Ss 1 Agric Science 3rd Term E-Note, 2023

SUBJECT:
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CLASS:
SS 1
TERM: THIRD
©Deeper Life High School. 2023
www.deeperlifehighschool.org …leadership with distinction

THIRD TERM SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK TOPICS
1 Classification of Crops: Based on their uses eg Cereals, Legumes, Root and tubers,
Vegetable
Fruits, Beverages, Spices, Oil crops, Fibres and Latex.
Classification of crops: Based on their Life Cycle eg Annuals, Biennials, Perennials
and Ephemirals
Based on Morphology/Structure eg monocotyledon and Dicotyledonous crops
2 Husbandry of Selected Crops:(a)Botanical and Local/Common names(b) Climate
and Soil
Requirement(c) Land preparation (d) Method of propagation (e) Planting date (f)
Seed rate
(g) Spacing (h) Sowing depth(i) Nursery requirement (j) Cultural practices (post-
planting
operations)
3 Husbandry of selected Crops (continued)
4 Plant Nutrients and Nutrient Cycles: (a) Macro and Micro nutrients: their
functions and
Deficiency Symptoms in crops (b) Factors affecting availability of nutrients such
as pH, excess of other Nutrients, leaching etc (c)Methods of replenishing lost
nutrients-crop rotation, input of organic
Manure etc
5 Plant Nutrients and Nutrient Cycles (continued) (d) Nitrogen, carbon, water and
phosphorus cycles-Diagrams, processes and importance of each cycle (e) Organic
agriculture-meaning and importance
6 Weeds and weed control:(a)Meaning of weeds(b)Types of weeds; common and
botanical names (c) Effects of weeds on crops and the economy (d)Characteristic
features of weeds (e)Methods of controlling weeds – cultural, biological, chemical,
physical and mechanical methods.
7. Mid-term break/ Assignment: Pasture and Forage Crops
a. define pasture
b. list 5 uses of Pasture and Forage Crops
c. identify 5 pasture grasses and 5 pasture legumes with their botanical names
d. differentiate between natural pasture and artificial pasture
e. enumerates 5 factors affecting the distribution and productivity of pasture
f. state 7 management practices of pasture
8 Range Land Management:(a)Meaning and importance of Range land/Pasture to
livestock (b)Characteristics of range land-contains high quality grasses and
legumes,etc. (c)Common grasses of livestock in range land.(d)Factors affecting the
level of production of herbage (e)Methods of Range land and Pasture improvement.
9 Aquaculture: (a)Meaning of Aquaculture (b)Different types of Aquaculture (i)Fish
farming (ii)Shrimps farming (iii)Crab farming(c)Importance of fish farming
(d)Conditions necessary for siting a fish pond: Adequate water supply, soil,
vegetation etc.(e)Establishment and maintenance of fish pond (f)Fishery regulation-

meaning and regulations like close season, catch quota, regular stocking
etc.(g)Fishing methods and tools.
10 Agricultural Pollution
1. Meaning of Agricultural Pollution
2. Types and Sources of Pollution of Agricultural Lands and Fish ponds
3. Effects of Land/Pond Pollution on farmers and Agric Productivity
11-13 Revision and Examination

WEEK: 1 DATE: …………………………
TOPIC: Classification of Crops
LESSON OBJECTIVES: By the end of the lesson ,the students should be able to:
CONTENT: 1. Identify various Crops based on life cycle
2. Classify crops based on uses
3. discuss crop types based on morphology
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students aware that different food crops supply different food nutrients
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning of Crop

A Crop is any plant grown for specific purpose. Crops supply food, fibre, herbs and other useful
materials. To properly distinguish one crop from another, agricultural scientists have come out
with ways by which agricultural crops are classified. Crops are classified into three based on (a)
uses (b) lifecycle (c) morphology
Classification of crops based on uses

On the basis of what the crops are used for, they are classified as:
A. Cereal crops: These are crops that belong to Poaceae family. They are rich source of
carbohydrates eg maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, millet, oat and barley.
They are noted for fixing atmospheric nitrogen into the soil by a bacterium known as Rhizobium
leguminosarium. Examples of pulses include cowpea, soybean, pigeon pea, groundnut and
bambaranut. B. Legumes/Pulses: Legumes belong to the family Fabaceae and are rich source of
proteins.
C. Root and Tuber Crops: These crops produce tubers under the ground either in the root or stem.
They are rich source of carbohydrates eg cassava, yam, sweet potato, cocoyam and irish potato.

D. Vegetable Crops: These are grown for their edible vegetative parts such as leaves, fruits or roots
which can be eaten fresh or cooked. They are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy
human growth eg amaranthus, okra, egg plants, water leaf, lettuce, celosia, pumpkin, tomato etc
E. Fruit Crops: These crops have succulent fruits which are consumed fresh. They are rich source
of vitamins and minerals essential for healthy human growth eg mango, pawpaw, pineapple,
cashew, guava, water melon, oranges, pears and apple.
F. Beverages Crops: These crops provide fruit drink after processing eg cocoa, coffee, tea and
kolanut.
G. Spices: These crops add flavor to our food eg ginger, pepper, garlic, onion, shallot etc

H. Oil Crops: These crops produce oil when processed and can be used for cooking, making soap,
margarine etc. Examples are oil palm, groundnut, cotton, sheabutter, soybean, melon, sunflower
etc.
I. Fibre Crops: These crops are used for making clothes, ropes and sacks eg cotton, kenaf, jute,
sisal, hibiscus, kapok (silk cotton tree) and wild hemp.
J. Latex: These crops produce whitish sticky liquid called latex used for making plastics, tyres etc.
Examples include para rubber, gum Arabic
EVALUATION
1. What do you understand by a crop?

2. State the bases of classifying crops.
3. State eight classes of crops based on uses
4. Mention the two classes of crops that are essential for healthy human growth.
5. State seven classes of crops based on their uses. Briefly explain them and give two examples in
each case.
5b. Define the following terms (a) Latex (b) Spices (c) Fibre

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. A crop which stores food in its roots is (a) onions (b) cassava (c) maize (d) sugarcane
2. The grain crops which supplies carbohydrates belong to (a) Leguminoseae (b) Fabaseae (c)
Poaceae (d) Amaranthaceae
3. Which of the following classes of crops belongs to the family Fabaceae? (a) legumes (b) latex
(c) vegetable (d) fibre
4. Which of the following is not a fibre crop? (a) cotton (b) jute (c) rubber (d) sisal
5. What type of vegetable crop produces hot flavouring taste? (a) onions (b) pepper (c) tomatoes
(d) bitter leaf.
SUB-TOPIC 2: Classification of Crops Based On Life Cycle
CONTENT: 1. Annual crops
2. Biennial Crops
3. Perennial Crops
4. Ephemeral Crops
Lifecycle means a period from germination to harvesting. Based on these, crops are classified into
four groups and these are:
a. ANNUAL CROPS: These are crops that complete their life cycle within one year e.g rice,
cowpea, millet, groundnut, maize etc
b. BIENNIAL CROPS: These are crops which complete their life cycle within two years e.g carrot,
pineapple, ginger etc
c. PERENNIAL CROPS: These are crops which complete their life cycle in more than two years
e.g mango, rubber, citrus, oil palm etc

d. EPHEMERAL CROPS: These are crops that complete their life cycle within a very short time
(probably within three months) e.g amaranthus, tomatoes, spinach, celosia etc
EVALUATION
1. Explain what you understand by term life cycle
2. State the classes of crops based on lifecycle with two examples each.
SUB TOPIC 3: Classification of crops based on Morphology

CONTENTS: 1. Monocotyledonous crops
2. Dicotyledonous crops
3. Differences between monocotyledons and dicotyledons
Based on their structure, crops can be classified into two groups as follows
a. Monocotyledonous Crops: These are crops that have only one seed leaf (cotyledon). Examples
are rice, maize, oil palm, coconut, wheat, barley, sorghum etc
b. Dicotyledonous Crops: These are crops that have two seed leaves (cotyledons). Examples are
cocoa, cowpea, groundnut, mango, citrus, soybeans etc

Differences between Monocot and Dicot plants
Monocotyledonous plant Dicotyledonous plant
1 It has one seed leaf It has two seed leaves
2 It has parallel vein It has net vein
3 Germination is hypogeal Germination is epigeal
4 It has fibrous root system It has tap root system
5 Absence of petiole Petiole is present
6 It has single erect stem without branches It has single stem with branches
7 It has narrow thin leaves It has broad leaves
8 Pollination is wind Pollination is insects
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. On the basis of structure, crops are generally classified into (a) cereal and legume (b) annuals
and biennials (c) monocot and dicots (d) dicotyledons and dicots
2. The following are annual crops except (a) rice (b) ginger (c) cotton (d) yam
3. Which of the following is not classified on the basis of lifecycle? (a) Ephemerals (b) Biennials
(c) Perennials (d) Cereals
4. Crops that their lifecycle completed within a short period are called (a) perennials (b) annuals
(c) ephemerals (d) none of the above
5. Biennial crops usually complete their lifecycle within a period of (a) six years and above (b)
less than one year (c) within two years (d) all of the above
ESSAY
1. State any two ways in which crops are classified
2. In a tabular form, state seven differences between monocots and dicots.
3. Give two examples each of annuals, biennials, perennials and ephemeral
4. Explain classification of crop based on morphology
5. What are ephemeral crops
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. ………. are crops which complete their life cycle within two years
2. Crops that have two cotyledons are known as

3. Examples of crops that produce oil when processed are ……………………
4. Crops that belong to Poaceae family are known as …………………

5. Crops are classified into three based ………………,…………… and …………………
WEEK: 2 DATE: …………………………
TOPIC: HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS

1. Identify Cereal-Maize
2. Classify Legume-Cowpea
3. discuss Root & Tuber-Yam
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The teacher shows the students a maize either real or in pictoral form
CONTENT: 1. Cereal-Maize
2. Legume-Cowpea
3. Root & Tuber-Yam
SUB TOPIC 1: Maize: Zea mays
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT

Maize belongs to the family GRAMINEAE which originated from America and has become one
of the main food crops in West Africa. It is used in various forms as food by man and it’s also used
as livestock feeds. It is a monocotyledonous annual plant which reaches a height of about 1m to
3m. The stem is soft and is divided into several internodes by the nodes. The leaves are long, flat
with midribs and parallel veins. The plant is shallow rooted and has adventitious roots
underground. Some of the adventitious root also develops at the lower internodes of the stem above
the ground. These are called prop root. Maize has both the male and female flowers on the same
plant. The male (tassels) are borne in the terminal pinnacle while the female flowers are borne in
the combs or ears. The fruit is one seeded.
VARIETIES OF MAIZE: Some varieties of maize are: flint, floury, dent, yellow (TZRS),
White Maize (Ferz 27) and hybrid maize such as 8434-11
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Maize is propagated by seed (sexual)
CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: It requires a temperature of about 10ºC and 46ºC.
Annual rainfall is 750-1500mm. It requires loamy soil which is neutral or alkaline. However, maize
will grow in all soil except pure sand.

LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING: The land should be cleared manually or
mechanically. At times, low ridges, mounds or beds are prepared. Planting on flat soil is also good
provided the place is free from erosion. In the South, it is planted in the late February to April for
early maize and August for late maize. In the North, it is planted in June. However, maize can be
planted anytime of the year if water is available. The depth should be 5cm deep.
PLANTING DISTANCE AND SEED RATE: Maize is planted 90 x 40 cm at 2 seeds per stand or
75 x 25 cm at 1 seed per stand. 20-25kg of seed is required per hectare planted at 2 seed per stand.
SUPPLYING/THINNING: Supplying should be done to fill un-germinated seeds while the excess
germinated seeds should be thinned to two plants per stand.
MANURE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION: Planting in freshly cleared forest soil may not
require fertilizers. On a used land, apply 15:15:15 NPK at planting, then Sulphate of Ammonia
four weeks after planting.
WEED CONTROL: Maize plot is weeded clean within the first five weeks of planting. Hoe or
cutlass can be used on small farm while selected herbicides can be used on large farms.
HARVESTING, PROCESSING: The maturity varies from 90 -120 days. However, some varieties
mature early. The maize cobs are ready for harvesting when silks begin to dry, this is green
harvesting. On the alternative, the maize plant may be allowed to dry, this is dry harvesting.
Harvesting can be done by plucking the cobs with hands while combine harvester is used for large
scale.
STORAGE
The dry maize may be stored along with the husks by hanging over a fire place for heating and
drying. The husk may be removed, the cobs thoroughly dried in the sun and stored in bags or cribs.
The dehusked maize cobs may be shelled and the dried grains stored in bags, plastic drums or silos
PESTS OF MAIZE: The major field pests of maize are weaver birds, rodents and stem borers
while the major storage pests are weevils and rats
DISEASES OF MAIZE: These include maize rust, maize steak, Corn smut, and Lead blast
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MAIZE

1. It serves as staple food for man
2. Industrial uses such as flour, starch, gums, brew etc
3. Sources of income to man
Maize grain can be eaten roasted or boiled or processed into starch or corn flour, corn flakes, pap
or corn meal.
EVALUATION
1. Briefly describe the plant, maize.

