BIOLOGY SS2 1ST TERM E-NOTES (Reviewed)

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2023
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SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

Revision of SS 1 work Revision of work done within the first, second and
1 third term of SS 1
Digestive System I (a) Types of Alimentary Tracts

2 (b) Description and functions of parts of the
alimentary canal
(c) Modifications of alimentary canal (i)
Modification of parts to effect their digestive
functions.
Digestive System II (d) classification of mammals based on their diet

(e) Feeding habits: (i) filter feeders (ii) fluid feeders
3 (iii) insect feeders (iv) parasitic and saprophytic
feeders (f) feeding in protozoa, hydra and
mammals (g) feeding mechanisms (h) Mammalian
teeth
Transport System I (a) introduction to transport system (b) media for

transportation (c) Need for substances to move
4 over greater distances (d) Materials for
transportation (e) Structure of arteries, veins,
capillaries, vascular bundles (f) transport system in
plants and animals
Transport System II (g) circulatory systems (h) Mechanism of

transportation: (i) Unicellular organisms (ii)
Multicellular organisms (iv) Higher animals (v)
5 Higher plants (i) Absorption of water and mineral
salt (a) Definition of diffusion and osmosis and
principle behind them (b) Need for diffusion
Respiratory System (a) Types of respiratory systems: (i) Body surface

respiration (ii) Cutaneous respiration (iii) Gills (iv)
6 tracheal system (v) lungs (b) Mechanism of
respiratory system in: (i) Higher animals (ii) Lower
animals (iii) plants (c) Mechanisms of gaseous
exchange through the stomata of plants.
7 MID-TERM BREAK MID-TERM BREAK

Excretory systems I (a) introduction to excretory systems: (i)
8 Contractile vacuoles (ii) Flame cells (iii) Malpighian
Tubules (iv) Kidney (v) other excretory organs in
mammals (vi) Stomata and Lenticels.
Excretory system II (b) Excretory Mechanism in: (i) Earthworm (ii)

Insects (iii) Mammals.
9
10 Nutrient cycle in nature (i) carbon cycle (ii) oxygen cycle
11 Revision Revision
12 Examination Examination
13 Examination Examination
WEEK: 1
TOPIC: REVISION OF SS1 FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD TERM WORK
LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
i. answer questions drawn from the SS1 first term examination and work
ii. answer questions drawn from the SS1 second term examination and work
iii. answer questions drawn from the SS1 third term examination and work
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have knowledge on all topics taught within the first, second and third term.
SUB-TOPIC 1: REVISION OF SS1 FIRST TERM WORK

CONTENT:
The teacher projects the question for the students as they are called to pick the correct answers to each question.
Students are asked to answer random questions to see if they have imbibed the correct concept of each question.

Students answer all questions appropriately.
SUB-TOPIC 2: REVISION OF SS1 SECOND TERM WORK

CONTENT:
SUB-TOPIC 3: REVISION OF SS1 THIRD TERM WORK

CONTENT:

WEEK: 2
TOPIC: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
LESSON OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
I. define digestion and digestive system

II. describe with appropriate illustrations different types of alimentary tracts
III. state the function of each part in human alimentary canal
IV. list and describe the types of alimentary tract
V. explain the various modifications and function of each part of these alimentary tracts.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have knowledge of Nutrition from SS 1 topic.
SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF ALIMENTARY TRACTS

CONTENT:
Digestive System, series of connected organs whose purpose is to break down, or digest, the food we eat. Food is
made up of large, complex molecules, which the digestive system breaks down into smaller, simple molecules that
can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The simple molecules travel through the bloodstream to all of the body's cells,
which use them for growth, repair, and energy.
All animals have a digestive system, a feature that distinguishes them from plants. Plants produce their own food in a
process called photosynthesis, during which they use sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into simple sugars.
But animals, including humans, must take in food in the form of organic matter, such as plants or other animals.
DIGESTION
Digestion is the breaking down of complex food substances into simple, soluble and diffusible form by mechanical and
chemical means.
Digestion generally involves two phases: a mechanical phase and a chemical phase. In the mechanical phase, teeth or
other structures physically break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces. In the chemical phase, digestive
chemicals called enzymes break apart individual molecules of food to yield molecules that can be absorbed and
distributed throughout the body. These enzymes are secreted (produced and released) by glands in the body.
ALIMENTARY CANAL
This is a tubular passage between the mouth and the anus, including the organs through which food passes for
digestion and elimination as waste. The alimentary canal is also called the digestive tract or gut.
In most holozoic animals, digestion and absorption of food take place in the alimentary canal or gut. A simple
unicellular animal does not have an alimentary canal.
TYPES OF ALIMENTARY TRACT

There are different types of alimentary tracts in animals. However, there is no definite alimentary canal in plant. This
includes:
1. Intracellular alimentary tract: this is a digestion that takes place inside the cell, within a food vacuole. E.g.
unicellular organism like amoeba
2. Extracellular alimentary tract: this is a type of digestion that occur in multi-cellular organisms. The mouth
opens into a sac-like gut cavity where food is digested. E.g. Hydra.
3. Simple alimentary tract for simple digestion of food. E.g. Birds.
4. Compartmentalised alimentary tract by ruminants for digestion of cellulose. E.g. ruminants like cow.
5. Complex Human alimentary tract; a long tube stretching from the mouth to the anus. Most of it is coiled up
in the abdominal cavity. It is divided into several regions: mouth, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines. Each
region plays a role in the digestion and /or absorption of food.
PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap
1. The __________ alimentary tract is a single, continuous tube that runs from the mouth to the anus,
including the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine.
2. The __________ tract is present in some animals, such as birds and reptiles, and consists of two separate
openings: one for ingesting food and another for expelling waste.
3. The __________ tract is found in animals like cows and other ruminants. It includes a specialized stomach
with multiple compartments for digesting plant material through microbial fermentation.
4. In insects, the alimentary tract consists of the __________, which is responsible for storing and softening
food, and the midgut and hindgut for digestion and absorption.
5. Some animals, like earthworms, have a __________ alimentary tract with specialized segments for
different functions, such as swallowing, digestion, and absorption.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

ii. define Digestion
iii. list and explain the types of Alimentary tracts
iv. enumerate the parts of the Alimentary canal in Man
SUB-TOPIC 2: DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

CONTENT:
PARTS OF THE MAMMALIAN ALIMENTARY CANAL
A typical mammalian alimentary canal consists of the following parts, namely: mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, rectum and anus. All these parts can be found in most vertebrates. However, there are modifications
of the parts of the alimentary canal in various, animals. In some animals, a structure may be reduced or enlarged, while
in others, some parts may be absent. The modifications reflect the various modes of feeding and types of diet.
DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE MAMMALIAN ALIMENTARY CANAL
Mouth and Teeth: In higher animals especially in human, the incisors, canines, premolar and molar are teeth used to
masticate the food into particles which expose it to large surface area for the action of the enzymes. Digestion starts
in the mouth.
Tongue: the tongue tastes the food, helps in the movement of the food in the mouth to allow turning and mixing of
the food with saliva and in forming food into bolus to allow swallowing.
Saliva: The saliva lubricates the food, allows easy chewing or movement of food in the mouth for swallowing, forms
solvent for food, contains enzyme-ptyalin which digests cooked starch to maltose and is slightly alkaline which is
medium for action of ptyalin. The chewed food in the mouth is then swallowed.
Pharynx: it next to the mouth. In some animals, such as the earthworm and Planaria, it is muscular. In man it is short
and wide. The pharynx leads to the trachea and the oesophagus. It is used for passing food materials into the
oesophagus or gullet.
Oesophagus/gullet: this is a narrow, straight, long, tube passing through the thoracic region and the diaphragm into
the stomach. Digestion does not take place here. But it is used for passing food substances into the stomach by a
wave-like muscular contraction and relaxation called peristalsis. This type of movement occurs throughout the human
alimentary canal. Chewed food is passed to the stomach by peristaltic movement of the oesophagus.
Stomach: In some animals, the lower part of the oesophagus may be modified to form the crop as in insects and birds.
These are storage organs for the food consumed.
The stomach is primarily a storage organ. But in most mammals, it is very muscular and digestion continues in it. In
birds, insects and grasshopper and earthworm, the stomach modified into a grinding organ called gizzard. The gizzard
is normally muscular with small sharp stones which masticate the food before it is further digested in the intestine.
Hence, gizzard is possessed by some vertebrates e.g. birds and some invertebrates e.g. insects and earthworms which
lack teeth in their mouth. Ruminants stomach are modified into four chambered or compartments namely rumen,
reticulum, psalterium and abomasums.
The stomach, located in the upper abdomen just below the diaphragm, is a saclike structure with strong, muscular
walls. The stomach can expand significantly to store all the food from a meal for both mechanical and chemical
processing. The stomach contracts about three times per minute, churning the food and mixing it with gastric juice.
This fluid, secreted by thousands of gastric glands in the lining of the stomach, consists of water, hydrochloric acid, an
enzyme called pepsin, and mucin (the main component of mucus). Hydrochloric acid creates the acidic environment
that pepsin needs to begin breaking down proteins. It also kills microorganisms that may have been ingested in the
food. Mucin coats the stomach, protecting it from the effects of the acid and pepsin. About four hours or less after a
meal, food processed by the stomach, called chyme, begins passing a little at a time through the pyloric sphincter
into the duodenum, the first portion of the small intestine.
In human, the wall of the stomach secretes gastric juice. This contains hydrochloric acid which prevents the food in
the stomach from being decay and two enzymes-rennin and pepsin. Rennin curdles milk, while pepsin converts
protein in the food into peptones. Food may remain in the stomach for 3-4hours at the end it is converted to a semi-
liquid paste called chyme. Note that food is regulated into the stomach from the gullet by a muscle called cardiac
sphincter, while chyme is regulated to the small intestine by another muscle called pyloric sphincter.
1. The process of chewing food and breaking it down into smaller particles is called __________.
2. The muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach is known as the __________.
3. The __________ is a small, sac-like structure located near the beginning of the large intestine and is involved in
the storage of bile.

4. Bile produced by the liver is stored and concentrated in the __________ before being released into the small
intestine.
5. The first part of the small intestine, where most digestion and nutrient absorption take place, is called the
__________.

1. Describe the role of the mouth in the digestive process.
2. Describe the general arrangement of the viscera of a named mammal
3. State three differences between the alimentary canals of earthworm and cockroach
SUB-TOPIC 3: HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

CONTENT:
SMALL INTESTINE:
Most digestion, as well as absorption of digested food, occurs in the small intestine. This narrow, twisting tube,
about 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter, fills most of the lower abdomen, extending about 6 m (20ft) in length. Over a period
of three to six hours, peristalsis moves chyme through the duodenum (first section of the small intestine) into the
next portion of the small intestine, the jejunum, and finally into the ileum, the last section of the small intestine.
A watery residue of indigestible food and digestive juices remains unabsorbed. This residue leaves the ileum of the
small intestine and moves by peristalsis into the large intestine, where it spends 12 to 24 hours. The large intestine
forms an inverted U over the coils of the small intestine. It starts on the lower right-hand side of the body and ends
on the lower left-hand side. The large intestine is 1.5 to 1.8 m (5 to 6 ft) long and about 6 cm (2.5 in) in diameter.
During this time, the liver secretes bile into the small intestine through the bile duct. Bile breaks large fat globules into
small droplets, which enzymes in the small intestine can act upon. Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas, enters
the small intestine through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that break down sugars and
starches into simple sugars, fats into fatty acids and glycerol, and proteins into amino acids. Glands in the intestinal
walls secrete additional enzymes that break down starches and complex sugars into nutrients that the intestine
absorbs. Structures called Brunner’s glands secrete mucus to protect the intestinal walls from the acid effects of
digestive juices.
The small intestine’s capacity for absorption is increased by millions of finger-like projections called villi, which line
the inner walls of the small intestine. Each villus is about 0.5 to 1.5 mm (0.02 to 0.06 in) long and covered with a single
layer of cells. Even tinier finger-like projections called microvilli cover the cell surfaces. This combination of villi and
microvilli increases the surface area of the small intestine’s lining by about 150 times, multiplying its capacity for
absorption. Beneath the villi’s single layer of cells are capillaries (tiny vessels) of the bloodstream and the lymphatic
system. These capillaries allow nutrients produced by digestion to travel to the cells of the body. Simple sugars and
amino acids pass through the capillaries to enter the bloodstream. Fatty acids and glycerol pass through to the
lymphatic system.
THE LARGE INTESTINE:

The large intestine serves several important functions.

I. It absorbs water—about 6 liters (1.6 gallons) daily—as well as dissolve salts from the residue passed on
by the small intestine.
II. In addition, bacteria in the large intestine promote the breakdown of undigested materials and make
several vitamins, notably vitamin K, which the body needs for blood clotting.
III. The large intestine moves its remaining contents toward the rectum, which makes up the final 15 to 20
cm (6 to 8 in) of the alimentary canal. The rectum stores the faeces—waste material that consists largely
of undigested food, digestive juices, bacteria, and mucus—until elimination. Then, muscle contractions in
the walls of the rectum push the faeces toward the anus. When sphincters between the rectum and anus
relax, the faeces pass out of the body.
A Section of the large intestine

The human digestive system consists of a series of organs and structures that help break down food and absorb
nutrients for use throughout the body. Food enters the digestive system through the mouth and passes through the
oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and rectum. Other organs, such as the liver, further aid in the
breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients, and elimination of undigestible materials from the body.
Four-Chambered Stomach
Ruminant animals, including sheep, domestic cattle, goats, deer, and giraffes, have four-chambered stomachs.
1. The inner lining of the small intestine is covered with finger-like projections called __________, which
greatly increase the surface area for absorption.
2. Pancreatic juices contain enzymes that help break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in the
__________ of the small intestine.
3. The main function of the __________ in the large intestine is to compact and solidify feces by absorbing
additional water.
4. The __________ is a muscular ring-like structure that separates the small intestine from the large intestine,
helping to regulate the passage of material between the two.
5. Gut microbiota in the __________ participate in the fermentation of undigested carbohydrates and the
production of certain vitamins.

