Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

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Review article

Review of recent trends and developments in aluminium 7075 alloy and its
metal matrix composites (MMCs) for aircraft applications
Muhammad Yasir Khalid, Rehan Umer, Kamran Ahmed Khan *
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, 127788, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The growing demand for fuel-efficient, lightweight and lower CO2 emissions is led to the development of
Aluminum 7075 alloy lightweight materials. Aluminium metal and its various alloys are extensively used in many structural applica­
Metal matrix composite tions, due to its specific properties including a high strength-to-weight ratio and comparatively good mechanical
Stir casting
properties in comparison to the other metals and alloys. The mechanical properties of aluminium alloys can
Ceramic particles
further be improved when they are used to fabricate metal matrix composites (MMCs). Various nano additives
such as ceramics nanoparticles are regarded as promising nano reinforcement for aluminium-based MMC
(AMMC), due to their various attractive properties such as high fracture strength and low weight. Herein, we
comprehensively surveyed aluminium 7075 alloy-based MMC reinforced with various nanoparticles (organic and
inorganic) manufactured through various processes and their influences are outlined on mechanical and tribo­
logical properties by highlighting outstanding results of recently published studies. To date, various fabrication
techniques have been extensively used to exploit the full potential of nanoparticles. It was found that the stir
casting technique with usually ceramic nanoparticles significantly improved the mechanical properties of
aluminium 7075-based MMC from an aerospace sector perspective. This review also elucidates some current
challenges and provides a complete framework for future research in the proposed field.

composites (MMCs) [6,7]. The role of MMC in developing aircraft

1. Introduction
Technological developments across all fields and especially in the
material science field is considered as a thriving research frontier in the
contemporary development of lightweight materials such as composite
materials [1,2]. By 2025, the U.S. automotive industry hopes to achieve
a corporate average fuel economy rating of 54.5 miles per gallon (mpg),
this is much higher than 2016’s requirement of 35.5 mpg [3]. In this
regard, lightweight materials such as composite materials hold great
promise. Even though they are commercialized after the 2nd world War
but composite materials are old as our human civilization [4]. They are
formed by two or more different materials for achieving higher physical
and mechanical properties in comparison to the individual materials to
meet industrial needs and the demand of modern engineering applica­
tions [5]. Being the third most abundantly available element in the
earth’s crust, aluminium metal and its various alloys are widely used for
various emerging applications such as automobile and aircraft struc­
tures. Particularly in the last two decades aluminium metal and its
various alloys diverted researchers towards combining innovative
structures and new manufacturing routes to develop metal matrix
structures is highly promising due to their higher mechanical properties,
low weight, tailor to design for different requirements, ability to
accommodate various other novel nanomaterials, and provide strong
potential to evade the strength-ductility trade-off [8]. For high fuel ef­
ficiency, weight was reduced and superior-strength composite materials
were introduced in the aerospace field [9]. Fig. 1 shows some general
criteria for the selection of appropriate materials for aircraft applica­
tions. Among these criteria for the manufacturing sector, the maximum
efficiency and minimum cost of manufacturing routes are considered
global competitiveness in product development [10].
Recently, increasing attention has been paid to MMCs due to
outstanding mechanical strength, and good wear resistance [11].
Currently, popular matrix materials are aluminium, magnesium, and
titanium. But according to reports Aluminium-based MMCs (AMMCs)
are accounted for about 69% of mass annually for various industrial uses
such as aviation, automobiles, electronic devices, marine industries and
space shuttles [12]. AMMC offers a wide range of remarkable physical,
and mechanical properties and their combination of properties such as
improved ductility, toughness, formability, and electric and thermal
conductivities. The tribological properties of AMMC improved by

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kamran.khan@ku.ac.ae (K.A. Khan).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2023.101372
Received 11 March 2023; Received in revised form 19 July 2023; Accepted 21 August 2023
Available online 25 August 2023
2590-1230/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M.Y. Khalid et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

reinforcements are explored extensively, particularly their interaction

List of abbreviations with the MMC matrix and improvements in the integrity of MMC mi­
crostructures, and variation of reinforcement, play a vital role in
AMMC Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite selecting the proper synthesis route for AMMC.
CALPHAD Calculation of phase diagram Recently, the focus of the researchers has been shifted towards the
CFRP Carbon fiber reinforced composites AMMC for their various attractive properties and the use of non-metallic
CR Cryorolling particulates for its ease of manufacturing through the conventional
CT Computational thermodynamics casting process for aircraft applications. In this review, some of the
CZM Cohesive Zone Model recent trends and developments for aluminium 7075 alloy and its MMCs
FCGR Fatigue crack growth for improving the overall mechanical properties of aircraft are summa­
GFRP Glass fiber reinforced composites rized. Moreover, various combinations of hybrid nano-reinforcing ma­
HCF High cycle fatigue terials utilized in AMMC processing were reviewed to analyze
MMC Metal Matrix Composite mechanical and tribological performance. Fabrication techniques and
ML Machine learning concentration of nano-reinforcing particulates were also discussed.
RST Rapid solidification technology Lastly, challenges and perspectives for the AMMC are put forward to
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope encourage researchers to explore them further for their inevitable role in
aircraft industries.

