JAFEC USA, Inc.

12th ANNUAL

Deep Soil Mixing

for Underground Construction

David S. Yang
davidyang@jafecusa.com
September 11, 2019
• Introduction
• Soil mixing equipment
• Installation procedure & QC/QA
• Engineering properties of soil-cement
• Applications
• Deep Soil Mixing (DSM) is an in situ soil treatment
technology whereby native soils are blended in situ
with cementitious materials, typically Portland
cement.

• Geotechnical - The soil-cement mixture created by

DSM has increased strength, reduced compressibility
and lower permeability

• Environmental – In situ solidification and stabilization;

Barrier for containment
Courtesy of Aomi Construction and JAFEC
 Slurry batch plant

QC system

Courtesy of Aomi Construction

and JAFEC
Courtesy of Aomi Construction
Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
 Positioning . Grout injection and soil mixing . Completion

Courtesy of Aomi Construction and Cement Deep Mixing (CDM) Association

Main factors

 Soil type
 Mix design
 Mixing Energy
Mix design
 Cement factor
 Water cement ratio

Mix energy
 Rotation speed
 Penetration &
withdrawal rate
Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume
Tokyo Institute of Technology and
CDM Association, Japan
 Ground improved with clay from the
Port of Yokohama
Sources: 1. CDIT 2002, “The Deep Mixing Method, Principal, Design and Construction”, edited
by Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT), Japan, published by A.A. Balkema
Publisher. 2. Saitoh 1988, “Experimental study of engineering properties of cement improved
ground by the deep mixing method. Ph.D. Thesis, Nihon University .
 Tensile strength, σt (MN/m2)

Unconfined compressive strength, qu (MN/m2)

Sources: 1. CDIT 2002, “The Deep Mixing Method, Principal, Design and Construction”, edited by Coastal Development Institute of
Technology (CDIT), Japan, published by A.A. Balkema Publisher. 2. Terashi, Tanaka, Mitsumoto, Niidome & Honma 1980.
“Fundamental properties of lime and cement treated soils (2nd report)”, Report of the Port and Harbour Research Institute, 1980.
Sources: Deep Mixing Method, Design and construction manual for on-land construction, published
by Civil Engineering Research Center, March 2004 (in Japanese). 2. Tatsuoka 1986, “Topics on
geotechnical engineering testing and evaluation of test results, Lecture documents for Showa 61
symposium on recent soil and foundation (in Japanese).
 py Consolidation yield
pressure, py = 1.3 qu
Void ratio, e

Void
ratio, e
Sources: 1. CDIT 2002, “The Deep Mixing
Method, Principal, Design and Construction”,
edited by Coastal Development Institute of
Technology (CDIT), Japan, published by A.A.
Balkema Publisher. 2. Kawasaki, Niina and
Babasaki 1978, “Study on engineering
Consolidation pressure, p characteristics of cement-base stabilized soil”,
(MN/m2 ) Takenaka Technical Research Report, 19.
 Unconfined compressive strength
qu (MN/m2)

Consolidation pressure, p (MN/m2)

Sources: 1. CDIT 2002, “The Deep Mixing Method, Principal, Design and Construction”, edited by
Coastal Development Institute of Technology (CDIT), Japan, published by A.A. Balkema
Publisher. 2. Terashi, Tanaka, Mitsumoto, Niidome & Honma 1980. “Fundamental properties of
lime and cement treated soils (2nd report)”, Report of the Port and Harbour Research Institute, 19.
Stability of retaining
structure or bottom of
excavation

Foundation for earth,

concrete or steel
structures

Foundation of quay wall or

breakwater

Courtesy of Dr. Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan

 DSM walls and slabs for
excavation support and
groundwater control

 DSM for support of

launching & receiving of
TBM machine

 DSM ground
improvement outside
launching & receiving
shafts
Block

Cell
 Shear wall
&
columns

CIDH
Pile Ring
Installation Procedure for Cutoff Wall and Shoring Wall
Alternating Procedure
Proceeding installation procedure Proceeding installation procedure
for cutoff & shoring walls for ground improvement cells
Cypress Freeway Replacement Project, Oakland; CA DOT
First Hawaiian Bank Building, Honolulu, Hawaii
Courtesy of JAFEC & OK Soil
Courtesy of Aomi Construction and CDM Association
 Soil-cement cells
for
• Bearing capacity
• Settlement control
• Liquefaction mitigation
Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan
 Dam, Levee & Canal – USACE, BUREC, CA DWR

 Transportation – Dept. of Transportation of MA, CA, MN,

Virginia; SC Valley Transit Authority, Bay Area Rapid Transit, etc.

 Port and Shoreline – Port of Oakland, Port of Long Beach

 Industrial Facilities – Petroleum chemical plant owners

Base: 2013 DFI Presentation
by Mr. Mike Driller of
Dept. of Water Resources, CA
 DSM cells are designed to maintain the seismic stability.
DSM shear walls provide the resistance to the
lateral force induced by the earthquake.