1. What is the purpose of the pyloric sphincter?
2. Compare and contrast the functions of the duodenum and the ileum in the small intestine.
3. Discuss the importance of villi and microvilli in the small intestine.
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: multiple Choice Questions
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following is not an adaption of the small intestine for absorption of digested food? The A. Villi
are well supplied with blood and lymph vessels B. Villi are numerous and thin-walled C. Small intestine has large
surface area D. Small intestine leads into the large intestine.
2. The organ located in the mammalian abdominal cavity just below the diaphragm and lying on top of the
stomach is the A. bladder B. intestine C. liver D. pancreas
3. The pancreatic duct opens into the A. caecum B. colon C. ileum D. duodenum
4. The enzyme that acts on milk in the stomach is A. invertase B. trypsin C. diastase D. rennin
5. Which of the following statements is true? A. Ptyalin acts on proteins to give amino acid B. Lactase acts on
maltose to give amino acid C. Pepsin acts on proteins to give peptide D. Peptide acts on starch to give maltose
6. The organs constantly in touch with the liver are A. pancreas, colon and caecum B. duodenum and stomach C.
ileum, stomach and colon D. Stomach and gall bladder.
7. In mammals, digested food is absorbed in the A. stomach B. ileum C. colon D. duodenum.
8. The break-down of food into simple, soluble and absorbable end-products is termed A. Absorption B. Ingestion
C. Nutrition D. Digestion
9. Which of these organs can be considered vestigial in humans but functional in other mammals? The A. liver B.
appendix C. rectum D. stomach
10. Which of the following juices contains the enzyme ptyalin? A. Gastric juice B. Pancreatic juice C. Succus D.
Saliva.
11. One of the is not a part digestive system of man (a) gizzard (b) teeth (c) saliva (d) duodenum (e) oesophagus.
12. After about three to four hours the food is converted to (a) rennin (b) chyme (c) pepsin (d) polypeptide (e)
pepsinogen.
13. The hormone that converts glucose to glycogen is called (a) eosin (b) adrenalin (c) insulin (d) oestrogen (e)
mucin.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The finger-like projections on the inner lining of the small intestine that increase surface area for nutrient
absorption are called __________.
2. The final part of the large intestine, responsible for storing and eliminating indigestible materials from the body,
is known as the __________.
3. The ring-like muscular valve that separates the small intestine from the large intestine is called the __________.
4. Gastric juices in the stomach contain hydrochloric acid and __________ enzyme, which begins the digestion of
proteins.
5. The last segment of the small intestine, responsible for absorbing water and electrolytes, is called the
__________.
6. The first part of the large intestine, the __________, receives material from the small intestine and is involved in
the absorption of water and electrolytes.
7. The __________ is a blind-ended tube connected to the cecum, and while its exact function isn't fully
understood, it's believed to play a role in immune system health.
8. The __________ is the last segment of the small intestine and plays a crucial role in water absorption and
electrolyte balance.
9. The first part of the small intestine, known as the __________, receives chyme from the stomach and is
responsible for further digestion and nutrient absorption.
10. The main function of the __________ in the large intestine is to compact and solidify feces by absorbing
additional water.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in details the functions of the duodenum.

2. Write two functions of the hydrogen chloride in the stomach
3. Sketch annotated diagram of the alimentary canals of man.
4. Trace the path of food through the small intestine.
5. Describe the structure and function of the pancreas in digestion.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

1. DIGESTION - Digestion refers to the process of breaking down complex food molecules into simpler forms that
can be absorbed and used by the body. This process involves both mechanical and chemical actions, where enzymes
play a crucial role in breaking down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats into their respective building blocks.
2. INGESTION - Ingestion is the act of taking in food and liquids into the body through the mouth. It is the first step in
the process of nutrition, where food is introduced into the digestive system for further processing and absorption.
3. ASSIMILATION - Assimilation is the process by which the nutrients and substances derived from digested food are
absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells throughout the body. These nutrients are then used for
energy, growth, and repair.
4. ABSORPTION - Absorption is the uptake of digested nutrients, water, and other substances from the digestive
tract into the bloodstream or lymphatic system. This process occurs primarily in the small intestine, where the
absorbed substances are transported to various cells and tissues for utilization.
5. EGESTION - Egestion, also known as excretion or elimination, is the process of removing indigestible or unusable
materials from the body. This includes the elimination of undigested food residues and waste products from the
digestive tract through the anus in the form of faeces.

PUZZLES / BRAIN TEASER:
(Each topic should be enriched with worked examples, images, past WAEC SSCE/NECO SSCE / BECE JSCE questions.)
HLGIJNMQDIGESTION
NKAPSLTUAMUAOWOFL
DKRGOPHEESAUGEAAT
GALLBLADDERPEANYU
EKLHAOLAMIRPNANGD
ANLCNSVILLIPTIOFL
IJCERTTSGITUAOTAN
SCJEEESPHAGUSCTSI
TELLERKRTSRADOWOO
IRTSNGUDLRBEGLUNH
VJMRIITNDCRCICULL
TMASACGEHDCOVENCK
IADSLEKUALUTDNAIK
LLEVOUFWAODOTAUCK
SEOICTNRERILWNRRC
INSPIRATIONAL QUOTES:
"Character is much easier kept than recovered." - Thomas Paine
"Whoever is careless with the truth in small matters cannot be trusted with important matters." - Albert Einstein
"Real integrity is doing the right thing, knowing that nobody's going to know whether you did it or not." - Oprah
Winfrey

WEEK: 3
TOPIC: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM II
i. Classify mammals based on their diet
ii. List and explain the various feeding habits
iii. Define and explain the terms Dentition and Dental formula
iv. Give the dental formula for the classes of mammals.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have been taught the function of each part of human alimentary canal. Students have
eaten various foods and know foods go through the mouth. Students are asked to swallow sputum and observe the
movement in their gullet
SUB-TOPIC 1: CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS BASED ON THEIR DIET

CONTENT
I. Herbivores
These refer to all the animals that are plant-eating. Examples include grasshoppers, goat, cow, Grass cutter etc.
They all feed on low vegetation such as grass. Giraffes and elephants feed on taller plants or shrubs. Herbivores
such as rabbits and guinea pigs use very sharp incisors to cut shoots or browse, feed on roots and bark. Other
animals like antelopes, cows and goats pull up grass using the lower front teeth and pad on the front of the upper
jaw. The pad is called Diastema. Some herbivores such as elephant use a specialised organ (the trunk) to pull leaves,
bark and branches off trees.
II. Carnivores
These are animals that feed majorly on flesh or bones and other animals. They are referred to as the primary
consumers. Some examples are fishes which eat aquatic insects and other fishes, toads and reptiles (Snakes, lizards,
wall gecko), cats, dogs, and lions. Mammalian carnivores are characterized by well-developed dentition, large canines
and a pair of carnassial teeth. These are adapted to stabbing their prey, cutting and crushing meet and bones.
III. Omnivores
Omnivorous animals are animals that feed on both plants and animals, cooked and uncooked food. Some of the
examples include, man, wild boar, bush and domestic pig, and the domestic fowl.
Scavengers are animals that feed on the remains of dead animals are called scavengers e.g. Vultures.

1.Some herbivores, such as rabbits and guinea pigs, use sharp __________ to cut shoots and browse.
2. Antelopes, cows, and goats pull up grass using their lower front teeth and a pad called __________.
3. Herbivores like elephants use a specialized organ called the __________ to pull leaves, bark, and branches
off trees.
4. Carnivores are adapted to stabbing, cutting, and crushing their prey using their specialized __________.
5. Omnivorous animals consume both __________ and __________.

1. What distinguishes carnivores as primary consumers in the food chain?
2. Write short note on each of the following; Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores and Scavengers
3. Explain the significance of the term "omnivores" in the context of human dietary habits.
SUB-TOPIC 2: FEEDING HABITS AND FEEDING MECHANISMS

CONTENT:
There are various modification among the alimentary systems of some animals so far considered, suggest that the
parts are modified according to the type of food they eat. It has also been discovered that there is a close relationship
between feeding mechanism and the diet of each organism.
Based on the modification on the feeding habits of organisms, we have the following;
i. Filter feeding, and

ii. Fluid feeding adaptations in animals
iii. Saprophytic
iv. Parasitic feeding in animals and plants.
i. Filter Feeders
Some aquatic organism feed on some tiny microscopic organisms (planktons) in their habitat. A great number of them
are gathered, filtered and consumed at the same time, from the surface of the water. Typical examples of filter
feeders include; water fleas, (Daphnia), mosquito larvae, fish such as herring, and molluscs such as oyster, and
mussels. Water containing suspended plankton enters the mouth of the animal e.g. herring. Water passes between
the gill rakers to the gills. Oysters and clams draw water into their shells and trap food particles on the muscles
covering their gills.
ii. Fluid Feeders

Fluid feeders are organisms that can only feed on soluble or fluid food materials from the body fluid of other animals
or plants, or convert solid food into a liquid form before ingesting it. Examples of fluid feeders are bees, wasps, aphids,
housefly, mosquito, tsetse fly, and butter fly. The house fly has a proboscis which is flattened its anterior end. This
consists of numerous food channels called pseudo- tracheae. Whenever the fly is prepared to feed, it extends its
proboscis and saliva is passed down salivary duct via the pseudo tracheae on to the food.
The adult female anopheles mosquito feeds on blood. It has mouth parts which are modified into a tube like a
hypodermic needle. It pierces the skin of a blood capillary; saliva containing an anti-coagulant is passed down the
hypopharynx into the capillary. This prevents the blood from coagulating when it is sucked up by the tubular labrum.
Many other insects bite and/or chew their food. Examples are the ants, beetles, cockroach, locust, caterpillar, termites,
and weevils. Most of these are crop pests as were taught in your Basic classes.
Orchid Bees
The orchid bee is one of the most brilliantly coloured insects, and may appear metallic green, blue, purple, gold, or
red. A close relative of the bumblebee, it has a long tongue that allows it to reach nectar deep inside tropical flowers.
It is found in tropical and subtropical regions of the western hemisphere.
iii. Saprophytic Feeders
These are organisms which obtain their food materials from dead or decaying food materials or dead organic matters.
They non-green plants and therefore cannot carry out photosynthesis. Typical examples include: many fungi, e.g.
mushroom, mucor or rhizopus, penicillum and yeast as well as some bacteria. The rhizoids penetrate into the dead
organic matter or substrate, and excrete enzymes into it, and digestion occurs extra-cellularlly. The digested food; a
soluble end products diffuse into the rhizoids and from there to the other parts of the plants.

Structure of a Fungus
Fungi are made of filamentous tubes called hyphae. In many species, perforated walls, or septa, divide the hyphae
into cells containing one or two nuclei. Protoplasm flows through the opening in the septa to provide the cells with
nutrients, which are stored in the hyphal walls as glycogen. Hyphae elongate from the tip. The entire mass of hyphae
is collectively called the mycelium.
IV. Parasitic feeders
In parasitic feeding, parasites are plants or animals which live and feed on or in other organisms and harm the hosts
at the end. Parasites which live outside the body or the surface of their hosts are called ectoparasites e.g. tick, mites,
lice and flaes. These live the skin, or hairs of mammals. Those parasites which feed and live inside their hosts are called
endoparasites e.g. tapeworm, roundworm etc.
There are four modifications and mechanisms of feeding associated with some organisms. They include
i. Absorbing mechanism
ii. Biting (cutting) chewing
iii. Piercing and sucking
iv. Trapping and absorbing
i. Absorbing mechanism
Organisms that use this mechanisms has no mouth and alimentary canal, hence food is digested food is absorbed
through its entire body surface from the intestine of its host. E.g. tape worm, it attaches its self to its host through
hooks and suckers..
ii. Biting (cutting) chewing

Organisms with this mechanism have four different mouth parts adapted for biting and chewing. These mouth parts
include:
a. Labrum or upper lip
b. Labium or lower lip
c. Mandibles
d. Maxillae
Examples of such organisms are cockroach and grasshopper.
iii. Piercing and sucking

Organisms that possess this mouth parts have different modifications which enables them to adapt to feeding on food
through mechanism of sucking. E.g. mosquito and butterfly possess proboscis for piercing and sucking. For mosquito,
the mouth parts altogether forms a strong Stylet. Housefly possess labella for sucking. It has the ability to convert
solid food to liquid by secretion of saliva on the solid food.
iv. Trapping and absorbing
This is common among plants that feed on insects. They are called insectivorous or carnivorous plants. E.g.
bladderwort, sundew, Venus flytrap, pitcher plant.
Pitcher Plant
Pitcher plants, found throughout the tropical and temperate regions of the world, are insectivorous plants, using
specially modified leaves to capture and consume insects. Pitcher plants usually grow in poor soils and rely on the
captured insects for added nutrition.

Venus’s-Flytrap
The two lobes of a Venus’s-flytrap leaf form a deceptively safe and attractive landing place for insects and other
animals. Less than a second after the frog trips the trigger, bristles on the inside surface of the leaf, the lobes close
enough to trap the intruder below interlocking spines. If sensory organs determine that the prisoner contains
protein, the leaf closes further, and the plant’s digestive enzymes start to flow.
1. Parasites that live inside their hosts are called __________, like tapeworms and roundworms.
2. Digestion in saprophytic feeders occurs __________, with digested food diffusing into the rhizoids.
3. The house fly has a flattened proboscis with food channels called __________.
4. Water containing suspended plankton enters the mouth of the animal and passes between the __________
to the gills.
5. Oysters and clams draw water into their shells, trapping food particles on the muscles covering their
__________.
6. Organisms with the biting (cutting) chewing mechanism possess four different mouth parts adapted for
__________ and __________.
7. List the four mouth parts that are part of the biting (cutting) chewing mechanism: a. __________, b.
__________, c. __________, d. __________.

1. Provide examples of insectivorous or carnivorous plants that employ the trapping and absorbing
mechanism. Describe how these plants attract, capture, and digest their prey.
2. Give examples of ectoparasites and explain where they live on their hosts.
3. Describe what fluid feeders are and provide examples of organisms that fall into this category.

SUB-TOPIC 3: FEEDING IN MAMMALS
CONTENT:
Mammals feed on different types of food materials. They are often classified according to the food they eat. Thus, we
have herbivores- plant eaters; carnivores-flesh eaters and omnivores- plant and animal eaters.
Each group of mammals has a peculiar type of dentition related to its diet even though mammals generally have
heterodont dentition. They have incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Each tooth has a different shape and
function. In human, there are two sets of teeth, namely: temporary or milk teeth and permanent teeth. The formal
are used at childhood (6months to 6-8years) while they replaced by permanent teeth at old age
MAMMALIAN TEETH
The type of teeth possessed by a mammal is related to the type of food it eats. The number, arrangement and
conformation of teeth in an organism are referred to as its dentition. When all the teeth are the same shape and size
as in fishes, amphibians and reptiles it is called homodont dentition. When they differ in shape as in dogs, man and
rabbits it is heterodont dentition.
Mammals usually have four different types of teeth namely the incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Man has two
sets of teeth during his lifetime; the milk teeth when young and the permanent teeth when mature. There are 20 milk
teeth and 32 permanent teeth.
Types of Teeth
1. Incisors – These are flattened, chisel-like with a sharp edge for cutting and holding onto the food/prey. They
are located in the front of the jaw.
2. Canines – These have sharp, pointed tips and are used for tearing flesh. They are next to the incisors.
3. Premolars – These have broad ridged surfaces called cusps. They are used for grinding and chewing food. They
are located towards the back of the jaw.
4. Molars – These also have broad, ridged surfaces and are used for chewing and grinding food. They are found
at the extreme back of the jaws.
Adult teeth
Dental Formula
This refers to the number, type and arrangement of teeth in one half of each jaw.

Example in;
(i) Man; I 2/2 ; C 1/1 ; PM 2/2 ; M 3/3
(ii) Dog; I 3/3 ; C I/I ; PM 4/4 ; M 2/3
(iii) Rabbit; I 2/1 ; C 0/0 ; PM 3/2 ; M 3/3
Structure of a Tooth
A typical tooth has three parts; the crown, the neck and the root. The crown is the part above the gum. The root is
embedded in the jaw and the neck is the part on the same level with the gum, it is the narrow junction between the
crown and root.
The incisors and canines have one root each while the premolars and molars have two or three roots each.
A TYPICAL TOOTH
In the centre of the tooth is a pulp cavity which contains blood vessels and nerves that make extremely sensitive to
heat, cold and pain. The dentine, a hard bone-like material, encloses the pulp. The enamel, a white, hard material
covers the dentine, protecting it and the pulp within. At the root region a thin layer of cement covers the dentine. The
cement is surrounded by the periodontal membrane, a fibrous tissue that fixes the tooth into the jaw bone.
The tooth is not rigidly fixed but can move slightly while biting and chewing. A hole at the tip of each root allows blood
vessels and nerves of the pulp to be connected to those of bones and gums. This ensures a continuous flow of blood
supply to the tooth and keeps the tooth alive. However, the supply of blood is not sufficient for the tooth to grow.
This type of teeth is known as closed teeth.