Fig. 1. Material selection design criteria for aircraft structural applications.

adding nano reinforcements employing hard particles such as carbides
(TiC, SiC, B4C), borides (TiB2, AlB2), oxides (Al2O3, MgO, ZrO2, ZrSiO4),
nitrides (BN, AlN) and now carbon nanotubes and graphene as well. The
nano reinforcement offers high hardness, strength, high-temperature
durability, low thermal expansion for improving wear, and at
high-temperature mechanical properties.
The overall material and manufacturing process must be optimized
for the industrial-scale production process of AMMC. Furthermore, the
final properties of composite materials depend upon the manufacturing
route adapted for AMMC [13]. Currently, three production techniques
are considered for AMMC manufacturing i.e., solid-state technique,
liquid-based production and deposition production technique. Indeed,
the most effective technique will be considered which will provide the
balance between improved thermal and mechanical properties [14–17],
i.e., enhancing the load-bearing capability of materials to lower their
volume in structural applications, low environmental concerns and
minimal fuel and CO2 consumption [18]. Recently various nano
2. Introduction to aluminium alloys
For more than 80 years, different aluminium alloys proved to be an
ideal material for structural aircraft materials. Aluminium alloys have
lightweight and good mechanical properties among all metals and are
widely used in engineering structures, especially in the aerospace in­
dustry [19]. Fig. 2 shows a brief classification of aluminium alloys.
Aerospace structures use 80% aluminium by weight. As provided in
Table 1 as well, aluminium is always the first choice for many
commercially available aircraft. Thus, it carries more weight and offers
high corrosion resistance, which ensures the safety of the aircraft and its
passengers [20]. Aluminium alloys are prone to corrosion and often
required various surface treatments such as plasma electrolytic oxida­
tion protection, anodic oxidation protection, and surface coatings [21].
Engineering components are subjected to different types of loading
throughout their service life but fatigue loading is the worst of all. In
fatigue, materials fail below the yield point. 7XXX alloys are mostly used

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M.Y. Khalid et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

Fig. 2. A comprehensive classification of Al alloys (Figure drawn with the help of ref. [26]).

improving the overall nature of today’s alloy systems. Ultrasonic melt

Table 1 processing is also a powerful and highly useful way of affecting the
Percentage of mass various alloys in different commercially available aircraft structure and final quality of cast metal [29].
[22].
The computational thermodynamics (CT)-based novel approach
Mass (%) Various Commercially Available Aircraft assisted with machine learning (ML) is now widely used for designing
B747 B767 B757 B777 B787 A300B4 the casting aluminium alloys. This novel approach briefly explains
microstructure starting from the exact equilibrium phase diagram cal­
Aluminium 81 80 78 70 20 77
Steel 13 14 12 11 10 12 culations and Scheil-Gulliver solidification simulations techniques [30].
Titanium 4 2 6 7 15 4 This provides a complete database for a reliable thermodynamic and
Composite 1 3 3 11 50 4 delivers the quantitative relation of “Composition - Process - Micro­
Other 1 1 1 1 5 3
structure” of the target alloys as depicted in Fig. 5.
Over the last decade, different strengthening mechanisms had been
because they have the highest mechanical properties among all adapted for improving the mechanical properties of various aluminium
aluminium alloys [15] A critical problem encountered in the use of the alloys such as precipitation strengthening, solid solution, work hard­
highest strength aluminium alloys (Al–Zn–Mg type) rests with an ening and grain boundary strengthening [31,32].
increased susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking as maximum
strength levels are reached by conventional ageing [23]. Owing to the 2.1. Aluminium 7075 alloy
insidious nature of stress-corrosion failure, a compromise is made in the
strength level at which the alloy is used, resulting in severe weight 7075 is an aluminium alloy with zinc as the main alloying element. It
penalties, particularly in airframe applications [24,25]. Fig. 3 shows the has high fatigue strength and average machinability, but low weldability
complete details of all aluminium alloys as potential aircraft materials. and low corrosion resistance compared to other alloys [33] and mainly
Recent advancements in high-strength aluminium alloys such as Zn employed in aerospace and structural applications. Among the
and Li-based alloys, damage-resistant Al–Cu and Al–Li alloys, have been numerous commonly used aluminium alloys, 7075 aluminium has the
effective in enhancing fracture toughness, fatigue and resistance against distinction of being the strongest grade aluminium alloy for a variety of
wear and corrosion through optimally controlling heat treatment pro­ industrial applications such as in Ref. [34]. Being lightweight,
cedures. The design parameters are also effective for controlling the easy-machinable, and adequate corrosion-resistant metal, it provides
chemical composition during the heat treatment procedure. The calcu­ strength similar to steel alloys while also being lightweight metal [35].
lation of phase diagram (CALPHAD) is often used in simplifying the alloy As with all aluminium alloys, 7075 has a specific gravity of 2.73 (0.098
design. CALPHAD is used for optimally controlling the various alloying lb/cubic inch). The 7075 aluminium alloy is used for various compo­
elements for aluminium alloys. Thus, controlling various phases of nents such as fuselage and wing due to its remarkable physical and
CALPHAD results in different microstructures and their relevant me­ mechanical properties such as high strength-to-weight ratio and excel­
chanical properties [28]. One such example of CALPHAD for aluminium lent stress corrosion resistance for aircraft applications [36]. Table 2
alloys is elaborated in Fig. 4. shows the typical composition of 7075 aluminium alloy.
An advanced rapid solidification technology (RST) technique allows Aluminium 7075 alloy has commercial use in various industrial ap­
various combinations of microstructure and mechanical properties. plications such as aerospace, automotive components and marine [38].
Furthermore, in RST various novel alloying compositions can be In real-time applications, aluminium 7075 alloys are inevitably con­
achievable through the application of rapid solidification, Thus fronted with many challenges during their processing under