2. Explain the cultivation of maize under the following headings: seed rate, planting depth, planting
distance, planting date and fertilizer requirement.
SUB TOPIC 2:
Cowpea: Vigna unguiculata
DESCRIPTION OF COWPEA
Cowpea is a leguminous crop commonly grown throughout Nigeria and more in the Savanna
region.
Cowpea belongs to the family LEGUMINOSEAE.
It is widely eaten in various forms. It supplies a cheap source of plant protein to human beings
and animals.
VARIETIES: Popularly called beans in the market, common cowpea varieties have white or brown
seeds. The stem may be erect or creeping, the leaves are trifoliate. The plant has tap root system
which bears many secondary roots. They develop nodules which help the plant to fix atmospheric
nitrogen. The pod is long and narrow and when dry is dehiscent.
HYBRIDS OF COWPEA
This includes: Ife Brown, Ife Bimpe, Nigeria –B7 , Ayi, Kudi and Dinner (FARV-13), etc.
METHOD OF PROPAGATION
Cowpea is propagated by seed.
CLIMATE : Cowpea is a warm weather crop and does well where there is high temperature.
Annual rainfall is between 758-1500mm. Low rainfall with sunny weather is needed during pod
forming and ripening stage.
SOIL REQUIREMENT
Cowpea does well on a well drained sandy loam. Very fertile soil as well as too much rain induces
excessive vegetative growth at the expense of seed production.
LAND PREPARATION AND PLANTING: Cowpeas can be sown on ridges, mounds or directly
on flat soil. Planting is best done between July and August in the North and September in the
South. The hole should be 2-5cm deep at 2-3 seeds per stand. Spacing is 30cm between plants and
100cm between rows for the creeping types while 30cm between plants and 60cm between rows
for the erect type.
MANURE/FERTILIZER APPLICATION: Cowpea will not require manure or fertilizer if the soil
is fertile. However, on previously used soil farmyard manure or Superphosphate or Potash will
increase yield.
WEED CONTROL: It is necessary to clean before crop establishes itself to cover the ground as
this will suppress the growth of weed.

HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE: Maturity depends on varieties. However, it is
usually between three to four months. Harvesting is done by hand picking of matured ripe pods.
Prompt harvesting is important to avoid shattering of the ripe pods. Pods may be threshed by beaten
with sticks on a hard surface or a motorized thresher. Threshed seeds are winnowed and stored
either in bags, rhombus, silos, earthen pots etc.
PEST OF COWPEA: These are pod borers, aphids, giant rat and leaf beetle
DISEASES: These include Bacteria blight, Root rot and Leaf spot
EVALUATION
1. Why is cowpea commonly grown in the North than in the South?
2. Explain the cultivation of cowpea under climate and soil requirement.
SUB TOPIC 3:
Yam: Dioscorea spp
DESCRIPTION OF YAM
Yam is believed to have originated in India and it is popularly cultivated in Southern and middle
belt of Nigeria. Yam has stems which are usually twining. They have vines and some have thorns.
VARIETIES: These are

White yam: Dioscorea rotundata
Yellow yam : Dioscorea cayenensis
Water yam: Dioscorea alata
Trifoliate yam: Dioscorea domentorum
Aerial yam: Dioscorea bulbefera
Chinese yam: Dioscorea esculenta
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Yam is propagated by 1. Seed yam 2. Yam sett 3. Whole tuber.
CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: The temperature ranges from 25ºC to 30ºC. The
annual rainfall is about 1000-1500mm.
LAND PREPARATION: The land is cleared and burnt. The soil should be well drained rich loamy
soil to clay loamy soil. Yam should be planted on ridges, moulds or flat soil.
SPACING: 75-90cm between and within rows and should be 15cm deep
PLANTING DATE: Early planting start from November to December in riverine areas and March
to early June for late planting in forest areas.
MANURE AND FERTILIZER APPLICATION: NPK 10:10:20 should be applied 8 weeks after
planting. Potassium is needed during tuber formation. Organic manure may also be applied.

CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Mulching (covering of soil surface with dry grass, leaves and other mulching materials)
2. Weeding (which should be regular) [the removal of unwanted plants]
3. Fertilizer application (as explained above) for example: NPK 10:11:20
4. Staking (supporting the vines and tendrils with stick or Bamboo)
5. Training of vines (assisting the vines to coil round the stake)
HARVESTING
Harvesting period is between 8-12 months after planting.
Harvesting is done by digging the soil gently with cutlass/ hoe to remove tuber from the soil.
PROCESSING
Yam can be processed into yam flour thus: harvest the yam, peel , per-boil, sun dry and then grind
it into powder.
STORAGE
After harvesting the yam, tubers are stored in the following ways: barn storage, burying fresh tuber
in the soil and arranging tubers individually under shaded wooden shelves.
Yam tubers can be processed into yam powder or flour.
PESTS OF YAM: These include yam beetle and yam shoot beetle
DISEASES OF YAM: These include yam mosaic, yam rot and yam leaf spot
EVALUATION
1. State the six varieties of yam
2. Explain the cultural practices in yam husbandry.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. What is the name of male inflorescent of maize?(a) cob (b) ear (c) tassel (d) style
2. Each of the following is a common variety of yam grown in West Africa except (a) white yam
(b) water yam (c) yellow yam (d) Chinese yam

3. A cut piece of yam used for propagation is called (a) yam seed (b) yam bud (c) yam sett (d)
tuber
4. Cowpea is ripe and harvested between the months of (a) November-January (b) June-August (c)
May-July (d) February-April
5. Cowpea is important in crop rotation because (a) it corrects the acidity of the soil (b) the root
improves soil structure (c) it adds nitrate to the soil (d) it grows fast and covers the soil rapidly
THEORY
1. Discuss the cultivation of a named cereal/legume/tuber under climate and soil requirement, land
preparation and planting and harvesting, processing and storage.
2. With the aid of a well labeled diagram, describe a maize plant.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. Maize belongs to the family…….

2. …………is an example of diseases of yam
3. ………popularly called beans in the market
4. ………….. should be done to fill un-germinated seeds
5. Excess germinated seeds of maize should be …. to two plants per stand
WEEK: 3 DATE: …………………………
TOPIC: HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS

1. Identify Vegetable-Tomato with its scientific name
2. Classify Beverages-Cocoa
3. discuss Oil-Oil palm based on propagation and scientific name
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The teacher shows the students a tomato fruit
CONTENT: 1. Vegetable-Tomato
2. Beverages-Cocoa
3. Oil-Oil palm
SUB TOPIC 1: Tomato: Lycopersicon esculentum
DESCRIPTION
This is an annual vegetable crop grown for its fruits. The plant has a weak hairy and triangular
stem which bears side branches. It has compound leaves, borne alternately on the stem and
branches. Tomato bears yellow flowers; the fruit are green and turn red, pink or yellow when ripe.
The fruit can be eaten raw/ cooked, used for soup or stew preparation, or in preparing vegetable
salad and other food.
VARIETIES: Cultivated varieties of tomato are Roma, Bonny best, Hot set, Ife plum, Romita,
money-maker, pork, and local cultivars.
LAND PREPARATION; land clearing is done manually with cutlass, ridges is made with hoe, or
can be prepared by ploughing, harrowing and ridging.
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Propagation is by seed planted either directly or first in nursery

and later transfer to the field. The planting could be by drilling or broadcasting.
SOIL REQUIREMENT: It does best in a rich drained loamy soil.
CLIMATE; Tomato is a warm season crop and does best under dry condition. Annual rainfall is
750mm. Temperature is between 20ºC to 25ºC.
PLANTING DATE: Early September to October
SEED RATE: 5-10kg of seeds/ha
NURSERY PRACTICES:
It is done on ground, beds or seed boxes.
Seeds are sown in drill 5cm apart and 2.5cm deep

Shading, mulching, weeding and watering are done.
Nursery last for 3 weeks when the plants are at three leaved stage
SPACING;
(i) 60cm x 60cm without staking
(ii) 50cm x30cm with staking
TRANSPLANTING: Transplanting is done after the seedlings have reached about 15-20cm tall.
This is about 25-30days. The plants should have attained up to 4-5 leaves stage before transplanting
to the field. Planting in the field is 45-60cm between rows and 30-45cm between plants.
Transplanting should done in the evening or during cool weather together with the ‘ball of earth’
to ensure survival of the seedlings.
CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Weeding
2. Watering (this should be done immediately after transplanting morning and evening)
3. Fertilizer application: NPK 15:15:15 and organic manure are necessary
4. Staking: this is to enable plants stand erect and prevent lodging. It also allows for good fruiting
and keep fruit from disease attack arising from contact with soil.
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Tomato matures between 2-4 months after planting (from transplanting). Harvesting is done by
hand picking and it starts as from two months. For a short period, tomato can be stored in a
refrigerator or spread on the floor in an airy room. For a long term storage, tomatoes are turned
into paste and canned
PESTS OF TOMATO
1. Cricket
2. Beetle
3. Grass hopper
4. Caterpillar
DISEASES OF TOMATO
1. Bacteria wilt
2. Leaf spot
3. Root rot
4. Blossom end
5. Root knot
EVALUATION
1. Explain why staking is important in tomato.
2. Explain the process involve in nursery practices of tomato.

SUB TOPIC 2: Cocoa-Theobroma cacao
DESCRIPTION: Cocoa originated from South America. It is one of the economic tree crop in
Ghana and Nigeria and some west African countries. It is a tree plant growing to a height of more
than six meters. Cocoa has an upright main stem called the chupon. The leaves are long and oval
arranged spirally.
VARIETIES: These are Amelonado, Amazon and Criollo,
CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: Cocoa plant requires temperature of 17ºC-21ºC.

Annual rainfall 114-200cm.The best soil is a fertile well drained loamy-clayey soil which is
slightly acidic.
LAND PREPARATION: The land is cleared after which stumping is done. Cocoa is usually
planted on a flat land in which ridges are not required at all
METHOD OF PROPAGATION: This is mainly by seed and vegetatively by budding and stem
cutting.
PlANTING DATE: Nursery is done October to January while field planting is between April to
June
SPACING: Spacing in nursery is 20cm by 20cm while in the field is 3m by 3m.
NURSERY PRACTICES:
1. Loamy soil containing organic matter are used to fill up polythene bags
2. Seeds are sown in the polythene bags (one seed per bag)
3. Shade is provided
4. Watering is done twice daily
5. Regular weeding
TRANSPLANTING: Cocoa seedlings are transplanted to the field as from April during rainy
season i.e 5-6 months after planting in the nursery. The seedlings are carefully removed from the
polythene bags with a ball of earth and placed in a hole which is about 45cm deep. The hole is
covered gently and firmly around the seedlings
CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Weeding

2. Shading –Some crops like banana, plantain, cocoyam should be grown to provide shades
3. Fertilizer application-Urea or Sulphate of Ammonia is applied at 3000kg/ha when the plant is
8-12 weeks on the field
4. Mulching
5, Pruning-this encourages better canopy formation
HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Cocoa is ready for harvest within 3-5 years. Ripen or matured cocoa pod is carefully cut off from
the tree using sharp cutlass, knife or sickle, go to hell.
PROCESSING: The pod is carefully opened to remove the cocoa beans by applying some force.
FERMENTATION: This can be done by using seed box or tray method for about five days. During
the fermentation process, cocoa beans undergo chemical changes brought about by the action of
heat. The beans change to a red brown colour and develop the characteristic chocolate flavor.
Theobromine is one of the properties of fermentation which gives cocoa its stimulating property.
Other method of fermentation includes heap and basket.
DRYING: The bean seeds are now dry under the sun for six to ten days, during drying rain or
water should not touch the cocoa beans. Dryer may be used in case of mechanization.
GRADING; cocoa is usually graded depending on the level of maturity and dryness
Grade 1; cocoa which is thoroughly dried and free from foreign matters (“smoky” “velvety”) or
black beans
Grade2; cocoa which does not qualify for grade one and which is thoroughly dried free from
foreign matters but has some defect like black beans
STORAGE: Dry beans are stored in sacks or jute bags ready for export
UTILIZATION: Cocoa beans are used in making oil, cocoa butter, chocolates, cocoa wine, shoe
polish and cocoa powder.
PESTS OF COCOA
1. Cocoa capsid, mealy bug and pod husk miners