Dental care
Tooth decay caused by bacteria and fermentation of carbohydrates that get stuck in the teeth can be prevented by;
1. Practicing regular oral hygiene
2. Eating balanced diet containing enough vitamin, phosphorus and calcium.
3. Eating hard, fibrous fruits after each meal.
4. Avoiding sweet food, very hot and very cold.
5. Visiting a dentist regularly.
1. Mammalian teeth located at the front of the mouth are called __________ and are used for cutting and
biting.
2. The arrangement and types of teeth in mammals are referred to as their __________ pattern.
3. Carnivores tend to have well-developed __________ for tearing and slicing through flesh.
4. The __________ is the hard outer layer of the tooth that protects the sensitive inner parts.
5. __________ are specialized teeth in mammals that grow continuously throughout their lives, helping
them cope with wear from grinding.

b. Define the terms (a) dentition (b) dental formula
c. State four ways of caring for your teeth
d. Name four types of teeth in mammals or human.
CONCLUSION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The teeth used for tearing and cutting are A. canine and molars B. premolar and incisors C. molar and incisors D.
canine and incisors
2. Which of the following organisms is well adapted for fluid feeding? A. Cockroach B. Mosquito C. Grasshopper D.
Ants
3. Organisms that feed essentially on plants with any ecosystem may be referred to as A. carnivores B. herbivores
C. saprophytes D. omnivores
4. Analysis of the gut content of an animal showed that it contained small pieces of bone, seeds, roughage and
insects. The animal is likely to be a/an A. carnivore B. herbivore C. insectivore D. omnivore.
5. An herbivore cannot feed on a piece of meat because it has no A. incisors to cut the meat B. canines to tear up
the meat C. premolars to grind the meat D. molars to mash the meat
The diagrams below are illustrations of the dentition of an organism. Study them and answer questions 6 to 8.
6. The dentition belongs to a. A. rabbit B. cat C. frog D. man

7. The function of the teeth labelled X is for. A. biting and grasping. B. chewing and grinding. C. tearing and
grasping. D. chewing and tearing
8. The teeth which are absent in the young of the organism are labelled A. W. B. X. C. Y. D. Z.
9. Which of the following mammalian structures is structurally adapted for grinding flesh (a) Canine (b) Incisor (c)
Molar (d) Diastema (e) Carnassial tooth.
10. One of these is not a fluid feeders (a) oyster (b) mosquito (c) bees (d) house fly (e) tsetse fly.
11. Hydra catches food with the aid of the ---------- (a) tentacle (b) cilia (c) pseudopodia (d) nematocysts (e)
plasmagel.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The study of teeth, their structure, function, and evolution, is known as __________.
2. Pointed and sharp __________ teeth are used for tearing and gripping food.
3. The premolar teeth, also known as bicuspids, have flat surfaces and are used for __________ and grinding
food.
4. Trapping and absorbing feeding mechanism is commonly found in __________ that feed on insects.
5. How do houseflies convert solid food into liquid before ingestion? They secrete __________ on the solid
food to achieve this.
6. Provide examples of organisms that utilize the biting (cutting) chewing mechanism for feeding:
__________ and __________.
6. The house fly has a flattened proboscis with food channels called __________.
7. The adult female anopheles mosquito feeds on blood using mouth parts modified into a tube-like
__________.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. What is heterodont dentition?

2. The two sets of teeth are --------- and --------.
3. What type of feeding found in hydra?
4. Discuss briefly feeding in protozoa.
5. Make a large well labeled drawing of a tooth.

1. DIASTEMA - Diastema refers to the space or gap between two teeth, especially in mammals. In certain animals,
such as herbivores, the presence of diastema allows for better separation and manipulation of food during chewing.
2. CARNASSIAL TEETH - Carnassial teeth are specialized teeth in carnivorous mammals, especially in the order
Carnivora, that are adapted for shearing and slicing through flesh. These teeth are well-developed and used for
efficiently cutting through meat. The carnassial teeth are usually the last upper premolar and the first lower molar
teeth.
3. MYCELIUM - Mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus. It consists of a network of thread-like structures called
hyphae, which collectively form the body of the fungus. Mycelium is responsible for absorbing nutrients and water
from the environment and is typically found underground or within the substrate where the fungus grows.
4.HYPHAE - Hyphae are the thin, thread-like filaments that make up the body of a fungus. These structures
collectively form the mycelium of the fungus. Hyphae are responsible for absorbing nutrients from the surrounding
environment, and they play a crucial role in the growth and reproduction of fungi.

I am a type of tooth that is sharp and pointed, Used for tearing and gripping, I'm well-appointed. In carnivores, I play
a significant role, When it comes to capturing and controlling my goal.
What am I?
"The greatness of a man is not in how much wealth he acquires, but in his integrity and his ability to affect those
around him positively." - Bob Marley
"Integrity is choosing courage over comfort; choosing what is right over what is fun, fast, or easy; and choosing to
practice our values rather than simply professing them." - Brené Brown
"Integrity is the essence of everything successful." - R. Buckminster Fuller

WEEK: 4
TOPIC: TRANSPORT SYSTEM 1
1. expatiate the inadequacy of diffusion alone as a transport system for complex organisms
2. describe the necessity of a transport system in complex organisms
3. identify source of materials and where they are transported to
4. discuss the different types of transportation media such as cytoplasm, cell sap, lymph and blood.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have been taught Osmosis and Diffusion from SS 1 topic. Students are asked to place
two fingers on the upper part of their wrist to feel their heartbeat and determine the number of heart beats per
minute.
SUB-TOPIC 1: NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION

CONTENT:
NEED FOR TRANSPORTATION

i. It aids in the removal of metabolic waste e.g. carbon dioxide, water and urea
ii. It helps to move hormones in plants and animals from where they are produced to areas of need.
iii. It helps transport essential materials in organisms for metabolic process e.g. nutrients, oxygen and water.
iv. In plants, transport is necessary to move mineral salt and water from the root to the stems and leaves.
MATERIALS THAT ARE TRANSPORTED IN ANIMALS

The materials transported in animals include:
i. Water
ii. Digested foods (vitamins, amino acids, mineral salts, fatty acids ,glycerol)
iii. Gases (oxygen, carbon-dioxide)
iv. Excretory products (urea, carbon-dioxide, excess salt)
v. Hormones (adrenalin, insulin, oestrogen etc.) and other materials.
vi. Antibodies
MATERIALS THAT ARE TRANSPORTED IN PLANTS

These include:
i. Water
ii. Manufactured food
iii. Excretory products
iv. Hormones
v. Mineral salts
vi. Oxygen
1. Excretory products like urea, carbon dioxide, and excess salt are also transported in animals. True or False?
2. Antibodies are among the materials that are transported in __________.
3. Water and manufactured food are examples of materials transported in __________.
4. Transportation aids in the removal of metabolic waste such as __________, __________, and __________.
5. One of the roles of transportation is to move hormones from where they are produced to areas of
__________.

1. Discuss the role of antibodies in animals and explain how their transportation contributes to the immune
response.
2. How do plants use hormone transportation to regulate growth, development, and responses to
environmental cues?
3. List 3 materials transported in plants and 3 materials transported in plants
SUB-TOPIC 2: MEDIA OF TRANSPORTATION

CONTENT:
In all organisms, a liquid or fluid is the medium of transportation of materials. It includes blood, lymph and tissue fluid
in most animals; latex or cell sap in many plants and cytoplasmic fluid in small organisms such as protozoan, protists
and coelenterates.
Some of the media of transportation include:
1. Blood and lymph in the vertebrates.

2. Cytoplasm in unicellular organisms.
3. Cell sap or latex in most plants.
4. Body fluid in vertebrates.
5. Closed and open circulations.
NEED FOR SUBSTANCE TO MOVE OVER GREATER DISTANCES

Following the explanation, because small organisms have large surface area to volume ratio, the movement of
materials in and out of them can be done efficiently by diffusion. In multicellular organisms with a small body surface
relative to their large volume, diffusion is inadequate for the exchange of metabolic materials within their body and
between them and their external environment. This is because large quantities of nutrients and waste products have
to be transported over long distances to and from their numerous body cells.
In order words, as the SA/V ratio in multicellular organisms decrease with increasing sizes, the rates at which
substances diffuse into and out of their cells decreases. Hence, most multicellular organisms have developed transport
system. The transport system in animals is very similar to the city transport or water system. There is orderliness, and
everything is highly organized.

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN LARGE ORGANISMS
In large and more complex organisms, transport system is necessary because;
1. The ratio A/V diminishes, and so the rate at which nutrients and other substances diffuse decreases. This implies
that small organisms have large surface area in relation to their volume (i.e., per unit of volume) than large
organisms. This could be illustrated by considering three cubes of 1mm, 6mm, and 10mm. Using, Ratio = SA/V. You
will discover that the ratio of the smallest cube is =6unit, followed by 1unit, and 0.6unit respectively.
2. Substances have to move greater distances.

In plants, materials for transportation include; water, mineral salts, manufactured food and carbon (IV) oxide.
Materials for transport in animals include; digested food, vitamins, mineral salts, oxygen, carbon (IV) oxide, urea, salts,
hormones, water and antibodies.
1. In plants, transportation is necessary to move mineral salt and water from the __________ to the stems
and leaves.
2.Water and dissolved minerals are transported in plants through specialized __________.
3. The two main types of vascular tissues in plants are xylem and __________.
4. Oxygen is transported by binding to a molecule called __________ in red blood cells.
5. __________ is responsible for carrying carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs for exhalation.

1. List three media of transportation.
2. Describe the four components of the blood.
3. State four need for transportation
SUB-TOPIC 3: COMPONENTS AND FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
CONTENT:
The mammalian blood comprises four main components;
I. Plasma
II. Red corpuscles
III. White corpuscles
IV. Platelets.
I. Plasma: The plasma is a pale yellow liquid made of mainly of water (about 90%), with many substances dissolved in
it. These include digested food, mineral salts, vitamins, hormones, dissolved oxygen and excretory products such
as urea and carbon (IV) oxide. The plasma also contains large molecules, the plasma proteins, such as fibrinogen,
which assist in the clothing of blood in damaged tissues.
II. Red corpuscles or erythrocytes: They are tiny, biconcave, disc-like cell without any nucleus in adult mammals. They
contain a red pigment-haemoglobin, a protein that contains iron. This enables the red blood corpuscles to readily
combine with oxygen in area of high oxygen concentration (i.e., the alveoli of lungs) to form oxyhaemoglobin. This
is the form in which oxygen is carried to all body tissues. They also readily give oxygen in places where the oxygen
concentration is low (e.g., all the tissues except those near the alveoli). Erythrocytes are synthesised in the red
bone marrows of sternum, ribs and vertebrae. There are about 51/2 million of them in a cubic centimetre of blood.
They live for about 120 days and are destroyed in the liver or spleen.
Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, are the primary carriers of oxygen to the cells and tissues of the body. The biconcave
shape of the erythrocyte is an adaptation for maximizing the surface area across which oxygen is exchanged for
carbon dioxide. Its shape and flexible plasma membrane allow the erythrocyte to penetrate the smallest of capillaries.
III. White corpuscles or leucocytes: There are many types of white corpuscles all of which have nuclei. They are made
in the red bone marrow, the lymph node or the spleen. They live for many months. Those that are irregular in
shape, i.e., the phagocytes, are commonest. They are large with lobed nuclei. Like the Amoeba, they have
pseudopodia and are able to pass through the walls of the capillaries into the tissue fluid. In the lymphatic system,
they ingest bacteria, virus and dead cells, and help in preventing diseases. The ingestion of materials is called
phagocytosis and hence such white corpuscles are called phagocytes. Those that produce antibodies are called
lymphocytes and are produced in the lymph glands. They produce chemicals called antibodies, which stick to the
surface of germs and kill them. White corpuscles are fewer than the red corpuscles. There are about 5000 of them
in a cubic millimetre of blood.

Lymphocyte
Scanning electron micrograph of a normal T lymphocyte. Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells whose
function is to identify and destroy invading organisms such as bacteria and viruses. Some T lymphocytes directly
destroy invading organisms, whereas other T lymphocytes regulate the immune system by directing immune
responses.
IV. Platelets: These are tiny, irregularly-shaped particles formed in the red bone marrow. They lack nucleus. In
damaged tissues, they break down and liberate an enzyme, which catalyses the first of a series of reactions,
fibrinogen, a blood protein, is converted to threads of fibrin, which form a mesh that plugs the wound. This stops
the bleeding.
Thrombocytes and Clotting

Thrombocytes, or platelets, are the smallest cellular component of blood. They circulate inactivated, about
250,000 per cubic mm of blood, until they come into contact with a damaged blood vessel. At this point,
the platelets form a clump, adhering to each other and to the blood vessel wall. They secrete chemicals
that alter a blood-borne protein, fibrinogen, so that it forms a mesh of fibres at the damage site. A clot
forms when platelets and red and white blood cells become trapped in the fibres. Blood clotting begins
within seconds of injury. The same process can produce unwelcome clots in undamaged blood vessels.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD
There are several functions performed by the mammalian blood. These functions are grouped into three viz:
1. Transport:
(i). It carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon (IV) oxide from the tissues to the lungs for excretion.
(ii). It carries digested foods from the gut to the various parts of the body.
(iii).it carries nitrogenous waste products from the tissues to the kidneys, which get rid of them.
(iv). It carries hormones and antibodies from one part of the body to another.
2. Protection:
(i). It protects the body from the attacks of germs, which cause diseases, by killing germs.
(ii). It protect the body from excessive bleeding, by clotting when a body tissue is cut or wounded
3. Regulation:
(i) It helps to regulate the quantity of water in the tissues (osmoregulation).
(ii) It helps to regulate the quantities of the various chemical materials in the tissue (homoeostasis).
(iii) It helps to keep the body temperature fairly constant by distributing heat evenly around the body.
In small organisms like Amoeba, and paramecium, cytoplasm which is fluid part of the organism is used for
transportation of food and other materials in and out of the organisms.
In many plants, the medium of transportation of materials is the latex or cell sap. The cell sap is made up primarily of
water, dissolved materials like synthesised foods, growth substances and inorganic salts. The sap is transported to all
the parts of a plant through the phloem tissue. Different plants have latex (cell sap) of different colours. For example,
the latex of rubber plant cassava (manihot) is white. A few plants have red or colourless latex.
PRACTICE EXERCISE: (5 fill in the gap question per subtopic, 3 short answer questions)
1. One of the primary functions of blood is to transport __________, nutrients, and hormones to different parts
of the body.
2. These cells, also known as __________, are responsible for carrying oxygen from the lungs to the body
tissues.
3. Cells involved in the immune response and defense against infections are called __________.
4. Small cell fragments responsible for blood clotting are known as __________.
5. Red blood cells contain __________, a protein that binds to oxygen for transport.