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M.Y. Khalid et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

Fig. 3. Applications of various aluminium alloys in aircraft structures (Figure drawn with the help of ref. [27]).

Fig. 4. Al–Fe–Mg–Si system CALPHAD: (a) quasi-ternary isothermal section having iron content 0.3 wt% at 550 ◦ C; (b) Vertical segment of the quaternary phase
diagram) (adapted from ref. [28] copyright 2020, Elsevier).

conventional manufacturing routes such as surface nitriding, and metal
cladding. Thus, various types of heat treatment techniques, cannot be
employed on aluminium 7075 effectively [39,40]. Thus there is a strong
strive for semi-solid processing of aluminium 7075 alloys.
Aluminium for high-quality aluminium metal matrix (AMMC) com­
posites is fabricated by various routes such as using powder and liquid
metallurgy techniques. From all of these manufacturing methods, the
stir and squeeze casting methods can produce high-quality AMMCs with
desired tribological properties [41].
The T6 heat treatment of aluminium 7075 alloys significantly im­
proves its various mechanical properties due to grain refinement solid
solution strengthening, dislocation hardening and precipitation

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Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

Fig. 5. The schematic diagram for the efficient computational alloy design approach by combining CT and ML techniques (adapted from ref. [30] under the creative commons attribution license 4.0).
M.Y. Khalid et al.
Table 2
7075 Aluminium alloy chemical compositions [37].
Chemical Composition Al Zn Mg Cu
Content (wt%) 89.3 5.3 2.5 1.6
Fig. 6. (a) Raw microstructure of 7075 aluminium alloy (adapted from ref. [39] under the creative commons attribution license 4.0); (b) Fatigue crack growth rate
da/dn versus ΔK plot for 2024-T3 and 7075-T6 alloys (adapted from ref. [46]); (c) The various images of 7075 aluminium alloy rolled plate under a microscope
(adapted from ref. [42] copyright 2018 Elsevier B.V); (d) Knoop hardness yield (KHN) loci of as-received aluminium alloy 7075-T651 (adapted from ref. [47]
copyright 2021 Elsevier B.V.).
hardening during solution treatment and artificial ageing-based heat
treatment techniques. Fatigue cracks initiate at intermetallic particles or
neat the surface and caused failure in commercial aluminium 7075 al­
loys [42]. Different impurities such as iron and silicon produce in­
clusions in 7000 aluminium alloys and significantly affect fracture
toughness and fatigue strength. Furthermore, a sharp decrease in me­
chanical properties can be observed due to the corrosive environment
and fatigue loading specially for the 7000 series aluminium alloys [43].
Thus, due to the formation of corrosion pits on the surface, the crack
initiates. One way is to tackle the problem by anodization or surface
coatings. Thus, wear resistance, hardness, and corrosion resistance can
be enhanced. Conversely, cracks and defects sometimes may trigger due
to surface pre-treatment and etching in anodization technique. From all
the various surface and heat treatment techniques it is well known that
sulfuric acid anodization of aluminium alloy 7075-T73 gives a 60%
percent lowers fatigue life [44].
2.2. Properties of aluminium 7075 alloy
Aluminium 7075 is available in several types of tempers such as T6,
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Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372
Fe Mn Cr Si Ti Other
0.5 0.3 0.23 0.4 0.2 0.15
T651, T73, T7351 and T76. Aluminium 7075 alloys are also considered
a logical choice for replacing various other aluminium alloys such as
2014, 2024, and 2017 in many significant applications because of their
superior stress corrosion resistance due to T173 and T7351 tempering.
Furthermore, the T651 and T6 tempers improve machinability [45].
Fig. 6 shows the various feature of 7075 aluminium alloy.
Fatigue crack initiates microscopically and then propagates. Once
the crack is initiated, stress concentration at the crack tip increases with
the passage of each fatigue cycle. The fracture toughness of aluminium
alloys is not enough to hinder the fatigue crack growth but reducing the
value of crack driving force at the crack tip will cause a considerable
reduction in the crack growth rate. Different extrinsic toughening
mechanisms are applied to protect the crack tip from the full effect of the
crack driving force.
Another important property which must be considered is a surface
damage phenomenon due to time-variable contact forces at mechanical
contacts. Fretting fatigue is characterized by wear, oxidation, high-stress
concentrations, and nonproportional loading. Cracks are often triggered
by high stresses near the surface [48]. A common palliative treatment
available for fretting fatigue is shot peening. During short peening, high
M.Y. Khalid et al.
Fig. 7. (a) FCGR curve for aluminum 7075 alloy at different stress ratios, (b) Paris plot cross various stress ratios, (c) FCGR curve and (d) comparative Paris plot
constants for complete three materials (adapted from ref. [53] copyright 2011 Elsevier B.V.).
compressive residual stresses are introduced near the surface, which
retard crack initiation, but also change the microstructure and rough­
ness of the surface. These residual stresses relax with the number of
loading cycles. Thus, shot peening improves fatigue life under high-cycle
fatigue [49]. In various fields such as aerospace, aviation, shipbuilding,
etc., fretting fatigue is an important phenomenon caused by oscillatory
motion between two contacting surfaces observed at a micron scale
[48]. According to Zhang et al., 7075-T651 alloy properties including
fretting and sliding wear are affected by normal load and amplitude than
sliding wear [50].
The ultimate goal of today’s researchers is to find the exact me­
chanical response under extremely complex loading for instance
Natarajan et al. [51] studied the mechanical properties of S-glass/CFRP
composites used for submarine hulls through experimentation and finite
element analysis (FEA). An FEA analysis was performed for various
parameters of the submarine hull, such as the thickness of the bow, the
suitable shape, the stern, and the foil of the submarine. Results
demonstrated that FEA-based analysis was in good agreement with
experimental and analytical results, and S-glass and carbon fiber (CF)
were mechanically stable to withstand the impact and hydrostatic loads.
In another study, 3D FEA-based modelling was performed on a specific
geometrical model of weft-knitted CFRP to study its interface damage
behaviour during tension using the cohesive zone model (CZM). Simu­