Cross section of Perris Dam

Base: 2013 DFI Presentation

by Mr. Mike Driller of
Dept. of Water Resources, CA
 Test walls Test cell
Layout detail
San Francisco
Bay Area
 DSM
DSM

Base: ENGEO Report, DSM Design Analysis and Recommendations

for Shoreline Stabilization, Redwood City, CA, Sept .2014
 DSM layout along 3000-feet shoreline

DSM layout detail

DSM layout under buildings
The main purpose of the DMM panels is to provide shear resistance to
the levee against lateral loads at high flood water condition. The DMM panels
support the additional vertical load created by the increased height of
the levee for hurricane protection and control the long-term settlement of
the remediated levee, which might otherwise occur due to the compression
of soft foundation soils.
DSM layout design - Shear wall panels in
the transverse direction of the levee

Flood Side

Protected
Side Flood Side

DSM rig working on top

of the existing levee
Protected Side
1. Boston CA/T Projects

1-1 Bird Island Flats (C07A1) – Excavation support

1-2 Fort Point Channel (C09A7) – Ground improvement

2. Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Project

 1-1 Bird Island Flats (C07A1) – DSM was use to install excavation
support wall for construction of cut-and-cover tunnel.

1-2 Fort Point Channel Crossing (C09A7) – DSM was used for
ground improvement for the construction of tunnel and depressed
roadway (boat section)

Overview of CA/T Project

• I-93 – To expand existing six-lane highway to an eight-to-ten-lane underground expressway, constructed directly beneath existing roadways, buildings,
and subways in downtown Boston.

• I-90 - To extend I-90 from its existing terminus south of downtown Boston to Logan Airport through the Ted Williams Tunnel under Boston Harbor and
a tunnel beneath the Fort Point Channel.
Courtesy of Dr. T.D. O’Rourke and A.J. McGinn, Cornell University; Massachusetts Turnpike Authority; Federal Highway Administration and Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff (illustration)
 The BIF project involved the construction of approximately
915 m (3,000 ft) of Interstate I-90 adjacent to Logan Airport.

 Cut-and-Cover Tunnel was constructed in an open

excavation supported by DSM walls and tiebacks.

 At the time of construction, these walls were the largest and

deepest such walls installed in North America, totaling
37,180 m2 (399,997 ft2).

Source: Lessons Learned for Ground Movements and Soil Stabilization from the Boston Central Artery
T. D. O’Rourke, M.ASCE1; and A. J. McGinn, M.ASCE2, 2005 Ralph B. Peck Award Lecture
Source: 1) Taki and Yang 1991; 2) Lessons Learned for Ground Movements and Soil Stabilization from the
Boston Central Artery T. D. O’Rourke, M.ASCE1; and A. J. McGinn, M.ASCE2, 2005 Ralph B. Peck Award Lecture
Max. excavation depth = 19.4m (64 ft) Max. excavation depth = 15.9 m (52 ft)

Bottom of Ramp Structure

East Wall West Wall

Source: Lessons Learned for Ground Movements and Soil Stabilization from the Boston Central Artery T. D.
O’Rourke, M.ASCE1; and A. J. McGinn, M.ASCE2, 2005 Ralph B. Peck Award Lecture
 When the BIF excavation was approximately 43 ft (13.1 m) deep at a
location of thick marine clay deposits, large lateral deformation of the tied-
back excavation wall was observed.

 As a remedial measure, the excavation was backfilled partially to reduce

the unbalanced pressure and maintain the wall stability.

 Soil stabilization, involving DMM and jet grouting was undertaken to

reinforce the soil against deep-seated movements.

 After DMM and jet grouting, excavation was resumed, and the underground
highway structure was completed.

Source: Lessons Learned for Ground Movements and Soil Stabilization from the Boston Central Artery
T. D. O’Rourke, M.ASCE1; and A. J. McGinn, M.ASCE2, 2005 Ralph B. Peck Award Lecture
Source: Lessons Learned for Ground Movements and Soil Stabilization from the Boston Central Artery
T. D. O’Rourke, M.ASCE1; and A. J. McGinn, M.ASCE2, 2005 Ralph B. Peck Award Lecture
Existing SMW Wall

Jet Grout Zone

MW Hammer Head,
3 SMW elements

SMW Buttress Panels, 3-ft

diameter DSM columns
with 1-ft overlapping
 1. DSM buttress
2. Jet grouting
3. Final subgrade

Source: Lessons Learned for Ground Movements and Soil Stabilization from the Boston Central Artery
T. D. O’Rourke, M.ASCE1; and A. J. McGinn, M.ASCE2, 2005 Ralph B. Peck Award Lecture
The interchange at FPC consists of a network of tunnels and depressed roadway (boat
section), requiring 18.3 m (60 ft) of braced excavations in very soft to soft soils.