1. List three media of transportation.
2. Describe the four components of the blood.
3. Explain haemorrhage
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. In unicellular organisms, essential nutrients can be transported directly to all parts of their body by the process of
diffusion only because unicellular organisms have A. a large surface area to volume ratio B. a large volume to surface
area ratio C. permeable cell membrane D. outer membrane made of cellulose
2. Which of the following explains the need for transport system in large mammals? A. The area to volume ratio in
large animals is high B. The area to volume ratio diminishes with large size C. Diffusion as an adequate means of
transport is lacking D. Large animal have internal fluid which contains different types of cells
3. Which of the following is the medium of transportation of nutrients within unicellular organisms? A. Blood B.
Serum C. Protoplasm D. Plasma
4. Higher organisms use a transport system and not diffusion only to distribute nutrients because A. the ratio of their
surface area to volume is small B. metabolic waste products diffuse to the surface of the organisms C. the rate at

which nutrients and other substances diffuse increases D. substances to be transported move shorter distances to
reach the numerous cells
5. Which of the following is correct about the transverse section of a vein, when compared with that of an artery? A.
the lumen of a vein is wider than that of an artery B. the endothelium of the vein is thinner than that of an artery C.
there are more smooth muscles in a vein than in an artery D. there are valves in veins but not in arteries
6. Reason why the flow of blood through the capillaries is very slow is A. because the walls of capillaries are very
thin. B. to avoid high blood pressure. C. to ensure that the individual does not get dizzy. D.to allow adequate time for
exchange of materials.
7. Which of the following features is not characteristic of arteries? Arteries A. possess valves at intervals throughout
their length B. have thick, muscular and elastic walls C. carry blood away from the heart D. transport oxygenated
blood with the exception of the pulmonary artery.
8. Blood pressure is higher in the arteries as a result of A. stress B. contraction and relaxation C. blockage in the
arteries. D. presence of valves
9. Diffusion is most effective in living organisms, when the surface area is (a) large and the thickness is also large (b)
small while the thickness is large (c) large while the thickness is small (d) the same as its thickness
10. The medium in which dissolved nutrients are transported in the body of vertebrates is called (a) latex (b) urine
(c) cell sap (d) blood
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. __________ is responsible for carrying carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs for exhalation.
2. __________, a type of white blood cell, plays a crucial role in the immune response.
3. Nutrients such as glucose are transported in the blood as a source of __________ for cells.
4. Xylem cells are responsible for conducting water and minerals from __________ to other parts of the plant.
5. Phloem cells transport organic nutrients like sugars through a process called __________.
6. __________ pressure is responsible for pushing sugars from sources to sinks in phloem.
7. Blood plays a crucial role in maintaining __________, a stable internal environment.
8. __________ are responsible for defending the body against pathogens and foreign substances.
9. Blood plays a role in __________ by carrying waste products to the kidneys and lungs for elimination.
10. Blood clotting is essential to prevent excessive bleeding and promote wound __________.
11. The liquid component of blood is called __________ and contains various dissolved substances.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
4. Explain briefly four factors that affect the diffusion of substances

5. State the features of red blood cells and how these features adapt the cell to perform its functions
6. Explain briefly why a disease of the blood could be dangerous
7. A sample of human blood was put in a test tube and allowed to spin in a centrifuge. The components of the
blood sample were clearly separated. (a) list the four main components of blood that would be in the test
tube (b) Name the components of blood that: (i) would form the top layer in the test tube (ii) destroys
pathogen (iii) is biconcave in shape (iv) would be relatively low in a haemophilic condition (v) is produced in
the bone marrow (vi) is a thrombocyte (vii) is nucleated
8. Explain briefly the following terms: (i) blood transfusion (ii) antigen

BLOOD – Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates throughout the body, delivering essential substances such
as oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and immune cells to various tissues and organs.
HAEMOGLOBIN – Hemoglobin is a protein found in red blood cells that is responsible for binding with oxygen in the
lungs and carrying it to the body's tissues. It gives red blood cells their characteristic red color and enables efficient
oxygen transport. Hemoglobin also plays a role in transporting a small amount of carbon dioxide and regulating the
pH of the blood.

Across:
1. The liquid component of blood that contains various dissolved substances.

2. Red blood cells are responsible for carrying this gas from the lungs to the body tissues.
3. These cells are involved in the immune response and defense against infections.
4. A protein found in red blood cells that binds to oxygen for transport.
5. Small cell fragments responsible for blood clotting.
Down:
1. One of the primary functions of blood is to transport nutrients and __________ to different parts of the
body.
2. Blood plays a role in maintaining a stable internal environment, also known as __________.
3. These cells defend the body against pathogens and foreign substances.
4. Blood clotting is essential to prevent excessive bleeding and promote wound __________.
Feel free to fill in the answers and enjoy solving the puzzle!
"The only limit to our realization of tomorrow will be our doubts of today." - Franklin D. Roosevelt
"Life isn't about waiting for the storm to pass, it's about learning how to dance in the rain." - Vivian Greene
"Life is a journey that must be traveled no matter how bad the roads and accommodations." - Oliver Goldsmith

WEEK: 5
TOPIC: TRANSPORT SYSTEM II
I. List and explain the various types of circulatory systems found in living things.
II. Explain the different transport mechanisms in unicellular and multicellular organisms.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have been taught the main components of the mammalian blood.
SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF CIRCULATIONS AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
CONTENT:
Circulatory system is the continuous flow of blood around the body, involving the heart and the blood vessels.
TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

i. Open circulatory system
ii. Closed circulatory system
TYPES OF CIRCULATION
i. Single circulation
ii. Double circulation
iii. Systemic circulation
iv. Pulmonary circulation
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN HIGHER ANIMALS
As a result of the repeated contractions of the heart, the blood circulatory system (i.e., arteries, capillaries and veins)
throughout life. All mammals have double circulation. These are the systemic (body) circulation and pulmonary
circulation.
1. Systemic (body) circulation in which blood is carried from the left ventricle to all body parts except the lungs
and back to the right auricle.
2. Pulmonary circulation in which blood is carried from the right ventricle to the lungs through the pulmonary
veins.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OPEN AND CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

SN OPEN SYSTEM CLOSED SYSTEM
1. It is found in some molluscs, arthropods Found in annelids, vertebrates and some
and lower animals. invertebrates.
2. No small blood vessels or capillaries Minute blood capillaries unite the smaller arteries
connecting arteries with veins. with the veins.
3. Blood ends up in blood spaces Blood flows via the arteries, veins and capillaries.
(haemocoels) within the body.
4. Blood bathes the major organs and Fluids with nutrients reach the body tissues from
tissues directly. the capillaries as tissue fluids and lymph.
5. Blood returns directly to the heart. Blood returns to via the veins.
TRANSPORT TISSUES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS
Tissues used for transportation are

i. Arteries,
ii. Capillaries,
iii. Veins, and
iv. Vascular bundles (in plants)
Structure of Arteries
i. All Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body tissues, except pulmonary arteries
ii. These are wide vessels that generally transport blood from the heart to the limbs and organs.
iii. There is one artery to each of the organs of the body.
iv. They are muscular, thick walled and elastic and are able to withstand the high pressure caused by the heartbeat.
v. The arteries branch in the organs to form arterioles.
vi. The arterioles also branch repeatedly to form a network of blood capillaries, which permeate every living cell of
the body.
Structure of Capillaries
i. These are tiny vessels with very thin walls, which are often one cell thick.
ii. Their walls allow water and dissolved substances, except proteins, to pass in and out of them.
iii. The capillaries branch within the tissues.
iv. Through their thin walls, dissolved food and excretory products are exchanged with the tissues around them.
v. The capillaries network is so dense that no living cell is far from food and oxygen supplies.
vi. The capillaries re-join to form veins.
vii. Through the capillaries network, blood flows from the arterial end to the venous end.
Structure of Veins
i. All veins carry de-oxygenated blood from the body tissues to the heart, except pulmonary vein.
ii. They are wider and have thinner walls than arteries.
iii. The veins branch from the organs to form venules.
iv. They have valves at intervals, which allow blood to flow in one direction from other organs towards the heart.
Structure of Vascular Bundles

i. Vascular bundles consist mainly of xylem and phloem tissues. But in the root and stems of dicotyledons, a layer
of cambium cells exist between the xylem and phloem tissue.
ii. Xylem transports water and mineral salts while Phloem translocate manufactured food from the leaves to
where it is stored.
iii. Vascular bundles are found in the roots, stems and leaves of flowering plants.
iv. Vascular tissues are grouped together in bundles within the plant body.
v. The vascular tissues of plants are made up of a network of long tubes called vascular bundles.
vi. They are called veins in the leaves.
1. Single circulation is a type of circulation where blood flows from the heart to the __________ and back to
the heart.
2. Double circulation involves both __________ and __________ circulation in mammals.
3. In pulmonary circulation, blood is carried from the right ventricle to the __________ through the
pulmonary veins.
4. In open systems, blood ends up in blood spaces known as __________ within the body.
5. Fluids with nutrients reach body tissues as tissue fluids and __________ in closed circulatory systems.

1. Write short note on: Arteries, veins and capillaries.
3. List five materials for transportation.
4. Explain surface area to volume ratio.
SUB-TOPIC 2: THE MAMMALIAN HEART

CONTENT:
The human heart is a hollow, pear-shaped organ about the size of a fist. The heart is made of muscle that rhythmically
contracts, or beats, pumping blood throughout the body. Oxygen-poor blood from the body enters the heart from
two large blood vessels, the inferior vena cava and the superior vena cava, and collects in the right atrium. When the
atrium fills, it contracts, and blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the ventricle
becomes full, it starts to contract, and the tricuspid valve closes to prevent blood from moving back into the atrium.
As the right ventricle contracts, it forces blood into the pulmonary artery, which carries blood to the lungs to pick up
fresh oxygen. When blood exits the right ventricle, the ventricle relaxes and the pulmonary valve shuts, preventing
blood from passing back into the ventricle. Blood returning from the lungs to the heart collects in the left atrium.
When this chamber contracts, blood flows through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. The left ventricle fills and
begins to contract, and the mitral valve between the two chambers closes. In the final phase of blood flow through
the heart, the left ventricle contracts and forces blood into the aorta. After the blood in the left ventricle has been
forced out, the ventricle begins to relax, and the aortic valve at the opening of the aorta closes.

BLOOD VESSELS
Blood vessels circulate blood through the body. The three major types of blood vessels are the arteries, veins, and
capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, while veins carry blood toward the heart. Capillaries form at the
junction between arteries and veins and they are the only blood vessel to come into direct contact with tissue cells.
Oxygen, nutrients, and other substances transported in blood through the arteries pass through thin capillary walls
into tissue cells. Wastes and other products of cellular metabolism pass from cells back through the capillary walls and
into veins. The walls of arteries and veins are composed of three tunics (layers) that surround a central opening called
a lumen, through which blood flows. The innermost layer is the tunica intima, composed of endothelial cells that form
a slick lining that minimizes friction as blood moves through the lumen. The middle layer is the tunica media. Composed
of smooth muscle cells and sheets of elastic tissue, this layer enables the lumen to narrow or widen to regulate blood
flow in the body. The tunica adventitia forms a protective outer layer of the blood vessel wall and it also anchors the
blood vessel to surrounding structures.
Blood Vessels
1. In plants, the main transport tissue responsible for carrying water and minerals from roots to other parts is
called __________.
2. Xylem is composed of two types of cells: vessel elements and __________.
3. Unlike xylem, phloem contains specialized cells called __________, which are responsible for loading and
unloading sugars.
4. The process of transporting sugars from sources to sinks in plants is called __________.
5. __________ are the smallest blood vessels and are involved in the exchange of substances between blood
and body tissues.

1. Write short notes on the following:
i. Renal artery
ii. Hepatic vein
iii. Mesenteric artery
iv. Iliac vein
v. Coronary artery
vi. Intercoastal artery
vii. Carotid vein
viii. Sub-clavian artery
ix. Pulmonary vein
x. Gonadial artery
2. In a tabular form state five differences between arteries and veins.
3. Draw and label the longitudinal section of human heart.
SUB-TOPIC 3: MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION

CONTENT:
In many multicellular animals, materials are transported from one part of the body to another in a circulatory system.
There are two main circulatory systems in animals, namely open and closed systems. In the open circulatory system,
the blood vessels leave the heart but end up in blood spaces called haemocoels within the body. The blood comes in
contact with the body cells after which it is sent back to the heart; example is found in arthropods and in some
molluscs.
In the closed circulatory system, blood is restricted to branching blood vessels. Through them, blood is pumped to the
body by one or more hearts. This is found in the annelids and vertebrates. In unicellular organisms, such as spirogyra,
nutrients, gasses and metabolic wastes move in and out of their body by diffusion. In a few other unicellular organisms,
such as paramecium, food substances in food vacuoles are carried along a specific route by a process called cyclosis.
In vascular plants (pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), there is a circulatory system in which materials
are carried to and from all body parts. The circulatory system consists of vascular tissues, which is a system of narrow
tubes. Plants that have vascular tissues are called vascular plants. The vascular tissue consists of compact strands
called vascular bundles. Each bundle consists of the xylem near the stem centre and the phloem towards the outer
surface of the stem. The cambium is usually found in between the xylem and the phloem in the dicotyledonous roots
and stems, and monocotyledonous plants do not have cambium. Plants also make use other mechanisms of
transportation such as root pressure, transpiration stream, and protoplasmic streaming which occur in both plants
and animals.
ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERAL SALT IN HIGHER PLANTS

Plants need sufficient quantities of many materials, which are transported in them. These include water, mineral salts
and manufactured foods. In aquatic, unicellular and simple multicellular plants, gases enter and leave their cells by
diffusion. Water enters the cells of these plants by osmosis, whereas manufactured foods and wastes are transported
by diffusion. In flowering plants, the gases are absorbed mainly through stomata in the leaves and lenticels in the
stems, whereas mineral salts are absorbed through the roots system.
Inside the plants, gases move by diffusion. They are always dissolved in water of the moist cell walls before entering
the cells. Water, mineral salts and soluble foods are transported in vascular tissues.
MECHANISM OF TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Plants generally require sufficient quantities of several minerals and other substances which are transported in
them. As discussed earlier, materials transported in plants include manufactured food, carbon dioxide, water,
oxygen, nitrogenous waste products, latex, amino acids, glucose, auxins, and mineral salts. The medium of transport
in plants is the sap or cell sap. In aquatic, unicellular, and simple multicellular plants, gases enter and leave the cells
by simple diffusion. Water enters the cells of these plants by osmosis, while manufactured food and waste products
are transported by diffusion. In multicellular plants like flowering plants, gases are mainly absorbed through the
stomata in the leaves and lenticels in the stem, while the root system absorbs mineral salts and water through
diffusion. They dissolve in the water of the moist cells before entering the cells. Water, mineral salts, and soluble
food are transported in the vascular tissues of the plant.
The vascular tissues of plants are made up of a network of long tubes called vascular bundles. A vascular bundle
consists mainly of xylem and phloem tissues. In the roots and stems of dicotyledonous plants, a layer called
cambium exists between the xylem and the phloem tissues. Hence, the vascular bundles are found in the roots,
stems, and leaves of flowering plants.
1. The Cambium Tissues: The cambium tissues are made up of narrow living cells with thin walls and dense
cytoplasm. They are capable of dividing and multiplying, thereby enabling plants to produce secondary
xylem and phloem. This results in the growth in width or girth of the stems called secondary thickening.
2. The Xylem Tissues: The xylem tissues consist mainly of dead cells with lignified cell walls. They transport
water and dissolved mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plants and provide support and rigidity
to plants.
3. The Phloem Tissues: The phloem tissues consist of thin-walled living cells with dense cytoplasm and
perforated cross walls. They transport manufactured food from the leaves mainly to other parts of the plant
for use or storage.
PROCESSES WHICH AID TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS
Transportation of materials in plants is aided by the following processes:
1. Translocation: Translocation is the movement of sugar or food materials of photosynthesis through a

network of cells called sieve tubes or phloem. This process transports manufactured food substances from
where they are produced to tissues where they are needed or stored.
2. Transpiration: Transpiration is the removal of excess water from plants into the atmosphere in the form of
water vapor. Plants lose excess water through stomata in the leaves (stomatal transpiration), lenticels in the
stem (lenticular transpiration), and the cuticle of the leaf surface (cuticular transpiration).
Conditions Affecting the Rate of Transpiration:
The rate of transpiration depends on factors such as the size of stomata pores, humidity, temperature, light, wind,
and soil water level.
Ways by which Plants can Reduce High Rate of Transpiration:
Plants can reduce high rates of transpiration through methods such as closing stomata during the day, reducing leaf
size, dropping leaves in the dry season, developing thick cuticles, having hairs on leaf surfaces, and having sunken
stomata.
Importance or Advantages of Transpiration to Plants:
Transpiration enables plants to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil, facilitates the movement of soil water,
cools the plants through evaporation, and helps remove excess water from the plants.
Definition of diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecule from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration.
It can occur in liquid, but it is faster in gaseous medium.
Some examples of diffusion living membrane are: Needs for Diffusion.