lation results demonstrated the highest tensile properties of composites
were observed where no interfacial debonding occurred in the
weft-knitted model, and the results also aligned with the experimental
results [52]. Fretting fatigue should also be considered for further
improving the mechanical properties of advanced aluminium alloys and
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Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372
maintaining the structural integrity of aircraft structures.
Das et al. [53] investigated cryorolling (CR) on the HCF and fatigue
crack growth rate behaviour of Al 7075 alloy. Results showed that the
cryorolled Al 7075 alloys demonstrated excellent mechanical properties.
The tensile testing was done according to ASTM Standard E− 8/E8M-09.
Fatigue crack growth rates have been observed according to ASTM
E647-08. Results showed that 430 Mpa, 530 Mpa, 21 J, and 24 Mpa m1/2
for 40CR mechanical results were observed for yield strength and ulti­
mate tensile strength, impact energy and fracture toughness respectively
as presented in Fig. 7. Furthermore, the fatigue crack growth (FCGR)
resistance mechanism as presented in Fig. 8 showed diffused crack
branching mechanism through scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images.
Zhang et al. [42] studied various mechanical properties of 7075 Al
alloy under various aging conditions and optimized fatigue strength.
Reported results as presented in Fig. 9 showed the precipitation spacing
first decreases and then increases as a result of increasing the aging time.
Thus, as a result fatigue strength was optimized due to tensile strength
and hardness, first increasing and then decreasing. More importantly at
120 ◦ C for 48 h ageing conditions has the most significant impact on
fatigue strength.
3. Metal matrix composites
Recently, MMCs have gained significant attention across the world
for numerous applications as functional and structural materials due to
their excellent mechanical properties in comparison to individual ma­
terials [54]. MMC is typically a metal or alloy (having ductile
M.Y. Khalid et al.
Fig. 8. SEM images of aluminum 7075 alloys across different R-ratio (adapted from ref. [53] copyright 2011 Elsevier B.V.).
characteristics) matrix combined and reinforced with some other metal,
non-metallic or organic compounds. There exists a channel in MMC
through the matrix to any place in the element in comparison to the two
sandwiched substances. The key factor for the improved properties of
MMC depends on the bonding of the matrix and other reinforced
interfaces.
MMC offers a wide range of diverse properties such as low thermal
expansion coefficient, high strength, high stiffness, extreme temperature
resistance and excellent tribological properties attractive for high-end
applications such as aerospace and aircraft. In this regard, MMCs
based on aluminium are widely explored. Aluminium and its various
alloys are proven to be an ideal matrix material in MMCs due to its easy
fabrication, low density, and good engineering properties [55]. Partic­
ularly two prominent heat-treatable aluminium alloys i.e., Aluminium
6061 and Aluminium 7075 series of aluminium alloys are studied mostly
[56]. Aluminium 6061 series alloy has high corrosion resistance for
construction, automotive and marine sectors whereas Aluminium 7075
demonstrated excellent mechanical properties such as excellent tough­
ness which are promising for aerospace sectors [57]. Thus, AAMC pro­
vides intrinsic properties such as creep and fatigue resistance which are
regarded as ideal materials for the aerospace and automotive fields [58].
There are various reasons for using composite materials in aircraft
industries such as higher specific stiffness, fatigue, corrosion resistance
and specific strength (normalized by density) [59]. Nowadays MMC
materials are widely used for aircraft applications particularly due to
their excellent mechanical properties such as fatigue and impact
strength [60]. Various synthetic fibers such as carbon fiber, aramid fiber
and glass fibers have been used in MMC. This synthetic fibres-based,
MMC apart from their high strength-to-weight ratio further improved
its fracture properties [61]. Table 3 discussed MMC particularly related
to aircraft and space applications [62].
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Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372
3.1. Manufacturing of aluminium-based MMC
As MMCs have been developed to meet the demand of materials
having high specific strength, and stiffness [72–74]. To date, different
methods have been used for the fabrication of MMC. MMCs fabricated
mostly through the casting process by the accumulation of reinforce­
ment phase to the matrix typically regarded as liquid state fabrication of
MMC [75]. Fabrication of MMC is quite challenging in terms of the
uniform dispersion and improved mechanical and hysical properties
than the monolithic counterpart. Casting technique both stir and
squeeze is widely used for the fabrication of MMC [76]. The stir casting
process is widely adopted due to its cheapness and availability for many
materials and processing conditions [77].
Stir casting process is simple, inexpensive, mechanical stirring is
used for the distribution of reinforcement phase in a molten metal with
significant advantages such as up to <30% reinforcement/constituents
volume fractions is achievable [78–80]. Morveover, in stir casting, there
is an effective control on various process parameters such as strength of
mixing, easier control of matrix structure, feasibility wetting, flexibility,
relative density, and rate of solidification [81–83]. The mechanical
stirring process is well-groomed and easily applied to a wide range of
materials [84,85]. For instance, recently highly toughed aluminium
6061 alloy-based MMC with Cu, Zn reinforced particles were fabricated
through the stir casting process [86]. Furthermore, many recent in­
vestigations proved that stir casting is regarded as the most efficient,
economical and easiest fabrication technique for the desired range of
properties such as better wettability, lower porosity, and lower
shrinkage for the AMMCs for improved hardness, wear resistance and
impact energy and excellent productivity for near-net shaped compo­
nents [87]. Stir casting has the ability to accommodate various additives
such as graphite, boron carbide, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs),
flyash etc. [88–90]. Another popular technique for the fabrication of
AMMC is squeeze casting in which metal solidifies within closed die
M.Y. Khalid et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