Courtesy of Dr. T.D. O’Rourke and A.J. McGinn, Cornell University; Massachusetts Turnpike Authority; Federal Highway Administration
and Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff (illustration)
 Fort Point Channel
 Fill

 Organic Deposits
 Sand/Inorganic silt

 Marine clay

 Glacial deposits

The critical junction between jacked and immersed tube tunnels is

located in deep, low strength Marine Clay and Organics.
Source: Haley & Aldrich, 1995a “Summary Report of April, 1995 Fact Finding Trip on Soil Mixing Methods”, Excavation Support/I-90 Marine Tunnels
Sources: 1) Lambrechts, J.R., P.A. Roy, and E.J.Wishart (1998), “Deign Conditions and Analysis Methods for Soil-Cement Buttress in Fort Point
Channel”, GSP No. 83, ASCE, Reston, VA, pp. 153-174. 2) Performance of deep Mixing method at Fort Point Channel by A.J. McGinn &
T.D. O’Rourke, Cornell University, 2003
Sources: 1) Lambrechts, J.R., P.A. Roy, and E.J.Wishart (1998), “Deign Conditions and Analysis Methods for Soil-Cement Buttress in Fort Point
Channel”, GSP No. 83, ASCE, Reston, VA, pp. 153-174. 2) Performance of deep Mixing method at Fort Point Channel by A.J. McGinn &
T.D. O’Rourke, Cornell University, 2003
 Slurry T-Wall

Sources: 1) Lambrechts, J.R., P.A. Roy, and E.J.Wishart (1998), “Deign Conditions and Analysis Methods for Soil-Cement Buttress in Fort Point
Channel”, GSP No. 83, ASCE, Reston, VA, pp. 153-174. 2) Performance of deep Mixing method at Fort Point Channel by A.J. McGinn &
T.D. O’Rourke, Cornell University, 2003
Courtesy of Dr. T.D. O’Rourke and A.J. McGinn, Cornell University;Massachusetts Turnpike Authority; Federal Highway Administration and Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff
DMM rig on barge M250 DMM rig on land Triple shaft mixing tools

Photos by Jakiel (2000) and McGinn

Source: Performance of deep Mixing method at Fort Point Channel by A.J. McGinn & T.D. O’Rourke, Cornell University, 2003
  Construction at FPC marked the first time in North
America that DMM was used for soil stabilization as
an essential part of design and construction of a
major underground facility.

 Approximately 550,200 yd3 (420,000 m3) of soil

stabilization were performed at FPC.

Source: Performance of deep Mixing method at Fort Point Channel by A.J. McGinn & T.D. O’Rourke, Cornell University, 2003
Tokyo Tunnel section – 9.6 km, 60m below sea bed
Tokyo Bay Bridge section – 4.4 km

Chiba

Ukishima Kawasaki Plan Kisarazu

access man-made island man-made island

Kisarazu
Section City

Kawasaki Trans-Tokyo Bay HWY = 15.1 km

City
Marine zone = 14.3 km

Courtesy of Dr. Masaki

Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of
Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Kawasaki man-made island Kisarazu man-made island Bridge section

Kawasaki Kisarazu
Bridge section
Ukishima access man-made island man-made island

Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

 to Kisarazu
to Kawasaki to Kisarazu

Premix soil-cement fill

Sheet pile cell

Ground improvement

• Deep soil mixing (2 M cy

Sheet pile cell • Sand compaction pile
• Premix soil-cement fill
Premix fill
Sheet pile cells for control
of lateral deformation
Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
 Ramp section Flat section

Shield tunnel
advanced through
Plan soil-cement zones
installed by premixing
and deep soil mixing

Ramp section Flat section

Section
Source: Ground improvement by cement-treatment in Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Project, K. Uchida , K. Imai, F. Tatsuoka and Y. Kohata;
Grouting and Deep Mixing, published by A.A. Balkema 1996
 Premix fill

DSM
Shield tunnel
advanced through
soil-cement zones
installed by premixing and
deep soil mixing (DSM)
Premix fill

DSM

Source: Ground improvement by cement-treatment in Trans-Tokyo Bay Highway Project, K. Uchida , K. Imai, F. Tatsuoka and Y. Kohata;
Grouting and Deep Mixing, published by A.A. Balkema 1996
 The picture can't be displayed.

Chute placement method

Placing platform vessel

Mixing plant vessel

Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume
Material supply vessel Tokyo Institute of Technology
Tokyo, Japan
Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
 DSM

Diaphragm wall
98 m diameter Ground improvement
119 m deep
2.8 m thick Diaphragm wall
DSM • Deep soil mixing
• Sand compaction pile

Slurry diaphragm wall enclosed

DSM
←Tunnel by outer and inner steel jacket
structures
DSM
←Tunnel Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume,
Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
Courtesy of Dr. Masaki Kitazume, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan
 JAFEC (Japan Foundation Engineering Company, Ltd.) was
established in 1953. The U.S. subsidiary, JAFEC USA, Inc., was
established in 2009.

 Ground improvement technologies:

▪ Deep mixing
▪ Jet grouting
▪ Sand compaction pile / Stone column
▪ Grouting