1. Absorption of nutrients, e.g. mineral salts uptake in roots.
2. Exchange of gases in the cells or tissue e.g. Oxygen and Carbon (IV) oxide exchange through the stomata.
3. Materials transport within the cells
4. Excretion of waste product e.g. diffusion of carbon (IV) oxide into the alveoli.
Principle of Diffusion
Graham’s law of diffusion states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the
density.
Hence, lighter gases can diffuse through heavier gases, e.g. hydrogen sulphide has diffused through air.
Significance of diffusion.
When molecules are unevenly distributed in the cell, diffusion tends to equalize the distribution.
Definition of Osmosis
Osmosis on the hand is directly opposite diffusion. It is defined as the movement of solvent molecules (usually water)
from a solution of lower concentration to a more concentrated solution through a differentially permeable or semi-
permeable membrane in order to maintain an ionic equilibrium. Osmosis is therefore a special form of diffusion.
Thus osmosis may be defined as the net movement of water from area of low D.PD. or higher water concentration
through an area of high D.P.D. or low water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
D.P.D.: Diffusion pressure deficit, this may be defined as difference in water potential on both sides of the semi-
permeable membrane.
Some examples of osmosis in living membrane (Living Cells) are:

1. Absorption of nutrients or uptake of nutrients or water.
2. Plasmolysis of cells or shrinking of cells in hypertonic solution.
3. Turgidity of cells.
4. Haemolysis of red blood cells/bursting of animal cells in hypotonic solutions.
In osmosis, water moves into a stronger solution (the sugar solution in (E) through a living material which acts as a
semi-permeable membrane.
Examples of Osmosis in Plants: Needs for Osmosis.

1. Water absorption by the roots.
2. Plasmolysis of plant cells.
3. Movement of water from one cell to another in plants.
4. Maintenance of turgor pressure in plant cells.
5. Opening and closing of stomata.
Examples of Osmosis in Animals

1. Re-absorption of water by kidney tubules.
2. Haemolysis and crenation of red blood cells.
3. Osmo-regulation in Amoeba and Paramecium.
4. Maintenance of shape of mammalian cells in the surrounding tissue fluid.
Significance of Osmosis: Osmosis is concerned with the transport of materials between cells.
1. Transpiration is the loss of water vapor from __________ through tiny openings called stomata.
2. The cohesion and adhesion of water molecules within the xylem vessels create a phenomenon known as
__________.
3. Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of particles from an area of __________ concentration to an area
of lower concentration.
4. Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion involving the movement of __________ molecules through a
selectively permeable membrane.
5. In osmosis, water molecules move from an area of __________ solute concentration to an area of higher
solute concentration.

1. Describe the changes that take place in the composition of human blood as it passes through the
(i) Lungs (ii) Liver (iii) Kidneys (iv) Small intestine
2. List four diseases associated with the blood
3. What is transpiration and name three types of transpiration
CONCLUSION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The bicuspid valve is located between the A. left auricle and left ventricle B. aorta and the left ventricle C.
superior vena Cava and the inferior vena cava D. right auricle and the superior vena cava
2. The pulmonary artery carries A. deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs B. oxygenated
blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. C. oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the right auricle D.
deoxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the right auricle
3. The pulmonary vein carries A. oxygenated blood from right ventricle to the lungs B. oxygenated blood from
the lungs to the left auricle C. deoxygenated blood from the lungs to the right auricle D. oxygenated blood
from the lungs to the right auricle
4. Which of the following adapts the aorta to the high pressure of the blood from the heart? A. Thin walls B.
Fragile membrane C. Thick elastic walls D. Stiff walls
5. Oxygenated blood from the lungs is carried to the left auricle of the heart through the A. pulmonary vein B.
pulmonary artery C. hepatic portal vein D. renal portal vein
6. Which of the following blood vessels carries oxygenated blood into the heart? A. Pulmonary vein B. Anterior
vena cava C. Pulmonary artery D. Aorta
7. Which of the following statements about the circulation of blood is not correct? A. Deoxygenated blood
flows in the heart through the vena cava B. Blood is pumped out of the heart through the aorta C.
Oxygenated blood from the lungs is carried to the left auricle D. Ventricles contract to pump blood into the
aorta
8. A difference between the auricle and the ventricle of the mammalian heart is that the A. ventricles carry
deoxygenated blood B. ventricles do not have outlets C. auricles have no valves D. Walls of the ventricles are
more muscular than that of the auricles
9. The vessel that carries blood from the heart to the lungs is called an artery because it A. contains oxygenated
blood B. contains more blood than the other vessels C. carried blood away from the heart D. has thick inelastic
wall
10. Which of the following heart structures is best adapted to cope with double circulation? A. One auricle and
one ventricle B. Two auricles and one ventricle C. Two auricles and partially divided ventricle. D. Two auricles
and two ventricles
11. Which of the following statements about transport system is false? (a) large organism, large surface area (b)
small organism ,small surface area (c) small organism large surface area to volume ratio (d) large organism,
large surface area to volume ratio (e) small organism, small surface area to volume to volume ratio.
12. Which of the following structures are not associated with the mammalian heart? (a) Auricles and Ventricles (b)
Semilunar valve (c) Spleen and cardiac sphincter (d) Arteries and Veins (e) Chordae tendineae.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The movement of water and minerals in xylem is driven by a process called __________.
2. __________ are small openings on the surface of leaves that regulate the exchange of gases and water
vapor.
3. Unlike open systems, closed circulatory systems have __________ connecting arteries with veins.
4. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while __________ carry deoxygenated blood back to
the heart.
5. Capillaries are tiny blood vessels where exchange of __________, nutrients, and waste products occurs.
6. __________ is a liquid component of blood responsible for transporting cells and dissolved substances.
7. Blood pressure is maintained by the __________ of the heart and the elasticity of blood vessels.
8. Osmotic pressure is the force exerted by the movement of water across a __________ membrane due to
differences in solute concentration.
9. Diffusion is a passive process that does not require __________ energy input from the cell.
10. The rate of diffusion is influenced by factors such as temperature, __________, and concentration gradient.

11. In cells, small non-polar molecules like __________ can easily diffuse across the cell membrane.
12. Osmosis is particularly important in the movement of __________ across cell membranes.
13. A solution with a higher solute concentration compared to the other solution is called __________.
14. In osmosis, water moves across a selectively permeable membrane to achieve __________ equilibrium.
15. Diffusion is used in medical treatments such as dialysis to remove waste products from the blood of
individuals with __________ failure.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. List four factors which affects the rate of transpiration

2. Tabulate six differences between arteries and veins
3. State two (i) similarities (ii) differences between transpiration and sweating
4. What is translocation?
5. State: (i) three differences (ii) three similarities between transport systems in flowering plants and mammals
6. Explain active transport
7. Name the main artery which transports blood to the : (i) Lung (ii) Kidney

1. CORONARY CIRCULATION – Coronary circulation refers to the network of blood vessels that supply oxygenated
blood to the heart muscle itself. These blood vessels, called coronary arteries, ensure that the heart muscle receives
the nutrients and oxygen it needs to function properly.
2. PULSE – Pulse is the rhythmic expansion and contraction of the arteries as blood is pumped through them by the
heart. It is commonly felt at various points on the body, such as the wrist or neck, and it provides information about
heart rate and rhythm.
3. SYSTOLE – Systole is the phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart muscle contracts, specifically the ventricles.
During systole, blood is pumped out of the heart and into the circulatory system. It is a key component of the
heartbeat.
4. DIASTOLE – Diastole is the phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart muscle relaxes, allowing the heart chambers
to fill with blood. During diastole, the heart is in a resting state, preparing for the next contraction (systole).

Matching Puzzle - Match the Term with its Definition:
Match the term on the left with its correct definition on the right.
1. Coronary Circulation a. Rhythmic expansion and contraction of arteries.

2. Pulse b. Phase of the cardiac cycle when the heart contracts.
3. Systole c. Network of blood vessels supplying heart muscle.
4. Diastole d. Oxygenated blood supply to heart muscle.
"There is no substitute for hard work." - Thomas Edison
"The harder I work, the luckier I get." - Samuel Goldwyn
"Hard work beats talent when talent doesn't work hard." - Tim Notke

WEEK: 6
TOPIC: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
i. List and explain the characteristics of respiratory surfaces.

ii. Describe the types of respiratory surfaces.
iii. Explain the mechanisms of respiration in lower and higher animals and in plants.
iv. Describe the mechanism of exchange of gases through the stomata of plants.
v. Draw and label some of the respiratory organs of some animals.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have been taught respiration as an important characteristics of living things. Students
have knowledge on the meaning of respiration from SS 1. Students are asked to breathe in and breathe out and
share with the class what they feel.
SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
CONTENT:
Respiratory system refers to all the parts or organs and cells responsible for respiration process that take place in the
organism.
Respiration is simply a biochemical process in which energy is liberated from food substances (mainly simple sugars)
in the mitochondria of living cells with the aid of enzymes in the absence or presence of oxygen.
The production of water, carbon IV oxide, alcohol or other organic substances is just incidental to the basic process.
Respiration is achieved through the mouth, nose, trachea, lungs and diaphragm. The system functions to obtain
oxygen for use by the body and to eliminate the carbon IV oxide. It works in conjunction with the circulatory system.
In animals, the structures associated with respiration include the following organs:
i. Body surface (amoeba, paramecium, earthworm,).

ii. Lung books (spider,)
iii. Gills (tadpole, molluscs, fish).
iv. Trachea (man, insects,)
v. Lungs (reptiles, man, birds, goat and other mammals etc.)
In plants, the stomata and Lenticels are the main respiratory structures for gas exchange by diffusion. Gas exchange
in animals depends on their respiratory medium (whether it is air or water) and the nature of their respiratory surfaces.

For aquatic animals, the respiratory medium is water, as for terrestrial animals, the medium is air. Amphibians and
some fishes use both air and water as their media of exchange.
The exchange of gases with the respiratory medium by animals is called breathing. The respiratory surface provides a
boundary between the body and respiratory medium. The cells in this surface are epithelial in nature (have thin wall)
and have large surface area. This enhances diffusion.
BODY SURFACE RESPIRATION
This is the simplest type of respiration found mainly in unicellular organisms and some multi-cellular organisms such
as Annelids (earthworms), platyhelminthes (flatworms), sponges, toads and frogs. Respiration occurs by diffusion. In
unicellular organisms, exchange of gases takes place at the respiratory surfaces. Gases are dissolved in water before
they are diffused across the cell membrane. Organisms that respire through their body surface possess moist skin. As
for breathing, it is a visible, mechanical, muscular action, which enables an animal to quicken the rate of gas exchange
between itself and its environment.
GILLS
The gill is found in large aquatic organisms such as tadpole, aquatic snails and fishes. Gills are highly branched and
vascularised, i.e., they are richly supplied with blood capillaries. Gills may be external or enclosed. External gills may
be sea slugs and amphibian larvae, whereas in enclosed gills are found in water snails and crustaceans.
How Fish Breathe

A fish breathes by absorbing oxygen from the water it drinks. Water flows into the mouth, through the gills, and out
of the body through gill slits. As water flows through the gills, the oxygen it contains passes into blood circulating
through gill structures called filaments and lamellae. At the same time, carbon dioxide in the fish’s bloodstream passes
into the water and is carried out of the body.

TRACHEAL SYSTEM
Tracheal System is common in insects and many other arthropods. It ends up in tiny holes in the cuticle called spiracles.
The spiracles open and close by muscular action. The tracheae branch repeatedly into fine branches called tracheoles,
which are equivalent to the air sacs in the lungs. The tracheoles contain fluid in which oxygen dissolves before actually
getting to the individual cells of the body.
Anatomy of a Grasshopper
This illustration of a grasshopper depicts the tiny circular openings called spiracles through which most insects
obtain oxygen. From the spiracles, tubes called tracheae reach deep within the body to supply oxygen to every cell.
LUNGS
In developed organisms (animals), lungs is the main respiratory organ e.g., in terrestrial vertebrates like mammals.
Lungs are closely linked with the circulatory system. Lungs are found in amphibians, birds, and mammals. The
mammalian respiratory system consists of the nostrils, pharynx, larynx, lungs and diaphragm.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE
The following characteristics have been identified in exchange of gases in respiratory surfaces:
i. Epithelia in nature
ii. Have very thin walls which shorten the diffusion distance and increase diffusion rate.
iii. Mostly moist because gases diffuse in solution through them.
iv. Possess delicate cells.
v. Have a large surface area to volume ratio, which ensures exchange of large quantities of gases.

1. The __________ system consists of small air tubes called tracheae that carry air directly to cells in insects.
2. In fish, the __________ system involves the extraction of dissolved oxygen from water through gills.
3. Birds have a unique __________ system that includes air sacs for efficient unidirectional airflow through the
lungs.
4. In humans and many mammals, the __________ system involves the intake of air through the nose or mouth and
its transport to the lungs for gas exchange.
5. In aquatic animals like fish, the __________ system consists of thin filaments rich in blood vessels, where oxygen
is extracted from water and carbon dioxide is released.

1. Explain the mechanism of the gills and tracheal system.
2. Define respiration
3. What is respiratory system?
SUB-TOPIC 2: MECHANISMS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN LOWER ANIMALS

CONTENT:
1. INSECTS
The mechanism of breathing in insects is as follows:
I. An insect breathes through a trachea system. An insect has an impermeable cuticle but, at intervals along the
sides of its body, are about ten tiny openings called spiracles, through which air enters and leaves the trachea.
II. These lead into air-filled tubes called tracheae which end in very hair-like, tiny structures in tissues called
tracheoles. Hence, no body cell is far from a tracheole which contains certain fluids.
III. As the body wall of an insect contracts and expands, oxygen in the air diffuses through the spiracle into the
trachea and tracheole. It then diffuses into the body cells where it is used for aerobic respiration.
IV. Carbon (IV) oxide and water (water vapour) produced, diffuse out of the body through the spiracles.
V. The spiracles have valves and they are opened only when the carbon (IV) oxide concentration in the tissues is
above a specific level.
VI. The spiracles are closed for most of the time when an insect is inactive to reduce water loss.
2. FISH
I. Gaseous exchange or breathing in fishes occurs across the gill surfaces. All the gills possess a very high surface
area-to-volume ratio.
II. The fish opens its mouth, and water passes over the gill surface inside the opercula which are then closed.
III. As water flows over the gills, the dissolved oxygen in the water diffuses into the thin walled blood capillaries
of the gills. At the same time, carbon (iv) oxide in the blood diffuses into the water.
IV. The alternate opening and closing of the mouth and operculum allow a constant flow of water over the gills.
V. Oxygen is transported by the blood into every living cell where it is used for aerobic respiration. Hence, the gills
are used for gas exchange (breathing) and not just for respiration.