Fig. 9. Stress-strain curves (tensile mode) for 7075 aluminium alloys under various ageing time; (b) relation between tensile strength and uniform elongation; (c)
The S–N curves of 7075 aluminium alloys under various aging conditions; (d) The relation between fatigue strength and yield strength (adapted from ref. [42]
copyright 2018 Elsevier B.V.).

strengthen the matrix and improved its various mechanical properties

Table 3 such as a low coefficient of thermal expansion with high mechanical
Metal matrix composites in the aircraft industry and space applications.
strength, creep, high thermal conductivity, fatigue resistance [96–98].
Application Component Required Property MMC Ref. This is worth mentioning that the role of nano-sized ceramic particles, as
Aircraft Airframe High strength and B/Al [63–65] reinforcement, is highly promising because there can easily disperse into
stiffness the AMMC through conventional techniques such as stir and squeeze
Engine High temp. strength, Nextel/Al, [66–68] casting and their small size effectuates improvements in the various
stiffness and creep Cu–Nb,
resistance Cu–Nb3Sn
mechanical as well as microstructural properties by adding them into
Space Space Lower (zero) CIE, higher B/Al [69] liquid metal by stirring before casting [99]. Several particles as sum­
panel stiffness, marized in Fig. 10, including silicon carbide (SiC) [100], titanium di­
SDI Higher thermal Gr/Al [70] oxide (TiO2), alumina (Al2O3), titanium carbide (TiC), tungsten carbide
conductivity with high-
(WC), titanium aluminium carbide (Ti3AlC2), and barium titanate
temperature strength.
Satellites High strength and low Gr/Al, [71] (BaTiO3) are used as reinforcement in MMC [101–103]. For instance,
density SiCp/Al Singh et al. [104] studied Aluminium 7075(T6)-based MMC for three
different reinforcements as crumb rubber, silicon carbide, and molyb­
denum disulfide. Results of tribological studies such as wear loss, fric­
halves with the combination of gravity die and closed die forging under tional force, and coefficient of friction showed that the developed
pressure which offers minimum porosity, minimum shrinkage high AMMC have the potential to use in lightweight, and wear-resistant at
metal yield with excellent surface finish [91]. Furthermore, up to 50% high-temperature for automotive and aerospace applications. In another
reduction in the grain size can be achieved through high-pressure so­ study, it has been proved that boron carbide (B4C) and Zirconium di­
lidification [92]. Apart from stir and squeeze casting-based conventional oxide (ZrO2) reinforced MMC demonstrated outstanding tribological
approaches, numerous techniques such as powder metallurgy, spray and mechanical properties [105].
atomization and, plasma spraying have been used for the production of Researchers have extensively used nano reinforcement for improving
AMMC and each one is accompanied by its privileges and drawbacks as various properties. For instance, graphite as main reinforcement im­
highlighted in Table 4. proves the wear resistance of MMC by developing a protective layer
between pin and counter face, and the addition of Al2O3 to aluminium
3.2. Role of additives/nanoparticles in MMC improves the corrosion and hardness resistance of AMMC [106–108],
the addition of SiC as a secondary reinforcement has a remarkable effect
Possible exploration of soft and hard reinforcements in the size of ~1 on the wear properties, and adding fly ash improves the mechanical
μm or even smaller was added in AMMC for certain engineering appli­ strength [109]. Researchers have extensively used nano reinforcement
cations [94,95]. To date, various nano-sized particles are added to

