these results with previous ones
6.3 Measurement with matched load ZT
Now replace the short circuit by a matched load at the end of the 100 m coaxial cable
• Does the amplitude of the measured wave change?
• Explain what impedance is brought back to the input of the stub.
6.4 Attenuation measurement of the twisted wires 1-2 from F = 2 MHz to F = 20 MHz
The attenuation or insertion loss corresponds to a power decrease during the transmission. Smaller is the
cable length and higher is the measured power.
The sinus signal is provided by the function generator with a maximum amplitude.
Apply the sinus signal at the input of cable P1 is the input power measured on channel 1 with FFT
function. The P2 is the power measured at the output of the coaxial.
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 For maximum generator frequency is equal to fmax
The insertion loss are in dB : AdB =20log V1 =10log P1 = P1dBm – P2dBm
V2 P2

• Measure the output power measuring the position of the spectral line amplitude maximum (P2
in dBV) for frequencies : fmax/50 , fmax/20, fmax/10, fmax/5 , fmax/2, fmax.
• Calculate the insertion loss AdB – Insert your excel table in your report.
• To check that the attenuation AdB is proportional to the function Öf, trace on excel the curve
AdB(f2). Conclusions

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