1. Tracheae are supported by __________ rings, preventing them from collapsing and maintaining an open
pathway for air.
2. Insects actively control the flow of air through the tracheal system by contracting and relaxing their
__________ muscles.
3. During __________, gills open to allow water to flow over them, facilitating oxygen absorption and carbon
dioxide release.
4. Insects often engage in __________, rhythmic body movements that help facilitate air exchange through
the tracheal system.
5. The __________ system in fish operates by countercurrent exchange, where blood flows in the opposite
direction to water, maximizing oxygen absorption.

1. Mention the structures used for gaseous exchange in the following organisms: (i)
Amoeba (ii) Cockroach (iii) White mangrove (iv) Hibiscus
2. State five characteristics of respiratory surfaces in organisms
3. Make a drawing, 4cm – 6cm long of the respiratory organ in Tilapia fish and label fully
SUB-TOPIC 3: MECHANISM OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN HIGHER ANIMALS AND GASEOUS

EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
CONTENT:
RESPIRATION IN HIGHER ANIMALS
This type of respiration takes place through the lungs. All mammals have a [air of lungs. lungs adaptations that allow
animals to invade the terrestrial environment. Some fishes, and amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, all have
their lungs located internally. Mammals breathing system comprises the air passages (nostrils, pharynx, larynx, and
trachea), lungs and diaphragm. Oxygen enters the nasal passage through the nostrils into the nasal cavity where it is
moistened and kept warm. The nasal cavity has lining cells, which secretes mucus that traps most of the dust and
microorganisms present in the air before it diffuses into the lungs.
Nasal cavity leads into the pharynx, then to the trachea (wind pipe), which divides into two bronchi before it enters
into the lungs; the cartilages supports the wall of the trachea and bronchus to prevent them from collapsing when
the air pressure in them is reduced. Within each lung, the bronchus divides repeatedly and becomes progressively
narrower forming numerous tiny tubules called bronchioles, which end in pockets of the air sacs called alveoli. Alveoli
are surrounded by a dense network of capillaries, which enhances gas exchange.

Breathing in Humans
As the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, the pectoralis minor and intercostal muscles pull the rib cage
outward. The chest cavity expands, and air rushes into the lungs through the trachea to fill the resulting vacuum.
When the diaphragm relaxes to its normal, upwardly curving position, the lungs contract, and air is forced out.
The alveoli give the lungs a very large surface area for gas exchange. The lungs are located in the thorax or thoracic
cavity, which comprises the breast bone or sternum in front, and the back bone (vertebrae) at the back. At the sides
are twelve (12) pairs of ribs and intercostals muscles, which are attached to the spine and the sternum, thereby,
forming a bony cage. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle at the floor of the thorax.
Human Lungs
In humans the lungs occupy a large portion of the chest cavity from the collarbone down to the diaphragm. The right
lung is divided into three sections, or lobes. The left lung, with a cleft to accommodate the heart, has only two lobes.
The two branches of the trachea, called bronchi, subdivide within the lobes into smaller and smaller air vessels known
as bronchioles. Bronchioles terminate in alveoli, tiny air sacs surrounded by capillaries. When the alveoli inflate with

inhaled air, oxygen diffuses into the blood in the capillaries to be pumped by the heart to the tissues of the body. At
the same time carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, where it is exhaled.
MECHANISM OF BREATHING IN MAMMALS
INHALATION:
a. The intercostals muscles contract, while the ribs move upward and outwards.
b. The diaphragm contracts and flattens out.
c. The thoracic cavity volume increases, while its air pressure decreases.
d. Air is then forced from outside into the lungs through the air passage.
EXHALATION:
a. The intercostals muscles relax, while the ribs cage is lowered.

b. The diaphragm relaxes and returns to its original dome-shaped position.
c. The thoracic cavity volume decreases, while the lungs shrink.
d. The lung air pressure increases, and a lot of air is expelled from the lungs through the air passage.
GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
As you learnt earlier, plants do not breathe like mammals, but like animals, they exchange gases because they do not
have thorax and lungs like mammals, we cannot see their breathing movements which are the visible signs of gas
exchange. Completely submerged aquatic plants (e.g. algae) or those floating on water surface (e.g. lettuce)
exchange gases by diffusion all over their body surface or through the stomata in their leaves, lenticels in their stem,
and through the roots (i.e. from the air spaces in the soil particles around the roots).
Anatomy of a Leaf
The leaf provides food for the rest of the plant through the process of photosynthesis. The outermost layer of the leaf
is the epidermis, which is protected by the waxy coating of the cuticle. Guard cells implanted in the epidermis form
pores, known as stomata, through which water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide pass. Embedded in the inner tissues of
the leaf are chloroplasts, where photosynthesis occurs. The plant veins consist of two specialized tissues. Xylem
conducts water from the plant to the leaf, while phloem carries food from the leaf to the plant.
They also occur in the stems of young herbaceous plants. A stoma (stomata-plural) is a tiny pore or opening enclosed
by two bean-shaped guard cells. Unlike other epidermal cells, guard cells have chloroplasts. Each guard cell has a thick,
relatively inelastic wall around the pore and a thin, elastic outer wall. The mechanism of the opening and closing of
stomata is believed to be associated with light intensity and the osmotic pressure within the guard cells. When the
osmotic pressure in the guard cells is high, they become turgid as a result of which the pore or stoma opens. When
the pressure is low, the guard cells become flaccid and the stoma is closed. In general, the movement of gases and
water vapour into and out of leaves is controlled by the opening and closing of the stomata.
EFFECT OF LIGHT ON GAS EXCHANGE IN THE LEAF
Respiration occurs at all times in living things. During sunlight, the rate of photosynthesis is usually greater than that
of respiration in green plants. Oxygen given out during photosynthesis in the day is captured by animals and man for
respiration. Also, the carbon (IV) oxide produced by respiring cells is used in photosynthesis, while a lot of carbon (IV)
oxide diffuses into the leaf mesophyll cells from outside. The diffusion from the inside of the leaf to the outside is
short. Hence, gaseous molecules diffuse rapidly in and out of the leaf through the stomata.
However, at night, photosynthesis stops just as the sun stops shining, but respiration continues because animals must
live. Then, some oxygen diffuses into the leaf from outside through the stomata and lenticels. The oxygen is used up
in the respiring cells, while the carbon (IV) oxide diffuses out of the leaf and lenticels.
It is worthy to note that the vein of leaves contain vascular tissue. Water and mineral salts and some dissolved gases
are distributed to the leaf parts through the xylem. Also, the manufactured food in the leaves is conducted through
the phloem in the veins to all parts of the leaves and other plant parts.
1. __________ respiration in amphibians involves the exchange of gases through their moist skin.
2. Terrestrial animals like reptiles and mammals utilize __________ respiration, inhaling and exhaling air
through lungs.
3. Birds exhibit __________ respiration, with air flowing in one direction through their lungs.
4. Aquatic animals like fish rely on __________ respiration, extracting oxygen directly from water.
5. Beneath the upper epidermis, the __________ layer contains chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
6. The __________ are small openings on the leaf surface that allow for gas exchange and water vapor
release.
7. The __________ layer contains palisade cells with a high concentration of chloroplasts for efficient
photosynthesis.
1. Name two diseases that can affect the human respiratory system
2. Outline the mechanisms involved in: (i) inhalation (ii) exhalation in human beings
3. Describe the mechanism of opening and closing of the stomata
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominal cavity by a sheet of muscle called A. pleural
membrane B. intercostal muscle C. diaphragm D. pericardium
2. Which of the following has the most primitive respiratory system? A. Rat B. Fish C. Toad D. Grasshopper
3. Gaseous exchange takes Place in the adult toad through the A. buccal cavity, bladder and lungs B. buccal
cavity, skin and lungs C. tympanic membrane, lungs and gills D. buccal cavity, skin and spiracle
4. Breathing movement in mammals is accompanied by regular movements of the diaphragm and the A.
intercostal muscles B. vertebral column C. clavicle D. pleural cavity
5. The mechanism of gaseous exchange in living organisms is essentially by A. osmosis. B. inhalation C.
diffusion D. exhalation
6. The upper part of the trachea in mammals is called A. palate B. epiglottis C. larynx D. glottis
7. Which of the following organisms and organs of gaseous exchange are not appropriately matched? A.
Earthworm - body surface B. Fish - gills C. Adult toad - gills D. Grasshopper - trachea
8. Which of the following organs is specially adapted for gaseous exchange in aquatic organisms? A. Lung B.
Trachea C. Gills D. Tracheoles
Use the diagram below to answer questions 9 to 10.
9. The part labelled VII is the A. pleural cavity B. lung C. rib D. diaphragm
10. The part labelled I is the A. epiglottis B. larynx C. oesophagus D. trachea
11. One of these is not a type of respiration (a) body fluid (b) body surface (c) gills (d) lung (e) tracheal system.
12. Closed gill system is used by only one of these organisms (a) rabbit (b) goat (c) tree (d) mollusc (e) spider.
13. All these are organs of respiration except (a) mouth (b) nostrils (c) pharynx (d) larynx (e) lungs.
14. The cells responsible for the control of the opening and closing of the stomata are; (a) somata cells (b) vascular
cells (c) guard cells (d) chloroplast (e) cambium cells.
15. The muscles that control the ribs especially during respiration (a) nuclear muscles (b) coastal muscles (c) rib
muscles (d) intercostals muscles (e) diaphragm.
16. The organ of respiration in insects is called (a) spiracles (b) antenna (c) tracheole (d) anus.

SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The __________ layer is responsible for gas exchange and contains loosely packed cells with air spaces.
2. The __________ cells are specialized for transporting water and minerals from the roots to the rest of the plant.
3. The __________ cells aid in the transport of sugars and organic compounds from the leaves to other parts of
the plant.
4. The __________ is the uppermost layer of the leaf that serves as a protective barrier against water loss and
external factors.
5. The __________ cells are responsible for regulating the opening and closing of stomata.
6. In aquatic animals like fish, the __________ system consists of thin filaments rich in blood vessels, where
oxygen is extracted from water and carbon dioxide is released.
7. Gills have a large surface area due to their __________ structure, allowing for efficient exchange of gases.
8. Terrestrial insects utilize the __________ system, which consists of a network of air tubes called tracheae that
deliver oxygen directly to cells.
9. Tracheae are supported by __________ rings, preventing them from collapsing and maintaining an open
pathway for air.
10. During daylight hours, in the presence of __________, the process of photosynthesis occurs in the leaf.
11. As photosynthesis takes place, __________ is consumed, leading to a decrease in its concentration in the leaf.
12. The decrease in __________ concentration triggers the opening of stomata to allow for gas exchange.
13. __________ gas is taken in by the leaf through open stomata, while oxygen is released as a byproduct of
photosynthesis.
14. The increased production of oxygen during photosynthesis leads to higher levels of __________ in the leaf.
15. The diffusion gradient created by the higher concentration of oxygen inside the leaf compared to the
atmosphere facilitates the __________ of oxygen.
ESSAY QUESTION
1. Mention five organs of respiration.

2. Explain how the stomata in green plants work in the day and night.
3. What do you understand by breathing and gaseous exchange
4. Write the mechanism of buccal breathing
5. Explain the term residual air
6. What is the importance of residual air to mammals?
7. Explain artificial respiration
16. Describe briefly the process of gaseous exchange in the shoot system of flowering plants
17. Explain the procedure for administering the mouth-to-mouth method of artificial respiration
18. Write in words the equation representing the type of respiration that occurs in the muscle during strenuous
exercise.

Shrink – To become smaller in size, volume, or amount, often due to contraction or reduction.

Impermeable – Not allowing the passage of substances or fluids; resistant to penetration or passage.
Dome-shape – Having a rounded or curved shape resembling the top half of a sphere, often forming a raised
structure.
Epithelia – The plural form of "epithelium," which refers to the thin tissue that covers the surfaces of organs, lines
body cavities, and forms the outer layer of the skin.
Delicate – Fragile, easily damaged, or sensitive; possessing a fine or intricate structure that requires careful handling.

I'm the gateway to life's breath, with branching paths that lead to depth. Oxygen in, carbon dioxide out, Inhale,
exhale, without a doubt.
What am I?
"Dreams don't work unless you do." - John C. Maxwell
"The only way to achieve the impossible is to believe it is possible." - Charles Kingsleigh
“The pivot of a student’s life is diligence.” – W.F Kumuyi
WEEK: 7
TOPIC: MID-TERM BREAK

WEEK: 8
TOPIC: EXCRETORY SYSTEM I
I. Identify the need for excretion in living organisms.
II. List and describe the types of excretory systems in animals.
III. List the types of excretory organs in plants and the mechanism behind their operation.
IV. Explain the mechanisms of excretion in earthworm, insects and mammals.
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have been taught excretion as an important characteristics of living things. Students
are asked to list the waste products of metabolism they are familiar with.
SUB-TOPIC 1: NEEDS FOR EXCRETION

CONTENT:
Waste products produced in the body by excretion must not be allowed to remain in the because of the following
reasons:
i. Waste products when not removed can interfere with normal metabolic activities of the body.
ii. Excretion helps to maintain salt and water balance i.e. homeostasis in the body.
iii. Some products are poisonous and must never be allowed to accumulate within the body.
iv. The excretory products are harmful to the body and so must be removed.
v. All animals are heterotrophic and may eat some materials as food which is not needed by their bodies. These
substances and unwanted products of the chemical activities of the body is excretion.
vi. Proteins are used for growth and repair but any excess cannot be stored. The initial waste products of the
biochemical processes involving protein is ammonia gas. This compound is very poisonous and must be
excreted quickly.
TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1. CONTRACTILE VACUOLE
Contractile vacuole is an organelle or a device found in Amoeba and other unicellular organisms or protozoans. It is a
simple device, a small sac lined with a membrane lying freely in the cytoplasm. The cell membrane surrounding the
amoeba is a semi permeable to water and because the osmotic pressure inside the animal is greater than outside the
animal, water enters the cell by osmosis. To counter this, water is secreted into the contractile vacuole as fast as it
enters the body. As this happens, the contractile vacuole expands and bursts, thus discharging its contents to the
exterior through a small pore in the cell membrane after which the whole process is repeated. The energy required by
the contractile vacuole is produced by the mitochondria found near the vacuole. The contents of the contractile
vacuole are; water, carbon (IV) oxide and nitrogenous wastes.
Paramecium
The paramecium is a single-celled organism that propels itself by minute, hair-like projections called cilia. Cilia also
create currents that sweep food particles toward the paramecium’s gullet for ingestion. The paramecium gets rid of
excess water with the help of a contractile vacuole, which pumps water out of the cell.
1. Excretion is the process by which organisms eliminate __________ waste products from their bodies.
2. The removal of waste helps maintain the __________ balance and internal environment of organisms.
3. The contractile vacuole is a specialized organelle found in certain __________ organisms.
4. It helps maintain the water and solute balance in __________ environments.
5. The vacuole expands as it accumulates excess water and contracts to __________ the water through a
pore.