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Table 4
Comparative analysis of various fabrication techniques which are generally employed for Aluminium-based MMC [93].
Manufacturing Cost Advantages Constrained/Disadvantages
Methods

Squeeze casting Moderate expensive • Connecting rods, cylinder heads, pistons, etc. Perform shape limited up to 2 cm height.
• Successfully employed in automotive and aerospace industries as
well as in thermal management.
Spark plasma Expensive (electric Employed for armour, and nozzle. Simple symmetrical shapes are prepared only.
sintering consumption is involved)
Spray casting Expensive Used in grinding and cutting tools. Limited shape, large size.
Melt infiltration Cost-effective High-end applications in space, defence, and industrial due to excellent Limited depth and temperature create blockage
wear properties at high-temperature. in infiltration.
Powder metallurgy Expensive Used for making valves, pistons, bolts, etc. Restricted size, the wide range
Gas pressure Expensive • Ability to produce high melt temperature and can be employed for • Costly due to the use of high-pressurized inert
infiltration any desired combination of matrix and reinforcement. gas.
• Used for brake calipers, and hydraulic components. • Production rate typically lower than squeeze
casting
Stir casting Moderate expensive • Simplest process • Limited for large sizes up to 500 kg,
• Applicable to large-quantity production • Relatively slow process
• Only used for manifolds, water pumps and
cylinder heads
Compocasting Moderate expensive • Homogenous and uniform dispersion of reinforcement particles is High viscosity during the semi-solid route faces
achieved. porosity and processing difficulties.
• Wettability between matrix and reinforcement particles alloy is
improved.
• Used in the aerospace industry for worm gear production.
Friction stir Least expensive Applicable in the automotive and aerospace industry Can produce only surface composites
processing
Accumulative roll Expensive The developed MMC has high corrosion resistance and high strength Requires large load capabilities
bonding for structural, and automotive applications Low production rate
Additive Expensive Any complex part with high accuracy can be developed for high-end Typically employed for small-size parts
Manufacturing engineering applications.

Fig. 10. Classification of various organic and inorganic reinforcement used in MMC (adapted from ref. [110] copyright 2023, American Foundry Society,
Springer Nature).

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Table 5
Summary of recent works on Aluminum 7075-based AMMC.
Composition Manufacturing Mechanical Properties Outstanding Results Ref.
Technique