DISEASES OF COCOA
1. Swollen shoot and Black pod
EVALUATION
1. State and explain all stages involved in processing cocoa beans.
2. Explain how cocoa seedlings are transplanted from nursery to the permanent site.
SUB TOPIC 3: Oil palm-Elaeis guineensis
DESCRIPTION
Oil palm belongs to the family Palmeae. The plant is indigenous to tropical West Africa and is
grown on a large scale in Eastern and Edo areas of Nigeria. The plant is erect, unbranched and
may reach a height of 10-30m. It has fibrous root system; the leaves are long pointed at the tip. Oil
palm produces both male and female flower on the palm. The fruit is oval and fibrous consisting
of the epicarp as its outer covering. The fleshly mesocarp containing the oil and the nut surrounded
by a hard shell or endocarp
VARIETIES: These are:

Dura: it has a thin mesocarp, thick endocarp with a large kernel
Pisifera: it has a thick mesocarp (contains little oil), absence of endocarp with small kernel
Tenera: it has a fairly thick pericarp. It is a cross between Dura and Pisifera. It is capable of
producing both the oil and the kernel.
METHODS OF PROPAGATION: by seed
PLANTING DATE:
1. PRE-NURSERY: August-October
2. NURSERY: (9 months after pre-nursery)
3. FIELD: March –May (1 year after nursery)
SEED RATE: 120-150/ha
GERMINATION OF SEEDS: Seeds are soaked in water for 7 days, the water being changed daily.
After 7 days, the seeds are placed in the shed to dry before bagging them in polythene bags. From
here, they are sent to the germinator room which has a temperature of 39ºC and they stay here for
80 days. The next step is to soak them again for 7 days, the water being changed daily. The seeds
are then dried under shade for 2 hours before being sent to the cooling house. After about 2 weeks,
germination begins.
PRE-NURSERY OPERATIONS
• Seed boxes/Trays are filled with top soil rich in humus
• The seeds are sown at a spacing of 7cm x 7cm
• Shades are provided

• Watering is done in the morning and evening
• Mulching should be done
• Pre-nursery lasts for 4-5 months before transferring them to the nursery
NURSERY OPERATION
• It requires a well drained loamy soil
• Polythene bags are used
• Planting is done early April during which seedlings are removed with a ball of earth
• Spacing is 60 x 60cm
• Watering, weeding and mulching are done.
OIL PALM
TRANSPLANTING
• It is done after one year of seedling in the nursery usually April to May.
• It goes with a ball of earth on the root
• Spacing is 9m x 9m in triangular form in a hole of 4.5m deep
• The roots are trimmed to encourage the development of new ones
CULTURAL PRACTICES
1. Weeding
2. Fertilizer application NPK 15:15:15 at the rate of 800kg/ha
3. Planting of cover crops (to prevent erosion, evaporation and to add nutrients)
4. Pruning
HARVESTING AND STORAGE

Maturity is between 3-7 years. Matured bunches are harvested when the fruits are red or dark red
in colour. The bunch is harvested with a cutlass, axe or harvesting knife
PROCESSING: after harvest, Oil palm fruits can be processed in two ways:
(1) Traditional method: the fruits are boiled, after which they are pounded in a mortal and oil is
extracted from the residue after removing the fibres and the nuts. The crude liquid is re-boiled and
the oil is carefully separated. The oil is later reheated to eliminate any trace of water that remain
(2) The Modern method: this involves different stages:

a. Sterilization: the bunche are cut into 4 parts and put in drums. The drums are heated from the
bottom. On a large farm, electric sterilizer may be used. This is to soften the fruits for stripping
from the bunches and for milling. It also kills disease pathogens
b. Stripping: this is to remove fruits from the bunche thereafter the fruits are heated for 30-
45minutes.
c. Milling/Pounding: this involves pounding the fruits to separate the mesocarp from the nuts.
d. Pressing: the liquid is pressed out from the macerated mass. Pressing can be done by using
(i) The screw hand press
(ii) Hydraulic press
(iii) the centrifugal press.
At this the nuts are removed from the fibrous mass while the liquid is sent to the next stage
e. Clarification: this is the separation of pure oil from the water and the impurities. The process
involves boiling and skimming. Extracted oil is graded according to FFA content (Free Fatty
Acid). The oil with high FFA is referred to as industrial oil and is used for making soap, candle
etc while the one with low FFA (4%) is used in cooking and making vegetable oil
IMPORTANCE OF OIL PALM

1. Palm oil
2. Palm kernel
3. Palm fronds
4. Palm wine
5. Stem (for construction)
6. The bunches (serves as manure and used for making foot mat)
7. Broom
PESTS OF OIL PALM

These are rodents, mites, red spiders, grasshopper, mealy bug, aphids and birds, squirrel, monkey,
etc.
DISEASE OF OIL PALM

These include Blast, Anthracnose, Galadema, Freckle, Algal spot and Brown germ
EVALUATION
1. State and explain the three varieties of oil palm
2. Explain the following under the production of oil palm (i) pre-nursery stage (ii) nursery stage
(iii) transplanting stage
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1. The botanical name of tomato is (a) Zea mays (b) Elaeis guineensis (c) Lycopersicon esculentum
(d) Theobroma cacao
2. Mosaic disease affects (a) cotton and cocoa (b) yam and cassava (c) mango and orange (d)
tomato and groundnut

3. How long do cocoa seedlings remain in the nursery before transplanting (a) 6 months (b) 12
months (c) 3 months (d) 10 days
4. Why are seedlings removed with ball of earth during transplanting? (a) to keep the seedlings in
a moist condition (b) it is a part of the practice (c) to ensure that the delicate roots are protected
from detrimental environmental factors (d) to prevent them from exposure to light
5. Why is pruning done in cocoa production? (a) it allows better canopy formation and encourages
branch formation(b) it keeps the farm neat (c) it increases plant quality (d) it reduces rate of
transpiration and evaporation.
THEORY
1. Discuss the following practices in crop production (a) transplanting (b) nursery practices (c)
mulching (d) staking
2.Mention four stages in the processing of cocoa
3. List 3 cultural practices carried out in the production of cocoa
4. Enumerate 3 diseases that affect the production of cowpea.
5. List 7 management practices of pasture
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. Cocoa originated from ……….
2. Seed boxes/Trays are filled with top soil rich in humus at the …………….
3. ………is the removal fruits of oil palm from the bunche thereafter the fruits are heated for 30-
45minutes.
4. Tomatoes is propagated by ……..planted either directly or first in nursery
5. examples of oil palm varieties are ……………….
WEEK 4 DATE……………
TOPIC: PLANT NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENTS CYCLE
1. define macro and micro-nutrients: Their functions and deficiency
2. state factors affecting availability of nutrients
3. outline methods of replenishing lost nutrients and Organic Agriculture
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught meaning of nutrients in their previous class

CONTENT:
1. Macro and micro-nutrients: Their functions and deficiency
2. Factors affecting availability of nutrients
3. Methods of replenishing lost nutrients and Organic Agriculture
SUB TOPIC 1: Macro and Micro nutrients
Nutrients are elements substance that provides nourishment for growth, development,
metabolism and general well – being to plants. The most basic nutrient elements are carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen, which are usually obtained from the air, soil or water medium in which
the plant grows. All the other elements can be classified into two groups, macro and micro
nutrients.
i. Macro Nutrients/Essential/Major: Macro nutrients are mineral elements required by

crops in a relatively large quantity. Examples of macro- nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorous
, potassium, magnesium, calcium and sulphur.
ii. Micro Nutrients/Trace/Non Essential/Minor: Micro nutrients, also known as trace
elements are mineral elements required by crops in small quantities. Examples of micro
nutrients are iron, manganese, boron, molybdenum, copper, zinc. Others appear to be
helpful for the growth of certain species of plants. The functions and deficiency symptoms
of these nutrients are summarized below.
SOURCES, FUNCTIONS AND DEFFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OF PLANT NUTIRNTS.
NUTRIENT SOURCES FUNCTIONS DEFFICEINCY

SYMPTOMS

Nitrogen (N) *Decay organic *Forms an essential constituent in all plant *stunted growth, older
substances protein, enzymes hormones and potassium. leaves turn yellow or
*Use of nitrogen *it is essential for plant growth and makes have chlorosis
fertilizer. vegetables to look more succulent. *Leaves drop
*Fixation through *it helps to increase grain six in cereals and prematurely, poor
thunder storm. promotes carbohydrate synthesis formation of flowers
and fruits.
*By nitrogen fixing *it promotes the uptake of other nutrients
micro-organisms in such as potassium and phosphorous. *weak slender stems
leguminuous crops like *it helps in chlorophyll formation making
cowpea leaves to appear deep green
N.B. Excess nitrogen may lead to
excessive vegetative growth
*delay plants maturation and fruiting.
*make plant stems to become weaken and
bend over (to lodge) may decrease
resistance in grains.

PHOSPHOROUS *Organic matter *it is essential in cell division because it is *poor root development
(P) decomposition. part of the cell nucleus *stunted growth
*added directly to soil *it helps in root development, flowering *purple coloration of
component of fertilizer fruit and seed formation leaves in maize
*encourages and quickens ripening of fruits *delay in flowering
*it increases disease resistance in plants fruiting and ripening
*improves the palatability of vegetables and *lack of resistance to
forage grasses. lodging and disease
*it encourages fibre production especially in *Immature fruit drop
cereal crops, reducing the plant tendency to
lodge.
*it is a major constituent of plant tissues
*necessary for manufacture and
translocation of carbohydrates.
It is required for the formation of
chlorophyll and grains especially in cereals
and tubers in tuber crops
*helps in activating essential enzymes *it causes weak slender

POTASSIUM (K) *decaying organic
reactions in plants stems
substances
*aids translocation of sugars from one part *it causes margin of
*application of wood ash.
of plant to areas where they are needed. leaves to turn brown
*uses of potash fertilizers scotched and rough
*helps to increase plants resistance to
bacterial and fungal attack. *premature leaf drop
*Helps to neutralize organic acids especially *it causes delayed
in young plants. growth of plants
*Promotes nitrate uptake from soil.
*Promotes water circulation and regulation
in plants

CALCUIM (Ca) *organic residues *it strengthens plant cell wall with calcium *weakness in plant’s
*application of liming pectate stem
materials such as calcium *it is needed for normal growth of root tips. *stunting of the root
carbonate, calcium *It helps to reduce soil acidity. system
phosphate minerals *pale yellowing of
*it aids in the translocation and deposition
of carbohydrates and proteins in seed and leaves
tubers *presence of some
*it helps in improving soil aeration water in minerals at toxic levels
filtration and retention e.g Aluminium iron etc.
*It improves the soil pH so that nitrogen
fixation can be carried out
*controls the field toxicity of Aluminium
manganese and sodium ions.
MAGNESIUM *it is added directly into *it is a constituent of chlorophyll and *it slows down
(Mg) soil in the form of liming necessary in plants synthesis photosynthesis
material such as dolomite *it is required in normal cell divisions in *stunted growth
(calcium magnesium plants
carbonate). *white coloration of
*it is important in enzymes activation leaves between veins of
*Through organic older leaves.
residue. *It helps in the transportation of phosphate
and fruit formation in plants * premature leave-fall
*it helps in the synthesis of oils as in oil
palm
*it works with calcium to reduce soil acidity
SULPHUR (S) *decaying of organic *it forms parts of some amino acids and so, *stunted growth poor
substances helps to build protein rate of photosynthesis
*addition of fertilizer *it activates hormones and chlorophyll *yellowing of leaves
such as ammonium formation *slows down
sulphates super *it is required for carbohydrate metabolism carbohydrate synthesis
phosphate and nitrogen fixation by leguminous plants. in plants.
MICRO-NUTRIENTS
IRON (Fe) *decayed organic matter *it is necessary for chlorophyll formation *chlorosis – the leaves
*rock minerals *it is used for protein synthesis. becomes pale green
*it promotes enzymatic oxidation and
reduction reaction

MANGANESE *decayed organic matter *it is a constituent of enzymes responsible *pale greenish, yellow
(Mn) *rock minerals for protein synthesis discoloration between
*it is necessary for certain nitrogen veins especially in
transformation in plants and micro young plants and
organisms seedlings.
BORON (B) Rock minerals *it is needed for protein synthesis *general poor growth
*it facilitates root development *death of shoot and
*encourages nodule formation in legumes root tips
*it is necessary in plant cell division *causes lodging and
*aids formation of fruits and seed. stem breaking
*flower buds fail to
develop
*rate of water
absorption and
translocation of sugar
decrease.
*poor growth
MOLYBDENUM *rock minerals *necessary for nitrogen fixation in
(Mo) *decayed organic matter leguminous plants *in cabbage the
* fertilizer and manure *necessary for protein synthesis internal tissues turn
*it is a constituent of certain enzymes black.
*it is involved in photosynthesis *pale green
*it is important for respiration in plants discoloration of young
*it is important in the utilization of iron leaves and seedlings
*tip of leaves dry off
and die back.
*it leads to curling
*premature flower drop
ZINC (Zn) Rock minerals *it is necessary for enzymes reaction Causes mottled and
small leave.
COBALT Rock minerals Required for symbiotic fixation of nitrogen Reduction in nitrogen
legumes fixation in legumes
COPPER (Cu) *Rock minerals *It is an activator of other elements within *pale green color of
* fertilizer and manure the plant leaves
*it is a constituent of certain enzymes *tip of older leaves dry
*it is involved in photosynthesis off and die
*it is important for respiration in plants *young leaves tip die
*it promote the formation of vitamin A back