1. Write down the excretory products of insects, and
paramecium.
2. Explain the excretory mechanism in Amoeba.
3. List five excretory organs found in living organisms
SUB-TOPIC 2: TYPES OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM IN ANIMALS

CONTENT:
1. FLAME CELLS IN FLATWORM (PLATYHELMINTHES)

These are two longitudinal excretory canals, which open onto the dorsal surface of the flat worm by a number of
minute pores. The main canals give off numerous branches, which ramify among the parenchyma cells. The final
branches end in flame cells. These are cells, which have intracellular cavities and ducts, with numerous cytoplasmic
branches penetrating between the parenchyma cells. Projecting into the cavity of the cell is a bundle of long cilia which
arise from basal granules in the cytoplasm. These cilia are characterised by their flickering movement which give use
to the name ‘flame cells’.
2. MALPIGHIAN TUBULES IN INSECTS
Generally, insects are very successful group of animals because of their ability to conserve water, wings to fly,
metamorphosis, and small body structure. On the other hand, they have an extremely efficient excretory system. The
malpighian tubules are the excretory organs. They are found between the midgut and the rectum. One end of each
tubule opens into the gut, while the other free end floats in the haemocoel of insects. They are long and extremely
slender and penetrate among the visera over. The greater part of the horux and abdomen. In the cockroach for
example, they are in six groups with about twelve tubules in each group.
3. KIDNEYS IN VERTEBRATES
All vertebrates have a pair of kidneys, which form a part of the excretory system. In mammals, the kidneys are bean-
shaped, dark red in colour and surrounded by fat. The right kidney is slightly lower in the body than the left. If a kidney
is cut longitudinally into two, it will be seen to consist of two main regions: an outer dark coloured cortex and an inner
lighter coloured medulla. When viewed under a microscope, a kidney consists of blood vessels, kidney tubules or
nephrons and connective tissues. Each nephron begins in the cortex as a tiny cup-shaped structure known as
Bowman’s capsule, which surrounds capillaries called the glomerulus. The Bowman’s capsule leads into a coiled tube
called the proximal tubule. This goes down to form a U-shaped structure, the Henle’s loop. Finally, it coils again to
form the distal tubule, which twists and empties into a collecting duct. Renal artery, which branches from the products
and oxygenated blood to the kidney so that nitrogenous wastes products (urea) can be removed.

Kidney
Approximately one million nephrons (right) compose each bean-shaped kidney (left). The filtration unit of the
nephron, called the glomerulus, regulates the concentration within the body of important substances such as
potassium, calcium, and hydrogen, and removes substances not produced by the body such as drugs and food
additives. The filtrate, urine, leaves the nephron through the long renal tubule. Chemical signals triggered by the
body’s need for water and salt cause the walls of the tubule to become more or less permeable to these substances,
which are reabsorbed accordingly from the urine.
The blood that leaves the kidney is deoxygenated and is carried away by renal vein to the inferior (posterior) vena
cava. The urine formed passes from each kidney into a ureter. The left and right ureters lead to a muscular sac called
the bladder in which urine is stored temporarily. The bladder opens to a short tube, urethra, which leads to the
exterior.
OTHER EXCRETORY ORGANS IN MAMMALS
1. The skin excretes water, salts and urea. Skin excretes wastes by means of sweat glands, which consists of
coiled tubes, opening exteriorly as pores. Sweat is composed of 95% water and 3% dissolved salts (e.g. sodium
chloride).
2. Lungs excrete carbon (IV) oxide and water. Carbon (IV) oxide can be harmful if it accumulates too much as it
forms carbonic acid is capable of upsetting the delicate acid base balance of the body fluids.
3. Liver, in addition to manufacturing chemicals, the liver helps clear toxic substances, such as drugs and alcohol,
from the bloodstream. It does this by absorbing the harmful substances, chemically altering them, and then
excreting them in the bile
1. Birds have unique __________ air sacs that allow for efficient unidirectional airflow through the lungs.
2. Amphibians, such as frogs, utilize both __________ and __________ respiration, using their skin and lungs.
3. Some aquatic animals, like whales and dolphins, exhibit __________ respiration, where they surface to
breathe.
4. The tracheal system of insects delivers oxygen directly to cells through a network of __________.
5. Insects actively control air movement through their tracheae using specialized __________ muscles.
1. State two ways in which the excretory organ of earthworm is similar to that of
mammals
2. Sketch an annotated diagram of the Kidney in mammals.
3. Write short note on the excretory mechanism of the mammals
SUB-TOPIC 3: TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGANS IN PLANTS AND THE MECHANISM BEHIND

THEIR OPERATION.
CONTENT:
In general, plants are much less active than animals and produce waste products at a much slower rate. Hence, they
have no need for specialised excretory organs. The main excretory products, which are water, oxygen and carbon (IV)
oxide, are got rid of by diffusion through the stomata and lenticels.
1. EXCRETION IN STOMATA:
Stomata are pores in the epidermis bounded by specialised epidermal cells known as guard cells. In conjunction
with the guard cells, other adjacent and distinctive epidermal cells may exist in opening and closing of the pore. These
are known as accessory cells. Stomata are usually found at the aerial parts of the stems and leaves and flower parts.
Underground rhizomes and some aquatic plants may possess them. They may be irregularly scattered or arranged in
parallel rows. The guard cells are bean shaped and fit together with the pore between them. The size of the pore alters
according to how turgid the guard cells are. This in turns depends on the osmotic pressure within the guard cells.
When the pressure is low, the guard cells are flabby and the stoma is closed. When it is high, the guard cells are turgid
and the stoma opens.
2. EXCRETION IN LENTICELS
They are structurally differentiated parts of the periderm, which stand out because of the very loose cell
arrangement and lack of suberization. They vary greatly in size according to species but can be seen as protrusions of
loose substance through cracks in the periderm. In a stem undergoing secondary thickening, the first lenticels usually
arise beneath the stoma in the epidermis. The cells below the stomata lose their chlorophyll and divide repeatedly to
form a loose mass. Gradually, the region of division penetrates deeper into the cortex, and the place of the division of
the cells becomes regularly parallel to the surface so that a lenticels phellogen is formed. This proceeds to cut off more
and more loose cells towards the exterior and eventually the epidermis is ruptured.
Prominent plants excretory products are water, carbon (iv) oxide and oxygen. They are excreted through the stomata
and lenticels. Green plants like tomato and potato have glands that secretes water, a process called guttation. This is
seen at the apex and margin. Other waste products produced by plants are tannins, poisonous nitrogenous alkaloids
and anthocyanins, which give colour to the petals of many flowers. In order not to interfere with plants activities,
these waste products are converted to harmless insoluble compounds and stored within the plant body, e.g., some
plant cells contain calcium oxide, glucose and alkaloid compounds.
1. _________ excretion helps prevent self-toxicity and excessive salt accumulation.

2. Plants utilize specialized __________ cells to excrete excess water and waste products through tiny pores
called stomata.
3. __________ are small structures found in leaves that help regulate gas exchange and water loss.
4. Some plants store waste materials, such as resins and latex, in __________, preventing their accumulation
in active tissues.
5. In some cases, waste materials are stored in specialized structures like __________ or __________, which
can be shed from the plant.

1. Compare and contrast the excretory functions of stomata and lenticels in plants.
2. How do plants adjust their excretory mechanisms in response to changing environmental conditions?
Provide insights into their adaptability.
3. Explain how the opening and closing of lenticels are regulated. How does environmental factors such as
humidity and temperature influence their operation?
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following organs is associated with deamination of proteins? A. Lung B. Stomach C. Kidney D.
Liver
2. Which-of the following performs the same function as the contractile vacuole of a unicellular organism? A.
Kidney B. Alimentary canal C. Liver D. Pancreas
3. In which of the following groups is Nephridium found? A. Crustaceans B. Reptiles C. Birds D. Annelids
4. The Malpighian tubule plays a major role in A. inspiration B. digestion C. secretion D. excretion.
5. Which of these is not an excretory product of plant? A. Tannin B. Gum C. Alkaloid D. Sweat
6. In which of the following organisms is ammonia excreted as a waste product? A. Man B. Bird C. Amoeba D.
Spirogyra.
7. Which of the following pairs of structures does not perform similar functions? A. Lungs and spiracles B. Root
hair and mammalian hair C. Feathers and scales D. Contractile vacuole and kidney
8. The effect of the contraction of the muscles of the diaphragm is that A. the volume of the thoracic cavity
increases B. more carbon dioxide is expelled through the nostrils C. the rib cage is drawn inwards the
intercostal muscle becomes relaxed
9. Which of the following is an excretory product of Amoeba? A. Urea B. Ammonia D. Uric acid 5. Amino acid
10. Which of the following substances is a common excretory product in both plants and animals? A. Urine B.
Oxygen C. Mineral salts D. Carbon dioxide
11. The excretory organs in flatworms are called (a) nephridia (b) malpighian tubule (c) flame cells (d) kidney (e)
lenticels.
12. Which of the following substances is contained in the renal artery? (a) Less water (b) Less urea (c) more
glucose (d) more carbon (IV) oxide (e) oxygen.
13. Which of the following groups of animals has the greatest ability to conserve water? (a) insects (b) flatworms
(c) earthworms (d) unicellular organisms (e) water lettuce.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The process of water expulsion through the contractile vacuole is known as __________.
2. Contractile vacuoles prevent the organism from __________ due to excessive water intake.
3. In humans, the __________ system, including the kidneys, plays a vital role in excretion.
4. Excretory organs filter __________ and other waste products from the blood for elimination.
5. Accumulation of waste materials can lead to __________ and disruption of normal bodily functions.
6. Insects primarily use a network of air tubes called __________ for their respiratory system.
7. Fish possess __________ gills, which extract oxygen from water for respiration.
8. Terrestrial animals like mammals and reptiles rely on __________ respiration, using lungs to exchange gases.
9. Stomata open and close to regulate the exchange of gases and water vapor through the process of
__________.
10. Transpiration not only facilitates gas exchange but also assists in __________ the excess water and waste
products.
11. Plant excretion is a vital part of maintaining the __________ balance and preventing toxic buildup.
12. Certain waste products, like __________, may be stored in vacuoles or specialized cells until they can be
safely eliminated.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Explain the mechanisms of waste removal through the stomata and lenticels.
2. What is guttation?
3. Discuss the functions of the liver as an excretory organ
4. Sketch a well labelled diagram of the nephron of an insect.
5. Give three differences between the excretory organ of earthworm and that of mammals

EXCRETION – Excretion is the process by which waste products, toxins, and excess substances are removed from an
organism's body to maintain a proper internal environment and prevent the buildup of harmful substances.

SECRETION - Secretion is the process by which specialized cells or glands release substances, such as enzymes,
hormones, or mucus, into body fluids or external environments for specific functions.
EGESTION - Egestion refers to the process of expelling undigested or indigestible waste materials, such as food
residues or insoluble fibers, from the body through the rectum and anus.
ELIMINATION - Elimination is the act of expelling waste products or substances from the body, which can include
both undigested materials and metabolic waste, through various excretory pathways.

EVELEOTMIODISPOSAL
EEDSHIGHNNOITAMRAP
XANESUREAHGFDRPMFK
CABSORPTIONSHEIKSM
RTPLANTSYSTEMODUEL
ESCERETIONEAFCOVPO
THRNSTULACTRLTLTRY
ILNTNUIILMIILUGFRI
ORUDRIKOTONAGNOTTL
NRLINEOGESTIONORRS
Words to find:
1. Excretion
2. Disposal
3. Waste
4. Urea
5. System
6. Plant
7. Absorption
8. Filtration
9. Kidney
10. Bladder
"Believe you deserve it and the universe will serve it." - Unknown
"Life isn't about finding yourself. It's about creating yourself." - George Bernard Shaw
"Life is full of beauty. Notice it. Notice the bumblebee, the small child, and the smiling faces. Smell the rain, and feel
the wind. Live your life to the fullest potential, and fight for your dreams." - Ashley Smith

WEEK: 9
TOPIC: EXCRETORY SYSTEM II
I. Explain the excretory mechanism in earthworm
II. Describe the excretory mechanism in insects
III. Discuss the excretory mechanism in mammals
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have been taught the need for excretion in living organisms.
SUB-TOPIC 1: THE EXCRETORY MECHANISM IN EARTHWORM

CONTENT:
Nephridia is the excretory organ of earthworm. Each segment of the nephridia contains a pair of tubes. Each
nephridium is a long coiled tube derived by the growth of ectoderm, and opens into the coelomic fluid of the segment
anterior to the nephridiophore. The first part is called the nepridiopore, and it has a minute flattered funnel with the
upper lip large than the lower lip. The upper lip is formed mainly of a large central cell which is thickly ciliated on the
inner surface of the funnel. The lower lip on the other hand consists of a thickened cluster of small cells which are not
ciliated. All the cilia beat into the lumen of the tube. The nephrostome leads into an intercellular ducts which bears
two rows of lateral cilia. Beyond the septum, the tube is narrower and ciliated. It goes into several loops and then
becomes the wider brown, ciliated tube which terminates at the nephridiophore. The opening of this pore is regulated
by a sphincter. The nephridia of the earthworm are generally supplied with many fine capillaries which ramify among
the coils.

Generalized Anatomy of an Earthworm
The earthworm shows the well-developed segmentation that is characteristic of all animals in the phylum Annelida.
Although the major nervous, circulatory, and digestive organs are located near the head, more posterior segments
contain peripheral structures for all of these systems. These posterior segments are virtually identical to each other.
Earthworms are hermaphroditic, possessing both male and female internal reproductive organs.
1. In earthworms, the excretory system consists of paired structures called __________, which are responsible
for removing waste products.
2. The waste products removed by the excretory system in earthworms include excess __________ and
__________ compounds.
3. Earthworms use specialized __________ cells within the nephridia to filter waste from the coelomic
fluid.
4. The filtered waste materials are collected in __________, which are small tubules that lead to the exterior of the
worm.
5. Earthworms also utilize a process known as __________ respiration to eliminate some metabolic waste through
their moist skin.
1. Suppose a person is suffering from dehydration due to excessive sweating during a

long hike in a hot and dry environment. Explain how the excretory system in the
human body responds to this situation and maintains homeostasis. Include the role
of the kidneys, hormones, and the processes involved in regulating water and
electrolyte balance.
2. What sex does an earthworm have?
3. Enumerate the excretory products of an earthworm.

SUB-TOPIC 2: THE EXCRETORY MECHANISM IN INSECTS
CONTENT:
Tissues in insects produce nitrogenous waste in the form of soluble potassium urate, which is librated into
the blood and taken up by the cells lining the malpighian tubules. The tubules are muscular and their writhing
movements facilitate the absorption of urate by stirring up the blood. In the cells of the tubule, the potassium urate
reacts with water and carbon (IV) oxide (from respiration) to form potassium trioxocarbonate (iv) and uric acid. The
former is reabsorbed into the blood to such an extent that the proximal end of the malpighian tubule becomes filled
with solid crystals of uric acid. Water is further reabsorbed by the folded walls of the rectal glands so that by the time
urine leaves the body, it is very much more concentrated than the blood.
The remarkable ability of insects to conserve water has contributed towards their success as a group. This is largely
due to the action of their malpighian tubules and rectal glands. Insects conserve water more effectively than any other
group of animals because they do not drink water. They pass out semisolid waste (uric acid), which contains very little
quantity of water.
1. In insects, the excretory system consists of small tubular structures called __________, which are
responsible for eliminating waste products.
2. The primary nitrogenous waste product excreted by insects is __________, which is less toxic than
ammonia and helps conserve water.
3. Insects eliminate excess water and waste products through specialized openings called __________.
4. The Malpighian tubules are located within the __________ cavity of insects and play a crucial role in
excretion and osmoregulation.
5.__________ is the process through which waste materials, including uric acid and excess salts, are
transported and released from the Malpighian tubules.