Aluminium 7075/Mg/Fly Stir-casting process • Tensile strength Aluminium 7075 + 10% Al2O3-+10% fly ash composite demonstrated the [111]
ash/Al2O3 particles (~390 MPa) highest wear resistance.
• Hardness (~150 HV)
Aluminium 7075/B4C Casting by adding K2TiF6 • Flexural strength (497 B4C particles significantly improved the wear rate for developed MMC. [33]
particles flux MPa)
• Hardness (~220 BHN)
• Compression strength
(~350 MPa)
Aluimiunum 7075/4 wt% TiC Stir-casting process – Electric current has a significant effect on surface roughness and material [112]
removal rate of developed MMC.
Aluminium 7075/Mg/Fly Stir-casting process • Ultimate tensile The developed MMCs with double-stage stirrer have improved properties as [113]
ash/Al2O3 particles strength (246 MPa) compared to single-stage stirrer as a result of wettability and better mixing.
• Hardness (120 VHN)
Aluminum 7075/B4C/BN Stir-casting process • Hardness (76 HRB) The developed MMC with (Al 99%+B4C 0.4% +BN0.6%) combination [114]
demonstrated the highest hardness and lowest wear rate.
Aluminium 7075/Al2O3 Ball milling, and semi-solid • Ultimate tensile The tensile strength and hardness of developed MMC were maximum at 1.5 wt [115]
particles stirring method strength (~190 MPa) % of Al2O3 particles.
• Hardness (~112 HB)
Aluminium 7075/Al2O3 Stir-casting process • Tensile strength (570 Extruded Aluminum 7075with 0.4 wt % and 0.8 wt % of Al2O3 demonstrated [116]
particles MPa) the highest strength and workability.
• Compressive strength
(900 MPa)
• Ductility (1.5%)
• Hardness (200 BHN)
Aluminium 7075/SiC Liquid metallurgy • Ultimate tensile Aluminum 7075-based developed MMC showed remarkable wear resistance [117]
strength (112 MPa) under various heat treatment and aging conditions.
• Hardness (99.2 HB)
Aluminium 7075/Al3Ni Friction stir processing • Hardness (145.2 HV) Friction stir processing is a promising technique for bulk synthesizing [118]
nanoparticles Aluminum alloys with the in-situ formation of Al3Ni nanoparticles improve its
various properties.
Aluminum 7075/ZrB2/Fly Stir-casting process – Hardness and ultimate tensile strength were improved by 53.33%, and 23% [110]
Ash respectively by adding 5 wt. % ZrB2 and Fly Ash 2 wt.%
Aluminum 7075-T651/TiCp/ semisolid stirring casting • Ultimate tensile The tensile strength and hardness of joints were improved by adding TiC [119]
Al–5Mg–1Zn filler and multi-pass rolling strength (346 MPa) particles in comparison to 5183 commercial fillers.
materials • Hardness (130 HV)
Aluminium 7075/Mica/ Stir-casting process – Aluminium 7075/3%mica/5%graphite/4%E-glass demonstrated the lowest [120]
graphite/E-glass coefficient of friction value with a maximum reduction of 50.98%.
Aluminium 7075/TiB2 Stir-casting process • Ultimate tensile Aluminium 7075/TiB2-peak aging composite with ceramics nanoparticles/ [121]
strength (676 MPa) interphase/aluminium multi-interfaces demonstrated a higher dynamic
recovery rate of dislocation for a higher work hardening rate.
Aluminium 7075/Al2O3/E- Stir-casting process • Ultimate tensile At 9% wt. Al2O3 and 6% wt. E-glass maximum tensile strength, yield strength, [122]
glass strength (~139 MPa) and hardness were achieved.
• Hardness (~112 BHN)
Aluminum 7075/Si3N4/TaC/ Stir-casting process • Ultimate tensile Aluminum 7075 reinforced with 0.75 wt%TaC/6 wt%Si3N4, and 1 wt% Ti [123]
Ti strength (107.58 MPa) composites demonstrated the lowest wear rate when the force increased from
• Compressive strength 20 N to 40 N.
(956 MPa)
• Hardness (173.05 HV)
Aluminium 7075/MoO3 Stir-casting process • Ultimate tensile The wear resistance of developed MMC was higher at 7.5 wt% of MoO3 [124]
strength (~228 MPa)
• Impact strength (126
MPa)
• Hardness (~158 HV)
Aluminium 7075/Cr Stir-casting process • Tensile strength (390 The developed composites with 2 wt.% of Cr demonstrated excellent [125]
MPa) tribological performance for gears and slideways applications.
• Flexural strength
(581.8 MPa)
• Impact strength (75
MPa)
• Hardness (176.8 HV)
Aluminum 7075/graphene Stir-casting process • Tensile strength Graphene reinforced MMC demonstrated higher hardness number, tensile [126]
(224.17 MPa) strength, and compression strength.
• Compression strength
(392.74 MPa)
• Impact strength (54 J)
• Rockwell Hardness
(58)
Aluminium 7075/Cu Stir-casting process • Tensile strength (0.18 Aluminum 7075/Cu -based composite demonstrated higher wear resistance as [127]
MPa) compared to the aluminium 7075 alloys.
• Hardness (420 HV)
Aluminium 7075/TiB2- Squeeze casting • Tensile strength (479 The developed MMC (with 0.3% graphene) was 67.8% harder than the [128]
graphene MPa) aluminium 7075 base alloy.
• Hardness (109.4 HV)