*it has a regulatory function when nitrogen *citrus juice is low in
content of soil is high or depleted. acid and has insipid
EXCESS taste
*Iron may not be available
*Molybdenum will be deficient
*It is toxic to plant
EVALUATION:
1. Differentiate between macro and micro-nutrients. Give examples of each
2. State the function and deficiency symptoms of (a) Nitrogen (b) Potassium (c) Sulphur (d)
Phosphorus.
3. What are the sources, functions and deficiency symptoms of (i) Molybdenum (ii) Boron
(iii) Manganese.
SUB-TOPIC 2: FACTORS AFFECTING AVAILABILITY OF NUTRIENTS
The following are the factors that influence availability of nutrients in the soil:
SOIL pH: this is a measure of acidity and alkalinity of the soil or any other medium in which
plants grow. In acid soils, aluminium, sodium and manganese exits in excess or at toxic levels,
a low pH will encourage the disintegration of clay minerals like calcium, iron, aluminium which
are leached from the soil, while at high pH calcium and magnesium ions accumulates in the soil
and this affect the growth of the plant. A low pH also in reduces the activities of soil living
organisms which aid the decomposition of organic matter
CONCENTRATION OF OTHER NUTRIENTS: availability of different nutrients depends on

the concentration of other elements in the soil. For example, too much concentration of nitrogen
and phosphorus makes potassium unavailable for plants. Also excess of soluble iron and
aluminium in acidic soil and calcium in alkaline soil reduces the availability of phosphorus.
LEACHING: This is the downward movement of nutrients from the top soil to other parts of
the soil thereby making them out of reach of plants roots. Soil nutrients such as calcium,
magnesium and potassium are lost from the top soil through leaching while aluminium and
hydrogen ions accumulates making the soil acidic.
EROSION: This is the carrying away of the top soil along with its nutrients by water or wind.
Thereby making the nutrients not available for the use of the plant.
BUSH BURNING: Burning destroys soil organic matter directly and exposes the soil to
erosion. These organic matter contents are very rich in nutrients, phosphorus and sulphur but
these nutrients are lost in gaseous form during burning. Burning also destroys beneficial soil

organisms that help in organic matter decomposition and soil aeration. Bush burning should be
discourage, but controlled bush burning can be practiced.
OXIDATION AND REDUCTION: Oxidation of ammonium radicals lead to loss of nitrogen

in the ammonia gas produced. Also when ion joins with oxygen to form soil oxides. It reduces
free ion availability. Reduction of nitrates fixation process also leads to loss of nitrogen.
CROP REMOVAL: Plants absorb nutrients from the soil for their growth. If they are harvested
and taken out of the farm, the nutrients in them are also depleted. Forage crops are also
harvested to feed the animals. These practices decrease the nutrients content in the soil.
EVALUATION
1. State five factors influencing the availability of nutrient in the soil.

2. Briefly explain how bush burning affects soil nutrients availability
3. How does crop harvesting influence soil nutrients availability
SUB TOPIC 3: METHODS OF REPLENISHING SOIL NUTRIENTS
Soil nutrients get lost from the soil through various ways such as burning, leaching, oxidation,
reduction, Crop removal, over grazing, continuous cropping, and need to be replenished. The
various methods for replenishing lost soil nutrients are crop rotation, organic manuring, bush
fallowing, liming, cover cropping and inorganic fertilization
1. Crop Rotation: This is cropping system in which different crops are grown on the same
piece of land every year in a definite order or cycle. It is necessary to include a leguminous
plant in the cycle.
Principles guiding crop rotation system includes:
(a) Deep rooted crops like yam and cassava must not follow each other
(b) Shallow rooted crops like maize and rice should not follow one another
(c) Crops belonging to the same family and which can be affected by the same pest and
diseases should not follow each other in the rotation
(d) There should be at least a legume in the rotation
Table 1: A typical 4 – crop, 4 – plot rotation
YEAR PLOT 1 PLOT 2 PLOT 3 PLOT 4

YEAR1 CASSAVA MAIZE YAM COWPEA
YEAR 2 MAIZE YAM COWPEA CASSAVA
YEAR 3 YAM COWPEA CASSAVA MAIZE
YEAR 4 COWPEA CASSAVA MAIZE YAM

ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION
1. It helps to maintain the fertility of the soil

2. It helps in erosion control and prevents nutrient loss from the soil
3. Inclusion of legumes in the rotation helps to enrich the soil nutrient with nitrates.
4. It helps to maximize the use of soil.
5. It makes continuous cropping possible for many years.
2. Organic Manuring: Organic manuring is the application of decaying plant and animal
material into the soil with the aim of increasing the soil fertility. There are three major types
of organic manuring:
(i) Green manure
(ii) Farm yard manure
(iii) Compost manure
i.Green Manure refers to the fresh leguminous plants and other fresh growing plants being
ploughed into the soil when they are still tender so that the rate of decomposition can be fast.
Examples of such leguminous plants are cowpea, mucuna, puero, centro.
ii.Farm yard Manure: This is a collection of animal wastes such as animal dungs, faeces, urine,
beddings or which have been allowed to undergo series of decomposition before being used as
fertilizers.
iii.Compost Manure: This is a type of manure that is prepared by heaping plant and animal
materials in a definite order, and allowed to decompose progressively under careful supervisions.
Compost manure can be prepared in two ways: Pit method and Heap method
Pit method
This requires the same materials as the stack method except that pit is used. The size of the pits
used depends on the targeted quantity of compost. Pits of dimensions 180cm x120cm x60cm can
be enough. The materials used includes: litters, cut grasses and legumes as well as sweepings from
the house. The materials used are fresh and green materials are preferred to dry materials because
the dry material decays faster, other materials added especially where they are available include
animal dung, ash and urine. The ash or urine helps to moderate the pH in order to ensure the
bacteria from the dung, which are responsible for the decomposition of the grass and legumes
components, perform their work excellently well. Water is also added to moisten the materials in
order to further enhance decomposition.
ADVANTAGES OF USING ORGANIC MANURE
i. It encourages and promotes the activities of beneficial soil organism

ii. It helps to improve soil structure
iii. It prevents soil erosion
iv. It increase water retention capacity of the soil
v. It increase the rate of water percolation into the soil
vi. It improves soil aeration
vii. It reduces rapid soil temperature fluctuation
viii. It protects the soil surface and reduces evaporation from the soil
ix. It helps to conserve soil moisture
x. It balances acid-base conditions of the soil.
xi. Mineralization of the organic content adds nutrients directly to the soil.
3. Bush Fallowing: Bush fallowing is the act of leaving a piece of land uncultivated for a relatively
short period before it is cultivated again. This enables the land to regain its fertility during the
fallow period. The period could be 2 to 5 years.
4. Liming: Liming is the practice of adding calcium or magnesium compounds to a piece of soil
to reduce the acidity of the soil. For example; limestone, calcium carbonate and quick lime,
magnesium, wood ash, dolomite, gypsum, etc. Liming helps to neutralise soil acidity. It increases
activities of soil organisms. It makes calcium and phosphorous readily available for use in plant.
4. Cover Cropping: This involves the planting of crops which spread and cover the soil surface
apart from the planted crops. they are majority legumes and include centrosema specie, peuraria
species, stylosanthes species and calopogonuim specie. They are capable of fixing nitrogen in the
soil through the help of some soil organism (rhizobium), especially bacteria. The roots of cover
crops help to hold soil together while the leaves help to reduce the impact of rain splash thereby
allowing water to drop gently and percolate into the soil. It therefore prevents or reduces soil
erosion.
5.Inorganic Manuring or fertilization: Synthetic fertilizer or inorganic fertilizers are chemically

formulated salts that have been manufactured with the purpose of supplying major nutrients that
may be deficient in the soil. These fertilizers are classified based on the nutrients they supply:
(a) Single or straight fertilizers: These supply only one major nutrients. Examples are single
super phosphorous (CaHPO4) ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4, ammonium nitrate NH4
NO3.
(b) Compound or mixed fertilizers: These supply more than one major nutrient examples
are NPK fertilizer and ammonium phosphate.
METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZER: Fertilizers may be applied to soil using the following
methods.

a. Row or side band application: The fertilizer is applied in a row made a few centimeters
away from the crop. Drilling machine is often used to apply fertilizer this way.
b. Top dressing: This is done by spreading the fertilizer on the soil surface where the crop
is already growing. Soluble fertilizers like nitrate of potash and ammonium nitrate are
applied this way.
c. Broadcasting: This is done by scattering the fertilizer materials evenly on the soil surface
usually before cultivation. The soil fertilizer is later ploughed into the soil.
d. Band placement: This is done by applying the fertilizer in bands by the side of the
planted crop. This is done for individual plant.
e. Ring Method: This is done by applying the fertilizer in rings, usually about 15cm,
around the planted crop. This is done for individual plants.
f. Foliar spray: This is done by dissolving dome trace elements in water and spraying
directly on the crop. The stems and the leaves absorb the elements directly.
ORGANIC AGRICULTURE
Meaning of organic agriculture: Organic agriculture is a form of agriculture that relies

on techniques such as crop rotation green mature, compost and biological pest controls
to maintain soil productivity and control pest on a farm. It makes use of little or no
fertilizers, herbicides insecticides and fungicides.
It is a production system that sustains the health of soil, the ecosystem and the people.
It combines traditional innovation with science to the benefits of the environment and a
good quality of life for all involved.
Organic agriculture has produced organic meat, poultry eggs and dairy products from
animals that were not given antibiotics or growth hormones
Importance of Organic Agriculture

1. It encourages farmers to use natural fertilizers like organic manure, green manure
2. It uses crop rotation to improve and enrich the soil.
3. It prevents both animals and man from the dangerous effects of using synthetic
fertilizers.
4. Manure is produced without the routine use of antibiotics and growth- promoting
drugs
5. It reduces dependence on non-renewable resources
6. It relies on a modern scientific understanding of ecology and soil science, while also
depending on traditional methods of crop rotation to ensure fertility , weed and pest
control
7. Good taste, safe, nutritious and unadulterated food crops are also obtained from
organic agriculture
EVALUATION

1. Enumerate six ways of replenishing soil nutrients
2. State five advantages of applying organic manure to the soil
3. What is crop rotation? State three advantages of crop rotation.
4. List five methods of applying inorganic fertilizers.
4bDescribe heap method of compost manure making.
5Define organic agriculture
5b. State three importance of organic agriculture
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. ………..is the cropping system in which different crops are grown on the same piece of
land
2. …………has produced organic meat, poultry eggs and dairy products from animals that
were not given antibiotics or growth hormones
3. Scattering the fertilizer materials evenly on the soil surface usually before cultivation is
known as ………….method of application
4. The measure of acidity and alkalinity of the soil is …………..
5. ……………..refers to the fresh leguminous plants and other fresh growing plants being
ploughed into the soil to replenished the soil
WEEK 5 DATE:………………
TOPIC: PLANT NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENTS CYCLE

1. define Nitrogen and is importance
2. discuss carbon and phosphorus cycles and their benefits
3. explain the term organic agriculture
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught meaning of macro and micro nutrients in their
previous class
CONTENT.
NITROGEN, CARBON, WATER AND PHOSPHOROUS CYCLES
NUTREINTS CYCLE: Nitrogen, Carbon, Water and Phosphorous cycle. Diagram process and
important of each cycle
Nutrients cycle refers to the circulation of some nutrients in nature. They occur in the sea, soils,
air forest etc.
NITROGEN CYCLE: This is the natural process by which nitrogen moves in natural forms to
another in the environment.
Processes of Nitrogen Transformation include:
A. Oxidation during lightening: Nitrogen in the air combines with oxygen to form oxides
of nitrogen such as nitric-oxides. Nitrogen peroxide and nitric-oxide. These undergo
further oxidation to from nitrogen-dixoide. When this dissolves in water during rain. It
forms nitrous acid and nitric acid. These are converted to nitrates and filter into the soil
with rain water.
B. By ammonification and nitrification: Ammonification is the process whereby
ammonium compounds are formed from decomposing organic materials as well as from
the waste products from plant and animals such as urine and faeces through the action
of purifying bacteria. The ammonia so released is converted to nitrites by a group of
initiating bacteria called Nitrosomonas. The nitrites are converted to nitrates by another

bacterium called Nitrobacter. The nitrates formed are absorbed from the soil while some
are lost as nitrogen gas.
C. Nitrogen fixation: Soil atmosphere contains up to 80% nitrogen. This nitrogen is
oxidized to form nitrate ions by two groups of bacteria namely:
i. Symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium leguminousarum. They live in root noodles
of legumes. The bacteria obtain carbohydrates from the plant while the plant
obtains nitrogen.
ii. Free living bacteria like clostridium and azotobacter. The bacteria fix
atmospheric nitrogen into the soil aerobically and anaerobically.
D. Addition of organic manure and nitrogen fertilizers also adds nitrogen to the soil
when they decay.
E. Denitrification: This is the process by which nitrates in the soil are converted to
nitrogen gas by certain denitrifying bacteria.
IMPORTANCE OF NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen cycle is one of the most important nutrient cycle in relation to terrestrial
ecosystem:
1. Nitrogen is required by organisms for metabolic function and respiration

2. It is useful to plants in form of a solid nitrate
3. Nitrogen is used in plant for the manufacture of food (protein).
CARBON CYCLE
This involves the process involved in the flow of carbon in the environment
PROCESSES OF CARBON CYCLE

During photosynthesis, carbon (iv)oxide is taken up by plants from the atmosphere for
growth and development while they store the remaining CO2 as fats and polysacharides in
tissues and parts of the plants body.
When animals consume these plants, the products are converted to other forms through
respiration carbon (iv) oxide passes into the atmosphere. Animal wastes and dead bodies
decompose through bacteria and fungi reactions and part of the carbon is released as CO2
into the atmosphere. Industrial activities also generate carbon as carbon (iv) oxide. Likewise
the burning of wood charcoal and other waste materials send carbon (iv) oxide into the
atmosphere.
Mining activities also conveys carbon into the earth surface in form of fossil fuels and
limestone.
Rain dissolves part of the carbon (iv) oxide and converts it to carbonates when it reaches
the ocean. Anytime the carbon (iv)oxide available in the atmosphere decreases, ocean
releases part of the CO2 into atmosphere while excess are also absorbed by the ocean. Hence
the amount of CO2 in the environment remains balance.
Importance of carbon cycle
Carbon cycle is important to the ecosystems because it helps sustain environment. Green
plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and use it to manufacture food in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll. Animals and man make use of carbohydrate food produced by
plants to get energy and the fruit used as food. Parts of the carbon in animal wastes
accumulate over a long period of time in the soil to form fossil fuels and limestone.
Water Cycle: Water cycle is the constant circulation of water in various ways in the
environment.

Processes of Water Cycle: The environment holds a certain volume of water as vapour.
This vapour falls down as rain when ever condition favours it. Part of the rain water is
absorbed by soil and is taken up by plants. They are later evaporated through the process of
transpiration. Part of the water flows underground to join lakes and ocean. Some of the
water is brought to the earth surface inform of spring water, well, and bore-hole.
Water gets evaporated into the atmosphere from the ocean, lakes, rivers and soil. Part of the
water is also taken up and excereted by human and animals. The sun and the atmospheric
gravity ensures the constant movement of vapour and water in the atmosphere.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER CYCLE
1. The water cycle plays a significant role in the maintenance of life and ecosystem on
earth.
2. The waster cycle helps purify water, replenishes the land with fresh water and assists in
the transport of minerals in the environment.
3. It contributes to erosion and sedimentary.
POHSPHOROUS CYCLE
Phosphorous cycle is the circulation of phosphorous in the environment. It illustrates the

movement of phosphorous through the lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

Process of Phosphorous Cycle
Phosphorous is found in rocks and mineral form. In nature it exits as phosphate ion. Plants
absorb phosphate ions from soil and use it for growth and development. The crops get
consumed by the herbivorous animals and man which are also consumed by carnivorous
animals. The plants and animals die and the phosphorous present in their body is
decomposed and released into the soil as phosphates ions. The phosphate carried by runoff
water sinks into the soil and deposited into ocean while some from rocks, and the cycle
continues.
Importance of Phosphorous
1. Phosphorous is useful for plants and animals

2. About 80% of the phosphorous is used to make fertilizers
3. Dilute phosphoric acid is used in soft drinks
4. Over enrichment of phosphate can lead to algae bloom as it causes bacteria to grow in
large quantities. They cause the death of fish.
5. Phosphorous causes pollution of lakes and streams.

EVALUATION
1. With the aid of a diagram fully label and describe the carbon cycle.
2. With the aid of an annotated diagram only illustrate the water cycle.
3. Explain the importance of phosphorous cycle to crops and animals.
4. Define nutrient cycle
5. Explain organic agriculture
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVETEST
1. Which of the following is a micro nutrient? (a) Calcium (b) Magnesium (c)
Molybdenum (d) Potassium
2. Which of the following is not an advantage of crop rotation (a) it is a process of soil
formation which facilitates rock weathering? (b) it helps to reduce the problem of pests
and diseases. (c) it improves soil fertility (d) it helps to control soil erosion.
3. Which of the following causes depletion of soil nutrients? (a) Liming (b) crop rotation
(c) leaching (d) organic manuring.
4. The following are reasons why burning is discouraged in land preparation for crop
production except (a) it exposes the land to erosion problem (b) it destroys organic
matter in the soil (c) it increases calcium and potassium level of the soil (d) it increases
soil temperature which affects soil living organisms.
5. Which of the following is not a method of fertilizer application? (a) dusting (b) foliar
application (c) ring method (d) top dressing.
6. One of the following is a symbolic organism (a) Rhizobium (b) azotobacter (c)
clostodium (d) nitrobacter
ESSAY
1. With the aid of a well labelled diagram describe the nitrogen cycle.
2. State 2 functions each of the following nutrients in plant: (i) Nitrogen (ii)
Phosphorous (iii) sulphur
3. Explain the role of soil pH in the availability of plant nutrient
4. Apart from lighting state three other ways by which nitrogen is added to the soil.
5. Differentiate between macro and micro nutrients. Give five examples of each.
6. Suggest and explain five possible methods of improving soil nutrients.

SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. …….. is the circulation of phosphorous in the environment

2. During photosynthesis, carbon (iv)oxide is taken up by …….. from the atmosphere for growth
and development
3. ……….is the process whereby ammonium compounds are formed from decomposing organic
materials
4. …….. Rhizobium leguminousarum share……..relationship.
5. Plant store CO2 as ………. and ………

WEEK: 6 DATE…………………..
TOPIC: WEEDS AND WEED CONTROL
1. define weeds
2. state types of weed
3. explain the effects of weeds on crops and economy
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught nutrient cycle in their previous class
CONTENT:
1. Meaning of weeds
2. Types of weed
3. Effects of weeds on crops and Economy
4. Characteristic Features of weeds
5. Methods of controlling weeds
SUBTOPIC1: Meaning of weeds:

Weeds are often called volunteer plants because they grow where they are not planted. They are
plants which grow where they are not wanted. They can also be defined as”plants out of place”.
They are usually unwanted, uninvited quests on farms. Also, their growths interfere with that of
cultivated crops and therefore constitute nuisance to crops, livestock or even man. An edible crop
could become a weed if it grows where and when it was not planted, example maize growing on
a land where cassava is planted is a weed.
SUB TOPIC 2: Common weeds (common weeds)

Some of the common weeds include:
Common Name Botanical ( scientific name)
1.Wire grass Sporobolus pyramidalis
2.Siam weed Chromoleana odorantum (-Eupatorium

adoratum)
3.Blue feather
Commelina nudiflora
4.Yellow feather Commelina legosienesis
5.Bush marigold Aspilia Africana
6.Stubborn grass Eleucine indica
7.Stubborn weed Sida acuta

8.Goat weed Ageratum conyzoides
9.Morning weed Acantospernium hispidium
10.Pig weed Boerhevia diffusa
11.Tete (green with thorns) Amaranthus spinosus
12.Tete( green with no thorns) Amaranthu caudatus
13.Water leaf Talinum triangulare
14.Sedge plant (umbrella grass) Cyperus alternifolius
15.Tridax Tridax procumbens
16. Emillia Emilia sognifochia
17.Milk weed Euphorbia heterophylia
18.Desmodium Desmodium spp.
19.Spear grass Imperata cylindrical
20.Sensitive plant Mimosa pudica
21.Elephant grass Penisetum purpureum
22.Calopo Calopogonium mucunoides
23.Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis
24.Centro Centrosema pubescens
25.Guinea grass Panicum maximum
26.Carpet grass Cynodon dactylon
27.Northern gamba Andropogon gayanus
28.Mucuna Mucuna utilis
29.Kudzu orPuero Pueraria phaseoloides
30.Sunhemp Crotalaria juncea

31.beggar weed Desmodium incanum
32.Ditch millet Paspalum orbiculare
33.Broom weed Sida acuta
34.PWD weed (public work department) Tridax procumbens
35.Bahama grass Cynodon dactylon
36.Node weed Syndrella nodiflora
37.Water hyacinth Ecihornia crassipes
38.Southern gamba Andropogon tectorum
39.Pink weed Spigelia anthelmia
40.Mexican sunflower Tithonia diversifolia.

SUBTOPIC 3:
EFFECTS OF WEEDS ON CROPS AND ECONOMY:

1. They act as host for certain plant diseases or pests.
2. They compete with crops for air, moisture, space, sunlight and nutrients. By this, they cause
poor development to the crop plant, resulting in poor yield.
4. They are very unsightly in the farm.
5. They reduce the size of farmland.
6. Lead to crop loss
7. Some weeds are toxic to animals consuming them e.g, Ageratum conyzoides ( goat weed).
8. They reduce the quality of cultivated crops.
9. They reduce farmer’s income.
10. Increase the cost of production.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS:

1. They are essential for educational and scientific research activities.
2. Weeds are useful in feeding farm animals (some are used as forage crops).
3. Leguminous weeds act as cover crops thereby fixing certain plant nutrients to the soil.
4. They are good source of compost and manure preparation.
5. Weeds can be used, to control erosion especially where fallowing is practiced.
6. They can serve as mulching materials.
7. Some weeds are used for industrial purposes.

8. Help in maintaining the oxygen- carbondioxide balance.
9. Use for ornamental purposes (flower).
10. Some weeds are edible to man e.g waterleaf.
11. They are medicinal in nature e.g Euphobia hirta, Desmodium, Lemon grass etc
Evaluation:
1. Mention ten common weeds and their scientific names
2. State five effects of weeds on crops.
Subtopic 4: Characteristic features of weeds:
1. Weeds produce very many seeds.

2. They can survive where cultivated crops do not survive
3. Usually have luxuriant growth.
4. Can survive without fertilizers.
5. The roots are persistent in the soil.
6. Seeds are highly viable.
7. The seeds have long period of dormancy.
8. Not usually destroyed by trampling.
9. Hardness and tenacity- they can adjust their size to varying population density.
10. Many weeds are highly resistant to the numerous plant diseases we have in the farm.
11. They can be dispersed by divers’ means either by wind, water, animals or explosive
mechanism.
12. They can survive in a very adverse soil condition for a very long time.
13. They can grow in the field, lawn, farmlands and surroundings.
14. Some weeds have spines which make them to be used to control rodent pests like rats.
Method of weed dispersal

1. Wind dispersal method
2. Water dispersal method
3. Animals dispersal method
4. explosive mechanism method
SUBTOPIC 5:
Methods of controlling weeds:

Weeds must be controlled in order to have a good harvest.
Weeds can be controlled in the following ways:
1. Cultural control methods
2. Physical or mechanical control methods control methods
3. Biological control methods.
4. Chemical control methods
5. Integrated method

CULTURAL CONTROL METHODS: This involves the use of cultural practices that will
help the cultivated crops to outgrow or grow faster than weeds, so as to form canopy or shade on
time. This could be achieved through the practice of crop rotation, correct land preparation,
correct plant spacing, timely planting, flooding, bush burning, thinning, mulching, cover
cropping, etc.
: This method involves the use of more than one method of the control measured mentioned
above in controlling weeds.
PHYSICAL /MECANICAL CONTROL METHODS:

This method involves the physical removal of weeds from farmlands. This could be done by
hand pulling, hoeing, slashing, ploughing and harrowing.
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHODS: This involves the use of herbivorous animals and
predators like insects to control weeds. This method may be controlled as predators can eat up
cultivated crops. Biological control could also be achieved through the use of leguminous cover
crops like centrosema to suppress weed growth.
CHEMICAL CONTROL METHOD: This method is very expensive. It involves the use of
chemicals called herbicides to control weeds . Herbicides are either selective or non- selective.
Selective herbicides – kill some weeds but is not usually harmful to others. while non- selective
herbicides kill any type of weed. Some herbicides are contact example, Paraquat while others are
systematic, example Atrazine and Simazine, they are applied to the soil seed bed before the
emergence of crop plants. Other examples of herbicides-TCA,2,4,5-T(2,4,5-Trichloroacetic acid)
, Dalapon, Grammoxone, Paraquat and Diquat- herbicides are best applied when the weeds are
young.
Herbicides are to be used with care, less herbicides, less damage to the planted crops.
INTEGRATED CONTROL METHOD: This method involves the use of more than one
method of the control measured mentioned above in controlling weeds. This method involves
skilled experts since a lot of precautionary measures have to be taken into consideration.
Evaluation:
1. State five characteristic features of weeds. 2. List and explain4 methods of weed control.
Weekend assignment: Read from pages 85-88 of Evans Agricultural Science For Senior
Secondary Schools Book 2, and provide answers to the questions.
Pre-reading assignment: Read about Types and classification of farm anjmals as the next topic.
Weekend activity: Go round your school premises or school farm and uproot the following
weed samples : (i) spear grass (ii) commelina (iii) guinea grass (iv) cow pea (v)
tridaxprocubens , identify the above weed samples by means of dispersal and state two
economic importance of guinea grass.
PROJECT: Visit your school farm or a nearby farm, identify different types of weed found on
the farm. Prepare an album (herbarium) with the following documents attached (i) common
name (ii) botanica names (iii) economic importance (iv) the nature of growth (annual, parasitic,
epiphytic. Xerophytic or hydrophytic) (v) method of dispersal (vi) control method
General evaluation:

ESSAY QUESTIONS:
1.What is weed? (b) List 10 effects of weeds on crops and economy
2. List any 15 common weeds stating both their common and scientific names.
3. List and explain the characteristic features that enhance the survival of weeds.
4 Discuss three mechanical and four cultural methods of weed control.
5. State 5 economic importance of weeds.
OBJECTIVES:
1. One of these is not a characteristic feature of weeds. A. resistant to trampling B. Produces
many seeds. C Seeds have short period of viability D. Have luxuriant growth
2. Which is the most pollution free- control measure?. A. Cultural method B.Biological method
C. Chemical method D. Mechanical method
3. Desmodium can be dispersed through A. Animals B. Wind C. Water D. Explosive
mechanism.
4. What is the botanical name of milk weed? A. Euphorbia hirta B. Commelina Spp. C .
Eupatorium odorantum D. Talinum triangulare
5. Which of these herbicides acts on the roots of weeds? A. Paraquat B. Ethylene C.
2,4Dichloroacetic acid D. Simazine.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1………… involves the use of more than one method to control weeds
2. The use of hand pulling, hoeing, slashing, ploughing and harrowing is known as
………method of weed control
3. …is the use of chemical to control weeds
4. An example of herbicides use to control weeds is …………..
5. Herbicides are either ……..or ………..

WEEK: 7 DATE………………….
MID TERM BREAK/ASSIGNMENT
TOPIC: PASTURE AND FORAGE CROPS
1. explain the meaning and Uses of pasture and Forage crops
2. state types of pasture
3. explain the effects of weeds on crops and economy
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught the meaning and importance of weed in their
previous class
CONTENT: 1. Meaning and Uses of pasture and Forage crops

2. Types of pasture
3. Factors affecting distribution and productivity of pasture
4. Establishment and management of pasture
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Uses of Pasture and Forage Crops
A Pasture is an area of land on which grasses and legumes (forages) grow for animals to graze.
Forage crops are plants cultivated for their vegetative portions in a pasture and are used either in
fresh or preserved for feeding livestock such as cattle, sheep and goat. They may be harvested and
fed to the animals in their shed (soiling/zero grazing) or animals are allowed to graze directly on
the field.
USES OF FORAGE / PASTURE CROPS

1. Forages account for a major source of food for ruminant animals
2. They serve as cover crops to conserve soil moisture and prevent soil erosion.
3. They could be used as green manure e.g forage legumes
4. They can be used for roofing farm stead e.g grasses
5. They can also be used as bedding materials for animals
6. They can fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil
7. Forage legumes increase proteins content of the pasture, add to palatability as well as increasing
the nitrogen content of the soil.
8. If properly managed and planned, it could be a source of balanced diet.
EVALUATION

1. What do you understand by the term pasture?
2. State five importances of forages in livestock production.
SUB TOPIC 2: Types of Pasture

There are two main types of pasture: the natural and artificial pastures
A. The Natural Pasture: The Natural Pasture otherwise known as range land is an extensive
grassland containing forage grasses and legumes, straws and other wildlife. An example of Natural
Pasture is Savanna areas. They are not planted by man.
CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL PASTURE

1. It has a good ability to regenerate
2. The soil types have low fertility
3. Some inedible grasses and legumes by the animals are found on such land.
4. The grasses and legumes are usually of poor quality
5. It may contain some stubborn grasses which may be difficult to eradicate.
6. The forages are seasonal being scarce during dry season
7. It harbors wild animals.
B. The Artificial Pasture: This is an established or sown pasture. The grasses and legumes are
deliberately planted for livestock to feed on. This is planted and managed by man.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ARTIFICIAL PASTURE

1. Grasses and legumes are selectively grown in a proper proportion, in the ratio of 60:30:10 (grass,
legumes and herbs)
2. It is weed free
3. They contain high quality grasses and legumes.
4. They can regenerate after harvesting/grazing.
5. The pasture can withstand trampling by animals.
6. Management practices are carried out.
7. Production is high due to proper management.
8. Pasture is not seasonal because irrigation can be used to supply water.
COMMON GRASSES AND LEGUMES

A: GRASSES
i.Elephant grass Pennisetum purpureum
ii.Guinea grass Panicum maximum
iii.Southern gamba grass Andropogon tectorum
iv.Northern gamba grass Andropogon gayanus
v.Giant star grass Cynodon plectostachyus
vi.Rhode grass Chloris gayana
vii.Carpet grass Axonopus compressus
viii.Bahama grass Cynodon dactylon
ix.Spear grass Imperita cylindrical
x. broom weed Eleusine indica

B: LEGUMES
i. Stylo Stylosanthes gracilis
ii.Tropical kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides
iii.Calop Calopogonium mucunoides
iv.Centro Centrosema pubescence
v.Mucuna Mucuna utilis
DESCRIPTION OF GRASSES AND LEGUMES
1. Guinea grass: it is a perennial plant, native to tropical countries and about 4.5m high. It is
bunchy, erect, palatable, drought resistance, high foliage production and good for silage and hay
making. It is propagated by seeds and stolon; it produces many seeds with low viability.
2. Elephant grass: It is a perennial plant with cane-like stem. It is native to rain forest or riverine
zone of Africa. It is vigorous, aggressive, good for silage but not for direct grazing. It is palatable,
highly leafy and can be propagated by seed and stolon. The height is between 3m and 5m.
ELEPHANT GRASS
3. Giant star grass: It is a perennial grass of height 1m-2m. Its native to forest zone of Africa. It
is propagated by seeds and stolon, high yielding, palatable, good for silage production and respond
well to fertilizer

GIANT STAR GRASS
4. Spear grass: It is a perennial plant of about 1m-1.5m tall. It is palatable, native to the Tropics.
Spear grass is propagated asexually by rhizomes, difficult to eradicate because of the underground
rhizomes and also produce seeds on hairy head.
5. Tropical kudzu: It is commonly called Peuro. It is trifoliate, petiolated, nodulated, hairy with
white or pink flower. It is palatable, proteinous, good ground cover, drought untolerant, good for
hay and silage making. It is a creeping plant that is usually planted in rubber or oil palm plantation
as cover crops to prevent erosion.
6. Centro: It is trifoliate, petiolated, nodulated, slightly hairy, palatable, shade tolerant, drought
resistant, self seeding, perennial and persistent. It responds to fertilizer application, it has reddish
to purple flower. It is propagated sexually and dispersed by explosive mechanism.
EVALUATION
1. State the two main types of pasture with five characteristics each.
2. Mention five grasses and legumes found in your locality
SUB-TOPIC: Pasture and Forage Crops (continued)

FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF PASTURE
A.DISTRIBUTION
1. Climatic factors: These are rainfall, temperature, wind, humidity, sunshine etc. They affect
vegetation types and places of their growth e.g savanna climate favours the growth of grasses and
legumes

2. Edaphic/Soil factors: They are soil pH, texture, structure and fertility. They also influence
pasture types and areas of distribution.
3. Biotic factors: These influence pasture distribution e.g pests diseases, parasites, predators etc
4. Other factors include: pollution, topography, farming system, social religion and economic
factors
B. PRODUCTIVITY
1. Aggressiveness: This is an ability to compete with weeds
2. Persistence: it is an ability to survive and spread
3. Resurgence: it is an ability to grow in spite of trampling and cutting
4. Resistance: it is an ability to withstand drought, diseases and pests.
5. Seed viability: it is the ability of pasture’s seed to remain alive for a long time
6. Good management: this includes application of fertilizer, water etc
7. Correct stocking density: this is to avoid overgrazing of the available pasture.
8. Resistance to trampling.
ESTABLISHMENT OF PASTURE
To establish pasture, certain factors must be put into consideration, among these factors are:
A. FACTORS AFFECTING ESTABLISHMENT OF PASTURE

1. Purpose of pasture establishment whether permanent or short term
2. Adaptability of the pasture to local environment
3. Palatability of the species i.e the pasture must be acceptable to the animals
4. Compatibility of grasses and pasture i.e they should be able to grow together without undue
competition
5. Maturity period of the species. The pasture must be early maturing
6. Life span (cycle) of species must be similar
7. Time of planting
8. Environmental factors like climatic, edaphic and biotic factors
B. PROCESS OF PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT

1. Site selection
2. Clearing and stumping
3. Tillage practices
4. Planting of forage either by seeds, stem or stolon
5. Supplying
6. Paddocking
7. Irrigation
8. Harvesting: this can be either direct or zero grazing
MANAGEMENT PRACTICES OF PASTURE

Pasture should be regarded as crops in order to ensure good management. The methods adopted
depend on the farmer’s knowledge and skill. Some of the management practices include
1. Fertilizer application or manuring
2. Rotational grazing: this is by dividing the pasture into different plots called paddock

3. Reseeding: this is by broadcasting seeds into places where pastures have been reduced.
4. Carrying capacity/Stocking rate: the number of animal a pasture can carry at a time to avoid
overgrazing
5. Pest and disease control
6. Shading
7. Weed control
8. Deferred grazing: this is to allow the pasture to regenerate
9. Irrigation
10. Controlled bush burning.
DETERMINATION OF PLANT POPULATION

In the establishment of pasture, it is very important to know the quality of pasture or forage
crop to plant in a specified area of land.
In doing this, it is very important to understand certain principles and formula required to
ensure an adequate plant population in an area of farmland.
Example
1. A piece of land to establish a pasture was surveyed to be circular:
i. If the radius of the land is 100m and the spacing of the pasture legume is 80cm by
40cm, what is the population of the legume at one seed per stand?
ii. If the germination percentage is 60, calculate the expected plant population
iii. calculate the plant population if it is two per stand
Solution
i. Area of land is circular: therefore the formula needed is 𝜋𝑟 2
Area of land = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 3.142 𝑥 100𝑥100
= 31,420m2
spacing =80cm x40cm
=0.8mx 0.4m = 0.32m2
plant population of centrosema pubescens
area of land(m2)
spacing (m2)
= 31420 m2 = 98,187.5 stands
0.32 m 2
ii. Expected plant population:

Germination% = 60%
60x 98,187.5 =58,912.5
100
Expected plant population of centrosema pubescens = 58,912.5 stands
Or
Area of land = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑥 100𝑚 100𝑚
= 31,428.57
Spacing = 80cm x 40cm
= 0.8mx 0.4m
=0.32 m2
plant population = area of land(m2)

spacing (m2)
= 31.42 m2 = 98,187.5 stands
0.32 m2
iii. one per stand =98,187.5 stands
for two per stand = 2X98,187.5 stands= 196375 stands
EVALUATION
1. State five factors that can influence the productivity of pasture

2. Mention five practices that ensure good management of forage crops
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Establishment failure in pasture production could occur as a result of (a) poor soil condition (b)
poor adaptation (c) cool weather (d) different kind of livestock
2. The problems associated with pasture production are the following except (a) management (b)
poor adaptability of the species (c) incompatibility of the species (d) absent of weeds
3. The following are forage grasses except (a) tropical kudzu (b) guinea (c) bahama (d) elephant
4. Each of these is a leguminous pasture except (a) Centrosema pubescens (b) Arachis hypogeal
(C) Peuraria phaseoloides (d) Eleusine indica
5. Elephant grass is generally propagated through (a) layering (b)root cutting (c) seeds (d) leaf
cutting
THEORY
1. State the steps you would take in the establishment of a pasture
2. Discuss five factors that affect the productivity of a pasture
WEEK: 8 DATE: …………………………
TOPIC : RANGELAND MANAGEMENT


1. explain the meaning and Importance of Range land/Pasture
2. state the characteristics of range land
3. explain the factors that affect the level of Production of Herbage
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The students were taught the meaning of pasture and forage crops
CONTENT: 1.Meaning and Importance of Range land/Pasture

2. Characteristics of Range Land
3. Common Grasses of Livestock in Range Land
4. Factors Affecting the Level of Production of Herbage
5. Methods of Range Land and Pasture Improvement
SUB-TOPIC 1:
Meaning and Importance of Range land/Pasture:
The term Range Land is used to describe a predominantly herbaceous plants community. It
affords extensive grazing pasture for animals like cattle, sheep and goats.
Definition: Range Land can be defined as an extensive area of land covered by grasses, legumes
with some tree, shrubs and herbs where animals (ruminants) can graze or browse freely.
Range land is any extensive area of land that is occupied by native herbaceous or shrub vegetation
which is grazed by animals.
It is an expanse of land suitable for livestock to wander and graze on.
Natural Pasture is also referred to as natural grass land or range land.