11
M.Y. Khalid et al.
Fig. 11. Some of the inherent problems and their subsequent remedies encounter by high-strength aluminium alloys (adapted from ref. [168] under the creative
commons attribution license 4.0).
for improving various properties as comprehensively summarized in
Table 5 as well. For instance, it is evident from Table 5 graphite as the
main reinforcement improves the wear resistance of MMC by developing
a protective layer between the pin and counter face, and the addition of
Al2O3 to aluminium improves the corrosion and hardness resistance of
AMMC [106–108], the addition of SiC as a secondary reinforcement has
a remarkable effect on the wear properties, and adding fly ash improves
the mechanical strength [109].
4. Current challenges and future trends
For aluminium alloys to remain attractive for aircraft applications
there are various challenges which must be resolved so that they can
compete with currently high-performance polymer composites, as the
improvement of structural performance, and a further reduction in
weight and cost are needed [129–131]. In this section, we have raised
some critical concerns and their possible remedies.
AMMC especially Aluminium 7075 alloy has experienced a boom in
their manufacturing and later for target applications in automobiles and
aircraft due to their remarkable properties such as tensile strength,
impact strength and wear tribology [92]. Furthermore, the demand for
AMMC is still growing in aerospace sectors but the problem of safe
aircraft design with high fatigue characteristics and maximum impact
energy absorption especially at high temperatures is highly imperative
in aircraft crashworthiness design [132–134]. So far the least consid­
eration is given to this subject. Furthermore, the nonuniform dispersion
of nano reinforcement and their low wettability with AMMC is the main
issue faced in the production of AMMCs. The nonuniformly dispersing of
nano reinforcements in an AMMC is solved to some extent by using a
conventional casting technique but their clusters segregate along grain
boundaries under casting can produce some serious stress
12
Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372
concentrations which ultimately affect the ductility of AMMCs
[135–137]. This is worth mentioning that the stirrer parameter has a
significant effect on the homogeneous distribution of reinforcement
along grain boundaries during the stir casting method so devoted studies
are required to tackle this issue under the effect of the stirrer blade’s
significance. Also, for uniform dispersion of nano reinforcement, various
novel dispersion techniques and consolidation methods for improving
the overall controlled interfacial reactions are the main parameters for
the future adoption of AMMC [138–140]. Moreover, the various process
parameters such as the rotation speeds during the fabrication affect the
microstructures of nano reinforcement and thus, control the final
properties of AMMC [141].
Different nano reinforcement such as metallic and non-metallic have
specific effects on the mechanical properties of AMMC. For example,
graphite lowers the hardness of the AMMC while fly ash improves the
hardness of the AMMC [142–145]. But ceramic nanoparticles, CNTs, and
graphene are proven to be successful for improving the work hardening
rate, and wear rate of AMMC [146,147]. Also, many investigations [148,
149] proveed that B4C reinforcement significantly improves the me­
chanical, tribological as well as physical properties such as porosity and
density of AMMC [150].
The rapid consumption of MMC in various fields such as aeronautics,
naval architecture, and automotive applications is proof of their
outstanding mechanical properties [151]. Thus, it is imperative to
characterize the MMC materials for product development under extreme
loading conditions. To date, various experimental techniques have been
used for this purpose, but the synergetic combination of composite
materials does not allow one to comprehend their failure mechanism
easily [152]. The numerical simulation and optimized techniques for
composites offer significant advantages, such as time and cost savings
and more in-depth analysis as compared to the experimental techniques
M.Y. Khalid et al.
Fig. 12. Advantages of various futuristic nanocoating for aerospace materials (Figure drawn with the help of ref. [169,170].
[153–155]. Thus, future trends in MMC for aluminium will be exploring
their response through advanced simulation techniques.
MMCs have proved to be quite promising materials for aircraft ap­
plications [156]. But today’s high-performance fibre-reinforced polymer
composites such as carbon fiber reinforced composites (CFRP) and glass
fiber-reinforced composites (GFRP) are replacing traditional metal, al­
loys and their MMC in many aircraft applications because of their
excellent mechanical properties [157–160], however, the exact evalu­
ation of many mechanical properties of fibre-reinforced composites
through existing experimental tools is quite challenging and
time-consuming [161]. To date, various experimental and a few nu­
merical methods have been adapted for accurately predicting the me­
chanical properties of composite laminates [162]. The use of numerical
tools has proved to be quite a promising approach [163]. But the liter­
ature on these types of simulation techniques is still ambiguous and
quite limited [164].
Though, a great effort has been made for the next-generation aircraft
materials and the driving force behind this motivation is reduced cost for
advanced aircraft materials which effectively provide, the long service
life of structural and engine components and improved fuel efficiency,
for various load capacities and flight range [165]. There is still scope for
materials which have high fatigue strength, advanced coating on aircraft
materials using nanotechnology, and additive manufacturing which al­
lows the development of complex parts for various aircraft structural
parts [166,167]. Fig. 11 shows some of the current inherent problems
faced by aluminum alloys and their subsequent solutions for future re­
searchers. Whereas Fig. 12 illustrates the benefits of nanocoating for
aircraft for aerospace materials. To mitigate the risks associated with
aerospace engineering and exploration, it is now crucial to identify the
emerging advanced materials, what these materials are, and how can
they be used in aerospace engineering for the making next-generation
aircraft.
5. Summary
Today, the ultimate goal of many researchers is to revamp the per­
formance of aircraft by continuously exploring lightweight materials
with various synergistic combinations of many other nano re­
inforcements. AMMC for aerospace applications is now defining new
13
Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372
borders for aerospace applications. Throughout this review, we dis­
cussed the next generation of AMMC for aerospace applications that
summarize the following motifs.
• AMMCs are effectively used in numerous applications such as mili­
tary, aerospace, automobiles, and many other structural applications
due to their remarkable properties.
• Most researchers used the casting technique for manufacturing the
AMMC due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and uniform disper­
sion of nano reinforcement, and it can be employed for mass
production
• Overall, the use of nano reinforcement is highly regarded for
improving the mechanical, tribological and microstructural proper­
ties of AMMC, irrespective of the manufacturing process.
• Regarding the use of reinforcement, improper mixing, the size of
reinforcing particles agglomeration, their volume faction, and cru­
cible surface sedimentation problems were observed and lowered the
overall mechanical properties of AMMC.
• Machine learning and various algorithm-based approaches are now
being employed for MMC to predict and control various process
parameters and subsequent mechanical properties successfully.
Funding
This work was not supported by any funding.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
This publication is based on work supported by the Khalifa
M.Y. Khalid et al. Results in Engineering 20 (2023) 101372

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