Artificial Pasture: This is also referred to as established or sown pasture. In this pasture, grasses
and legumes are deliberately planted and managed by man to be fed on by livestock.
Improved Pasture: Natural pasture or range land can be improved by addition of some farming
activities such as irrigation, reseeding, fertilizer application, weeding etc. so as to make it better
and functional for livestock that feed on them.
IMPORTANCE OF RANGELAND
a. Range land is a source of food for livestock especially ruminants
b. They provide cheap quality feed for animals, since most of the pasture grow naturally
c. Free range allows exercises for animal body aiding good muscles development
d. Animals have access to varieties and high quality forage, ensuring balanced feed for animals
e. Range land reduces run-off and soil erosion by increasing infiltration and percolation of water
f. Grasses and legumes in the range land can be cut and preserved as hay or silage for future
use
g. Most forages are medicinal and are used in the manufacture of drugs and chemicals.
h. Dry grasses and straws are good source of bedding materials in animal husbandry. They can
also be used as roofing materials for building and fence.
EVALUATION:
1.Define Range Land.
2.Mention five importance of range land to the livestock.
SUB-TOPIC 2:

CHARACTERISTICS OF RANGELAND:
a. They have high quality of grasses, legumes and herbage are contained in a good range land.
b. The grasses, legumes and herbage have high regenerative ability after being fed by animals.
c. It withstands trampling by animals.
d. It contains no planted or sown species of plant but naturally grown species.
e. They contain wide varieties of grasses, legumes, herbs, browse plant.
f. New growth stimulated by burning.
g. It is unstable and naturally changing grass land.
Common Grasses Of Livestock In Rangeland:

Common Name Botannical Name
Bahama grass (Cynodon dactydon)
Elephant grass (Pennisetum purepureum)
Carpet grass (Axonopus compressus)
Giant star grass (Cynodon plactostachyus)
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum)
Northern gamba (Andropogon gayanus)
Southern gamba grass (Andropogon tectorum)
Spear grass (Imperata cylindrical)
Paddocking: This is the act of dividing the pasture with fence into sections. It allows rotational
grazing, thereby allowing some section of the pasture to rest and regenerate.
is also referred to as natural grass land or range land.
Common Name Botanical Name

Centro (Centrosema pubescens)
Calopo (Calopogonium mucunoides)
Mucuna (Mucuna utilis)
Tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides)
Stylo (Stylosanthes gracilis)
Sun hemp (Crotolaria juncea)
Bahama grass Centrosema Elephant grass

N. gamba grass Giant star grass Mucuna
Factors Affecting the Level of Production of Herbage

1. Rainfall fall: Rain is needed for the continuous growth of grasses and legumes. Rainfall
helps to dissolve nutrients and make it available to pasture plants
2. Grass and Legumes mixture in pasture or range land : The mixture of grasses and legumes
in the pasture must blend such that the legumes helps to increase the soil fertility for rapid
growth of the grasses
3. Grazing: The range or pasture must be carefully planned to ensure adequate grazing by
animals.
Rotational grazing should be adopted to provide opportunity for the grazed plants to
regenerate. Overgrazing is a condition whereby there are too many animals on a piece of
grass land feeding on the herbage, this should be avoided
4. Soil fertility: It is important that the range land has a fertile soil to enhance production of
herbage plants
5. Shade Trees: As much as possible, reduce the number of shady trees as it prevent grass and
legumes to receive adequate sunlight
6. Control of Weeds: For herbage plants to improve their productivity weeds must be removed
from pasture regularly since they compete with herbage plants for nutrients
EVALUATION:
1 (a) State five characteristics of rangeland.
b. List 5 common grasses of livestock in a range land
2. Enumerate 5 factors affecting the level of production of production of herbage
SUB-TOPIC 3. METHODS OF RANGELAND AND PASTURE IMPROVEMENT

To ensure the continuous availability of grasses and legumes, it is necessary to adopt some
management principles that would lead to the improvement of rangeland and pasture. Such
principles includes
(1) Controlled Stocking: This refers to the situation whereby the correct numbers of animals are
allowed to graze a particular area of land. An adequate stocking rate should be maintained as
overstocking could lead to deterioration of the range land.
(2) Reseeding: This involves replanting of seeds of forage crops on a depleting rangeland when
animals have grazed a lot on a rangeland, the crops may start to show signs of dying off then
reseeding become necessary. The farmer should improve on the range by broadcasting new seeds
and allowing the range land to rest. Reseeding is most beneficial where rotational grazing is
practiced.

(3) Legume and Grass Mixture: Legume and grasses should be introduced if absent on the
range land e.g star grass, carpet grass, guinea grass and legumes like Centrosema, Stylosanthes
and Pueraria species. Once established the grass legume mixture must be well maintained.
(4) Weed Control: Effective weed control helps to reduce spread of diseases and pest on the
range land. More nutrients are available to the forages when weeds are effectively controlled.
(5) Bush Burning: Controlled burning of pastures every third year just before the end of the
season especially in the northern guinea savanna should be carried out. This will encourage
accelerated re-growth of the pasture and also enrich the top soil. Burning check pest e.g tick.
Ash which supply potassium to the soil is provided.
Inedible weeds are eliminated over mature grasses and legumes are removed to allow for fresh
edible plant
(6) Paddocking: This is the act of dividing the pasture with fence into sections. It allows rotational
grazing, thereby allowing some section of the pasture to rest and regenerate.
(7). Fertilizer Application:

Fertilizer can be broadcasted to allow enough foliage formation for grazing and silage preparation.
This can be done once every year.
(8). IRRIGATION: Range land or improved pasture can be irrigated especially during the dry
season to ensure all year round production availability.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following practices is not a method of improving range land?
(a) Rotational grazing (b) removal of weeds (c) reseeding (d) overgrazing (e)
irrigation
2. Livestock are said to feed on the range land when they eat
(a) Fresh herbage of the milking parlour (b) fresh herbage directly from the pasture
(c) Harvested herbage in a stall (d) preserved herbage in form of silage (e)
straws from the feeding stalls
3. The following are common grasses in the rangeland except
(a) Panicum maximum (b) Calopogonium mucunoide (c) Cynodon dactylon
(d) Imperata cylindrical (e) Andropogon gayanus
4. A large expanse of land where natural forage is allowed to grow for graze is called
(a) range land (b) orchard (c) plantation (d) farmland (e) cultivated pasture
5. The botanical name of Bahama grass is
(a) Cynodon dactylon (b) Axonopus comprussus (c) Panicum maximum (d)
Andropogon tectorum (e) Calopogonum mucunoide
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The common name of Cynodon dactydon is ___
2. ……….is the act of dividing the pasture with fence into sections
3. The botanical name of Giant star grass is ……..
4. …………is also referred to as natural grass land.
5. The replanting of seeds of forage crops on a depleting rangeland is known as ………..

WEEK: 9 DATE: …………………………
TOPIC: AQUACULTURE
1. define aquaculture and its importance
2. state the different Types of Aquaculture
3. explain fishing Methods and Tools
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The teacher shows the students a fish for proper understanding

CONTENT: 1. Meaning and Importance of Aquaculture
2. Different Types of Aquaculture
3. Sitting of Fish Farm and its Regulation
4. Fishing Methods and Tools
SUB TOPIC 1:
Meaning and Importance of Aquaculture
The term fish is applied to a variety of cold-blooded, water-dwelling (aquatic) animals that belong
to the phylum Chordata. Fishes belong to four different classes consisting of bony, cartilaginous,
jawless and fleshy-finned fishes.
Aquaculture/Fish farming is the propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms in artificial water
bodies for commercial, recreational and scientific purposes. Aquaculture refers to both marine and
fresh water species and can range from land based to open ocean production of fish, shrimp, and
other aquatic animals.
IMPORTANCE OF AQUACULTURE
1. It is a source of protein man and livestock diets
2. It provides employment and income to farmers
3. Fishes are useful for educational purpose to students and researchers
4. It provides a means of recycling domestic waste such as animal dung
5. It serves as source of foreign exchange through exportation of fish and fish products
6. Fish oil serve as food and is also used in the manufacture of soaps
7. Fish farming encourages the economic use of land
8. it is used as tourist and entertainment
9. it can be consumed by all categories of people, since it has no religion and traditional limitation.
TYPES OF AQUACULTURE
There are different types of aquaculture. These are
(i) Fishery
(ii)Shrimps rearing
(iii) Crab rearing
(iv) Cray fish rearing
(v)Lobster rearing
(vI)Prawn rearing
(Vii)Oyster shell rearing
(viii) Marine snail rearing
(ix)Squid rearing
(x) Mussel rearing
(xi) Clam rearing
(xii)Octopus rearing
(xiii) Rearing of aquatic mammals such as whales etc
(xiv) periwinkles rearing.

Tilapia fish
FISH FARMING: This is the act of rearing selected fish species in enclosed bodies of water such
as ponds, lakes, streams, rivers for food or other useful purposes.
CLASSIFICATION OF FISH:
Classification of fish: Fish can be classified into two based on
(I) Habitat and
(II) (II) Morphology (structure).
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON HABITAT.

A .Fresh water fish: These are fishes that can successfully live and reproduce only in salt free
water such as ponds ,lakes, streams, rivers, swamps e.t.c. Examples of fresh water fish are tilapia,
cat fish, Nile perch, mud fish, moon fish, pike, carp, trout e.t.c.
B .Salt water fish: These are fishes which can live and reproduce successfully in saline (salt) water
like lagoons, oceans, and seas. Examples are: dog fish, shark , croaker, mackerel, skate, tuna, eel,
ray, e.t.c.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MORPHOLOGY

A .Bony fish: These are fishes that have the structure of their body made up of bonny skeleton e.g.
tilapia, carps, cat fish, croaker, mackerel etc:
B .Cartilaginous fish: These are fishes which have the structure of their body made up of
cartilage/soft bones e.g. dog fish, rays, shark, etc.
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR SITING A FISH POND

1. Availability of quality water
2. Soil type with a good proportion of clay
3. Vegetation

4. Topography
5. Availability of suitable fingerlings
6. Availability of high quality feeds
7. Market
8. Availability of labour
9. Security or safety of the fish
10. Location of the hatchery/pond
CONSTRUCTION OF A FISH POND

The operations that must take place during pond construction include the following:
1.Choice of a site: This depends on proximity to perennial river or stream, fertile but clayey soil,
valley with narrow neck or fairly undulated open area.
2.Survey of the site: This is the detailed survey carried out by extension workers to determine
height of the pond, volume of earth for dyke, total surface area and volume of water in the pond
3. Clearing and stumping: complete clearing and removal of stumps and root with use of machine
or manual labour
4. Construction of dam: building of concrete across a flowing stream with good quality material
e.g clay soil or hard pan
5. Construction of core trench: this is excavating the soil and using clay to fill it at the bottom.
Dyke or clay embankment is constructed round the trench. The core trench disallows water leakage
between the dyke and the original undisturbed soil
6. Impoundment: it is the filling of pond with water by using the inlet and monk-gate via gravity
or sunction using water pump and pipes.
7. Liming: application of CaCO₃ to the side and bottom of the pond to reduce acidity of pond
water and encourages microbial activities e.g growth of planktons. This is done before
impoundment. About 4 weeks should be allowed for lime materials to dry.
8. Pond fertilization: fertilizer facilitates microbial growth. It is done by pouring organic or
inorganic manure i.e poultry faeces, cow dung, NPK fertilizer or SSP (into the pond). This is done
15 days before impoundment.
9. Pond inoculation: this is the introduction of good plankton species into the pond. It is done by
pouring from plankton rich pond into a newly fertilized pond. The pond turns green later showing
abundant growth of planktons. This can be encouraged by adding fertilizer into the pond once
every week
10. Stocking of pond: it is the introduction of fingerlings or fries into the pond. Stocking density
is 2 fingerlings per square meter (2ft/m²). The fingerlings should not be poured into the pond but
allow them to swim out into the pond from the slanted container. Stocking is affected by
productivity, pond size, number of fish for stocking, availability and size of fish food and weight
of harvest expected.
11. Screen: this is act of preventing the entry of undesirable species of fish into the pond and also
to regulate the movement of fish in the pond
MAINTENACE OF FISH POND

1. Regular feeding: This should be done twice daily from selected points. Copen feed is given
regularly.

2. Deweeding: This allows dissolution of planktons and oxygen in water and also prevent build
up of pest and diseases
3. Desilting: Removal or prevention of silt from entering the pond. It ensures clean water, promote
easy movement of fish and prevent pollution of water e.g turbidity (i.e suspended solids) and
oxygen depletion.
4. Aeration: this is agitation of water through addition of fresh clean water. It facilitates dissolution
of atmospheric oxygen required for respiration. Lack of oxygen makes fish come to the surface of
water
5. Constant water supply: this is to ensure that pond is full of water
6. Control of predators: birds and snakes should be prevented from eating fish in the pond
7. Prevention of diseases: this is ensured through adequate feeding, stocking, weeding,
temperature, manuring etc
8. Liming: this involves the exposure of fish to the sun shine
this helps to correct pond acidity, leaching and enhance fertilizer effectiveness.
9. Test cropping: this is normally done to check the growth rate of the fish in order to detect any
outbreak of disease as well as food conversion rate.
10. Regular harvesting: this is to prevent over-population, outbreak of diseases and cannibalism
METHODS OF FISH HARVESTING/CROPPING

The methods used depend on the area, the gears and type of aquatic animals to be harvested or
cropped.
1. Netting: this is the use of trap, gill net, senine, drag net, cast, throw, scoop, trawl nets etc to
harvest fish in large scale
2. Trapping: this is like bird cage used to harvest fish. It contains bait to attract fish into the cage.
3. Impaling: involves the use of spears, arrows, knives, hook and line, hook-long-line to attack
and catch a particular fish
4. Electro-fishing or total fishing-it is non-selective method of fishing in which a current of
electricity is passed through the pond creating electric field that kills all the fishes in the pond.
5. Use of ultrasonic: this is the use of sound to attract fish to a particular corner of the pond where
they can be trapped or harvested using net or basket. It is non-selective as electro-fishing
6. Partial harvesting
7. Total harvesting or draining of pond
8. Use of artificial shelter
9. Use of fence
BASIC LAWS AND REGULATION OF FISHING

These are number of rules guiding exploitation and other practices against fishery resources
especially in open access water
1. Catch Quota: this allows fishermen to catch specific quantity of fish. The number of fishermen
can be reduced by using permit or license at specific amount
2.Closed season: fishing is disallowed for a given period of time. Fishing period is momentarily
close to enable younger fishes reach table size
3.Mesh size regulation: large mesh or net size may be allowed or encouraged so that only the big
or matured fishes are harvested

4.Regular stocking: this involves stocking compatible species of fish i.e the farmers should stock
surface, middle and bottom feeders at different stocking sites. Stocking at different level of water
disallows overstocking. Stock prolific species like tilapia along with carnivores i.e cat fish.
5.Population control: use of predators like cat fish to prey on the prolific species to avoid over-
population. Early harvesting ensures this as well.
6.Prevention of vessels: the first nautical mile i.e 1852 miles may be declared out of bound for
vessels or trawler except canoe
7.Ban on the use of explosives: use of explosives results in death of all living things in the pond
8.Landing tax: is introduced based on total catch and sizes of fish at landing site
9.Ban on the use of poisonous chemicals: for example poisonous chemicals is prohibited because
it results in the death of both younger and mature fishes
10.Allocation of fishing areas: fishermen are allocated different area for fishing to avoid
indiscriminate fishing and interference within large areas.
FISH PRESERVATION
There is a need to preserve fish after harvesting because they are highly perishable. The flesh of
fish begins to deteriorate as soon as the fish dies. There are various methods of preserving fish.
They are treated as follows
SUNDRYING: this involves the exposure of fish to the sun shine. It is the cheapest and common
method. However, they are usually contaminated with sand, dust and in some cases maggot from
flies
SALTING: This involves the use of salt to preserve fish on the surface. It prevents bacteria from
causing decay when combine with sun-drying. It can keep fish for a longer time
FREEZING AND CHILLING: Fish can be preserved in refrigerators, deep freezers, cold room.
Where there is constant power supply. Fish can be here for a long time
SMOKING: The process involves placing fish over a fire for some time where smoke is allowed
to penetrate and give it a characteristic appearance and flavor that is preferred by local people
CANNING: Fish can be canned to preserve it for a very long time. Canning involves placing the
fish in a sterile can and sealed by machine.
CONVERSION INTO FISH MEAL: This method can be obtained by drying and grinding fish
or fish waste.

FRYING: This involves frying the clean fish in its own or other oil. Fried fish can be kept for a
long time.
EVALUATION
1.Define the term fishery and state why it is important to Nigerian economy
2.State 6 fishery regulations that you have been taught and explain them
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVES
1.Control of water level in a fish pond with minimal loss of fish can be achieved with the aid of
(a)wooden panel only (b) monk and out let channel (c) screen and monk (d) wooden panel and
screen
2.Which of the following is the first operation in the establishment of fish pond? (a) construction
of dam (b) fertilization of pond (c) clearing and stumping of site (d) construction of spill way
3. The importance of fish farming includes the following except (a) discharge of waste used in the
control of pond pest (b) provision of employment (c) supply of vitamins in man’s diet (d) supply
of protein in man’s diet
4.Cow dung is usually added to a fish pond in order to encourage the growth of (a) lettuce and
cabbage (b) phytoplankton and zooplanktons (c) shallot and lilly (d) Celosia and amaranthus
5.Which of the following fishing gears can be used for total harvesting of pond? (a) hook and line
(b) capon (c) drag net () basket
THEORY
1. Enumerate 8 importance of fish framing
2. State 6 factors to be considered in siting a fish pond
(b) List 5 fishing gears
3. Describe 4 methods of harvesting fish
(b) Discuss briefly 4 fishing regulations
4. List and explain briefly 6 maintenance practices of fish pond.
5. State 4 advantages of siting fish pond in savanna area
(b) State and explain conditions which must be avoided in siting a fish pond
List five bee products and their uses
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. ……. is act of preventing the entry of undesirable species of fish into the pond
2. Fishes which have the structure of their body made up of cartilage are known as ……….
3. The processing of fish that involves the exposure of fish to the sun shine is ………..
4. ……….. helps to correct pond acidity, leaching and enhance fertilizer effectiveness.
5. …….. involves stocking compatible species of fish

WEEK 10 DATE: ……………………
TOPIC: AGRICULTURAL POLLUTION
1. define agricultural Pollution
2. state the sources of agricultural Pollution
3. explain effects of Land/Pond Pollution on farmers
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: The teacher shows the students a fish for proper understanding

CONTENT: 1. Meaning of Agricultural Pollution
2. Types and Sources of agricultural Pollution
3. Effects of Land/Pond Pollution on farmers and Agricultural Productivity
SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning and Types of Agricultural Pollution

Pollution simply means introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that
causes discomfort to the ecosystem.
Agricultural pollution refers to the introduction of harmful substances into the
environment as a result of agricultural practices. It is the totality of the contaminants present in
the environment resulting from agricultural practices.
Agricultural Pollution comprises of:
• Wastes,
• Emissions and
• Discharges arising from farm activities which may constitute nuisance to the
ecosystem.
These (discharges) include liquid pollutants such waste from garri processing industries, abattoir
wastes and gaseous agricultural wastes such as emissions from burning of farmlands. Many
agricultural practices such as fertilizer application, use of pesticides to attack plant pests,
improper animal waste disposal, etc. all these have significant contaminating effects on land and
water bodies. A wide range of contaminants produced from these practices usually find their way
into the water bodies through runoff from ground water and drainage ditches.
Types and Sources of Pollution of Agricultural Land and Fish pond

There are three major types of Agricultural Pollution
1. Atmospheric/Air Pollution: This is the introduction of chemical substances such as matters
and biological materials that are harmful to human life and other living organisms into the
atmosphere. The causes include automobile emission; Pesticide spray; smoke from burning bush,
dust raised while working, animal remains and tyres.
Sources of Atmospheric Pollution include pesticides spray, dust, vehicular and power plant
emission, burning of agricultural materials and livestock waste.
2. Water/Pond Pollution: This is the introduction of chemicals, physicals and organic matters
into the water bodies which degrade water quality and affect the organisms living in them. Water
pollutants include pesticides, heavy metals and non-degradable chemical compounds.
Sources of Water Pollution include oil spillage, erosion, refuse and sewage, agricultural wastes,
industrial effluents, drug disposal and pesticide drift
3. Land/Soil Pollution: This is the degradation of the earth’s crust through misuse of the soil by
poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial wastes dumping and indiscriminate
disposal of urban wastes.
Sources of Land Pollution are pesticide application, fertilizer waste, oil spillage, industrial
waste, erosion, refuse and sewage, mining and exploration and burning of agricultural wastes.

EVALUATION
a. What is pollution?
b. Define agricultural pollution
c. List any three common types of agricultural pollution with relevant examples.
d. Explain one of the major agricultural pollution.
Effects of Land/Pond Pollution on farmers and agricultural productivity
A. Effects of Land /Pond Pollution on Farmers/Man

1. It leads to health problems of farmers and consumers of contaminated produce
2. It renders water unfit for drinking and for domestic use
3. Consumption of contaminated food, fruits and water can lead to death
4. Exposure to some pollutants may lead to terminal diseases such as kidney failure, cancer etc
5. Inhalation of polluted gases can lead to respiratory disorder
6. Polluted sites and water may lead to displacement of workers
B. Effects of Land/ Pond Pollution on Agricultural Productivity

1. Loss of top soil
2. Inhalation of polluted gases causes respiratory disorder to farm animals
3. Direct consumption of contaminated feed and water can lead to the death of livestock
4. Soil useful organisms are destroyed as a result of indiscriminate use of chemicals
5. The quality and quantity of farm produce are affected
6. Oxygen depletion caused by increase in population of decomposers can kill aquatic organisms
7. Attempt to control agricultural pollution increases cost of production
EVALUATION
THEORY
1. What are the dangers of overuse of pesticides and fertilizers on our farmland?
2. The need to control agricultural pollution cannot be overemphasized. Assess the validity of
this statement.
OBJECTIVE
1. The following are pollutants except (a) hydrocarbons (b) oxides of nitrogen (c) oxygen
(d) smoke
2. Water pollution is caused by the following except (a) oil spillage (b) waste deposit into
the water bodies (c) vehicular emission (d) direct application of pesticide to kill aquatic
organisms.
3. Which of the following causes air pollution? (a) burning of animal bones (b) wrong use
of farm implements (c) wrong handling of affected animals (d) the use of heavy metals
4. One of the following is an effect of oil spillage (a) erosion (b) spread of dust (c) reduction
in hydrocarbon (d) death of aquatic animals

5. Inhalation of polluted gas causes (a) respiratory disorder (b) abnormal functioning of
farm animals (c) renders water unfit for consumption (d) causes cholera
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. Examples of sources of water pollution are …………….
2. The degradation of the earth’s crust through misuse of the soil by poor agricultural
practices is known as ………
3. Application of pesticide, fertilizer waste, oil spillage, industrial waste, erosion, refuses
result into ….pollution
4. ………refers to the introduction of harmful substances into the environment as a result of
agricultural practices.
5. The introduction of contaminants into a natural environment is refers to as ……….
REFERENCES
1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.
2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.
3. Essential Agricultural Science for Senior Secondary School by O.A Iwena Tonad Publishers
Ltd
4. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press
Ibadan.

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©Deeper Life High School. 2023

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TOPIC: Classification of Crops

SUB TOPIC 1: Meaning of Crop

Classification of crops based on uses

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1. What do you understand by a crop?

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SUB TOPIC 3: Classification of crops based on Morphology

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4. Crops that belong to Poaceae family are known as …………………

WEEK: 2 DATE: …………………………

TOPIC: HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS

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DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT

METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Maize is propagated by seed (sexual)

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF MAIZE

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VARIETIES: These are

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1. Maize belongs to the family…….

WEEK: 3 DATE: …………………………

TOPIC: HUSBANDRY OF SELECTED CROPS

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METHOD OF PROPAGATION: Propagation is by seed planted either directly or first in nursery

SOIL REQUIREMENT: It does best in a rich drained loamy soil.

PLANTING DATE: Early September to October

SEED RATE: 5-10kg of seeds/ha

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HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

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VARIETIES: These are Amelonado, Amazon and Criollo,

CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENT: Cocoa plant requires temperature of 17ºC-21ºC.

SPACING: Spacing in nursery is 20cm by 20cm while in the field is 3m by 3m.

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HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND STORAGE

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SUB TOPIC 3: Oil palm-Elaeis guineensis

VARIETIES: These are:

METHODS OF PROPAGATION: by seed

SEED RATE: 120-150/ha

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HARVESTING AND STORAGE

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IMPORTANCE OF OIL PALM

PESTS OF OIL PALM

DISEASE OF OIL PALM

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helps in activating essential enzymes it causes weak slender