1. How do earthworms eliminate excess nitrogenous waste?
2. Write a short note on the excretory mechanism of insects.
3. Mention the three processes involved in the formation of urine in woman.
SUB-TOPIC 3: THE EXCRETORY MECHANISM IN MAMMALS

CONTENT:
We shall focus our attention on the formation of urine. The kidneys of mammals accomplish this task by
purifying the blood. Some toxic substances such as nitrogenous salt, sodium salt, potassium salt, calcium salt, and
urea are removed from the body through this means.

In urine formation, three processes take place:
i. Ultra filtration
ii. Selective re-absorption, and
iii. Tubular secretion.
Now, as the blood circulates round the glomerulus, ultra filtration occurs. Small molecules such as water, urea, mineral
salts, sugar, and plasma solutes pass through the one-cell thick walls of the capillaries and the Bowman’s capsule into
the capsular space. Bigger molecules like plasma, protein and the blood cells cannot pass through the barrier which
thus acts as a filter. A high pressure in the glomerulus is essential for the filtration process. This is brought about in the
following ways:
i. The blood entering the kidney is already at high pressure because the renal artery branches off from the
dorsal aorta at only a short distance from the heart.
ii. The blood vessel leaving each glomerulus is narrower than the one entering it, thereby increasing the
pressure of the blood in the glomerulus further.
The fluid that filters into the Bowman’s capsule is known as glomerula filtrate. It flows down the tubule, and as it
passes down the proximal part of the tubule and the Henle’s loop, selective reabsorption take place. In this process,
water and useful substances like sugar, amino acid and salts are reabsorbed into the surrounding blood capillaries.
The filtrate then moves into the distal part of the tubule. Here, large waste molecules like creatinine are secreted into
the tubules. If necessary, ions (hydrogen, potassium and hydrogen carbonate) are secreted into the tubules to keep
the osmotic concentration of the blood constant. The fluid that eventually remains in the tubules is concentrated and
is known as urine.
An average of 1.5litres of urine is produced daily. The amount of urea excreted will depend on the protein content of
the daily diet. The filtered blood leaving the kidney by the renal vein contains:
i. Less oxygen and glucose, and more carbon (iv) oxide, as a result of cellular respiration and
ii. Less nitrogenous wastes, salt and water as a result of excretion.
The urine formed trickles down the ureter and collects in the bladder. When the bladder is full, it contracts discharging
the urine out of the body through the urethra.
The mechanism used in urine formation includes the following:
1. Active transports
2. Varying permeability of tubules and
3. Passive diffusion and osmosis.

1. In mammals, the primary organ responsible for excretion is the __________, which filters waste products
from the blood.
2. The functional unit of the excretory system in mammals is the __________, which consists of the
glomerulus and renal tubules.
3. Blood is filtered in the __________ of the nephron, where waste products, excess ions, and water are
removed.
4. The filtered fluid from the glomerulus enters the __________, where reabsorption of valuable substances
and secretion of waste occur.
5. The excretory system in mammals plays a crucial role in maintaining __________ balance by regulating the
levels of ions and water in the body.

1. Discuss the role of the excretory system in maintaining acid-base balance in the body.
How do the kidneys regulate pH through bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions?
2. Discuss the significance of the loop of Henle in the mammalian kidney in terms of
water and salt regulation.
4. How much urine is produced daily on an average?
5. List the processes involved in urine formation
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST: (10 multiple Choice Questions, 10 fill in the gap questions and 5 essay question)
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following statements on urine production is not correct? A. Concentrated urine is produced
under the control of antidiuretic hormone B. The total volume of urine produced depends on the need for
water excretion C. if there is an excess intake of water, dilute urine is excreted. D. if there is a shortage of
water in the body the volume of urine produced decreases
2. Which of the following is the correct route for the movement of materials through the kidney?
A. Glomerulus Bowman's Loop of Collecting Pelvis
capsule Henle tubule
B. Glomerulus Loop of Collecting Bowmen's Pelvis
Henle tubule capsule
C. Pelvis Bowman's Glomerulus Loop of Collecting
D. Bowman's Glomerulus Loop of Collecting Pelvis
3. Which of the following are components of glomerular filtrate? A. All the components of blood except
mineral salts B. Water and salt only C. All the components of blood except plasma protein and cells D. Plasma
proteins, red and white blood cells
4. The mechanism by which useful materials in the glomerular filtrate are taken back into the blood is known
as A. filtration B. reabsorption. C. haemolysis D. osmosis
5. The cup-shaped part of the Bowman's capsule contains the A. nephridium B. glomerulus C. loop of Henle D.
nephron
6. Ultrafiltration in the kidney takes place in the A. loop of Henle B. renal vein C. Bowman's capsule D. pelvis
7. Reabsorption of the metabolic products along the kidney tubules is made possible by the A. closeness of the
intestine to the kidney B. convoluted nature of the tubules C. presence of convoluted tubules in the
medulla D. presence of network of capillaries around the convoluted tubules
8. Ultra-filtration process at the Bowman's capsule is facilitated by A. the volume of water in the blood B. the
high concentration of urea in the blood of the Bowman's capsule C. the differential blood pressure between
the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule D. the differential blood volume between the glomerulus and the
Bowman's capsule
9. Which of the following is more concentrated in the blood within the renal artery than the blood within the
renal vein? A. Urea B. Red blood cells C. Glucose D. Protein
10. Filtered blood from the kidney is carried back to the circulatory system through the A. hepatic portal vein B.
renal artery C. renal vein D. pulmonary vein
11. In which of the following groups of organisms does excretion take place only by simple diffusion through the
body surface. (a) Worms, toad and amoeba? (b) Paramecium, grasshopper and snake(c) Grasshopper, toad
and euglena (d) Toad, insect and Euglena (e) paramecium, amoeba, and euglena.

12. In selective re-absorption, one of these is reabsorbed back into the body (a) plasma (b) urea (c) mineral salts
(d) nitrogenous salt (e) hydrogen carbonate.
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The __________ nephridia are primarily responsible for excreting metabolic waste, while the __________
nephridia are involved in osmoregulation.
2. Earthworms excrete a nitrogenous waste product called __________, which is less toxic than ammonia and
safer for the organism.
3. The excretory system in earthworms helps maintain __________ balance and prevent the accumulation of
harmful substances.
4. Unlike mammals, insects do not have dedicated __________ organs, and their excretory and digestive
systems are separate.
5. The excretory system in insects plays a vital role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance, which is
essential for their __________.
6. The excretory system in insects helps prevent __________ by eliminating waste products and excess ions.
7. The nitrogenous waste product produced in mammals is __________, which is formed from the breakdown
of amino acids.
8. The __________ is a muscular organ that stores urine before it is eliminated from the body through the
urethra.
9. The process of urine formation involves filtration, reabsorption, and secretion in the __________.
10. The excretory organ of the earthworm is ---------------------
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Samantha is a dedicated athlete who participates in rigorous training sessions daily. She has noticed that after
intense workouts, her urine appears darker in color and has a strong odor. Concerned about her health, she decides
to consult a doctor.
1. Explain the physiological reasons behind the change in the color and odor of Samantha's urine after exercise.
2. Discuss how the excretory system helps maintain electrolyte balance in Samantha's body during her strenuous
workouts.
3. The doctor advises Samantha to increase her fluid intake. How does proper hydration support the function of her
excretory system and overall health?
4. During her training, Samantha experiences muscle fatigue and cramping. How does the excretory system
contribute to the removal of waste products that might accumulate in her muscles during exercise?
5. Name the excretory organ in insects

Proximal – Refers to a location or part that is situated closer to a reference point or the center of the body. In
anatomy, it often denotes a structure that is closer to the point of attachment or origin.
Distal – Refers to a location or part that is situated farther away from a reference point or the center of the body. In
anatomy, it often denotes a structure that is farther from the point of attachment or origin.
Active transport – A cellular process that requires energy (usually in the form of adenosine triphosphate, ATP) to
move molecules or ions across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient. This process is essential for
maintaining proper ion balance and nutrient uptake in cells.
Peripheral – Relating to the outer edges or surface of something. In biology, it can refer to structures that are
located away from the central part of an organ or system.
Hermophroditic – Refers to organisms, particularly animals, that possess both male and female reproductive organs.
In such organisms, the same individual can produce both eggs and sperm, enabling self-fertilization or cross-
fertilization with other individuals.

Across:
1. Organ responsible for excretion in mammals.

2. Nitrogenous waste product in mammals.
3. Excretory organs in earthworms.
4. Fluid-filled sac in insects involved in excretion.
5. Insects use __________ tubes for excretion.
6. In earthworms, waste is eliminated through tiny pores on the body __________.
7. Hormone released by the pituitary gland to regulate water reabsorption.
Down:
1. Insects excrete waste through __________ in their exoskeleton.
2. Earthworms convert waste into a less toxic compound called __________.

3. Insects have specialized excretory structures called __________.
4. Process of removing excess water from plants into the atmosphere.
5. In earthworms, waste-laden fluid is collected by __________ funnels.

"Life is full of beauty. Notice it. Notice the bumblebee, the small child, and the smiling faces. Smell the rain, and feel
the wind. Live your life to the fullest potential, and fight for your dreams." - Ashley Smith
"Life is short, and it's up to you to make it sweet." - Sarah Louise Delany
"In the end, it's not the years in your life that count. It's the life in your years." - Abraham Lincoln

WEEK: 10
TOPIC: NUTRIENT CYCLING IN NATURE
I. Define and explain the process of carbon cycle

II. State the importance of carbon cycle for life
III. Explain the process of oxygen cycling
IV. Discuss the importance of oxygen to living organisms
V. Recognize the delicate balance between carbon and oxygen
ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students are familiar with carbon dioxide and oxygen as a constituents of air. Students are
asked to shine their eyes clearly and observe the air, if they can see or perceive carbon and oxygen.
SUB-TOPIC 1: THE CARBON CYCLE

CONTENT:
This is defined as the processes which bring about the circulation of carbon found in the organic molecules of living
things.
PROCESS OF CARBON CYCLING:
Carbon is derived from carbon dioxide in air, dead remains of organisms and in fossil fuels like crude oil and coal.
Through the process of photosynthesis, green plants extract carbon from the atmosphere and incorporate it into their
body tissues. The plants in turn are fed on by animals and the carbon compounds get incorporated into the tissues of
the animals. When the animal excretes part of the carbon compounds are released into the environment as faeces
and urine.
As plants and animals respire, carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. The organic materials in dead plants
and animals, faeces, urine, fallen leaves, etc. are decomposed by saprophytic bacteria and fungi. The process of
decomposition breaks down complex carbon compounds and releases carbon dioxide which is returned to the
atmosphere.
The combustion of fuel like wood, coal and crude oil results in the oxidation of carbon to carbon dioxide which is then
released into the atmosphere.
The weathering of rocks results in the release of carbon dioxide which dissolves in water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
This reacts with limestone to form carbonates and bicarbonates and stored in the sea. The sea helps to control the
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by trapping more carbon dioxide when the concentration in air increases.
The carbon dioxide is released through the process of diffusion to the atmosphere when the concentration drops.
The actions of volcanoes also release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
The Carbon Cycle.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBON CYCLE IN NATURE
i. Plants use carbon dioxide to manufacture food during the process of photosynthesis.
ii. It provides carbon which is major building block of organic matter.
iii. The carbon compounds in food are the vehicles through which trapped solar energy passes from one organism to
another in food chains.
iv. The carbon cycle helps to purify the atmosphere and maintain the atmospheric level of carbon dioxide.
v. Carbon in carbonates such as calcium carbonate is used by marine animals to build their shells. It is also found in
limestone, chalk, marble and coral.
1. During photosynthesis, plants and other organisms convert carbon dioxide into __________.
2. Carbon is stored in the form of organic molecules such as __________ in living organisms.
3. The process of releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from living organisms is called __________.
4. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is absorbed by __________ in the ocean.
5. The decomposition of dead organic matter by decomposers releases __________ back into the
environment.
6. Human activities causing pollution of water bodies can lead to increased decomposer activity and a
significant __________ in oxygen levels, endangering aquatic organisms.

1. What is the main process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere
and converted into organic molecules by plants?
2. Name two ways in which carbon is released back into the atmosphere from living
organisms.
SUB-TOPIC 2: THE OXYGEN CYCLE

CONTENT:
Oxygen constitutes about 21% of gases in the atmosphere. This amount is maintained at a fairly constant level by the
oxygen cycle.
Through the process of photosynthesis, oxygen is released into the atmosphere. Respiration, decay and combustion
are processes which remove oxygen from the atmosphere.
IMPORTANCE OF OXYGEN TO LIVING ORGANISMS

i. It is used for respiration by plants and animals.
ii. It aids combustion.
iii. It aids decomposition.
iv. It is used in hospitals to aid patients who have impaired breathing.
v. It is used in airplanes that fly at high altitude
1. In the oxygen cycle, oxygen is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of __________.
2. Oxygen is utilized by living organisms during the process of __________.
3. During __________, oxygen is combined with glucose to release energy and produce carbon dioxide and
water.
4. Oxygen is exchanged between the atmosphere and the __________ through the process of respiration.
5. Plants and algae play a key role in producing oxygen through the process of __________.

1. Explain the relationship between photosynthesis and the production of oxygen.
2. What is the primary way in which living organisms use oxygen?
3. Why is maintaining a balance between oxygen and carbon dioxide levels important
for the health of the planet?
SUB-TOPIC 3: THE CARBON-OXYGEN BALANCE

CONTENT:
There is an approximate balance in the amount of carbon and oxygen in the ecosystem. Human activities such as
deforestation and burning of fuels affect the carbon-oxygen cycles. These activities combined with decomposition
and respiration, lead to an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in air and a decrease in the amount of oxygen.

A decrease in the atmospheric oxygen level by 2-8% does not cause any problem but a slight increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide may cause a green house effect. This results in retention of the sun’s radiant (heat) energy which could
lead to the melting of the polar ice-caps with a related rise in sea level and flooding. This could also affect important
food growing areas of the world.
Human activities have also led to pollution of water bodies resulting in an increase in the activity of decomposers. This
has resulted in a significant drop in oxygen level thus threatening the survival of aquatic organisms.
To avert these disastrous consequences, human activities should be geared towards maintaining a balance in the
carbon-oxygen level of the atmosphere.
1. Human activities such as deforestation and burning of fuels disrupt the __________ cycles and impact the
balance between carbon and oxygen in the ecosystem.
2. The combination of decomposition, respiration, and human activities leads to an __________ in the amount
of carbon dioxide and a __________ in the amount of oxygen.
3. A decrease in atmospheric oxygen by a small percentage typically doesn't cause issues, but even a slight
increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide can contribute to the __________ effect.
4. The __________ effect results in the retention of the sun's radiant energy, potentially causing the melting
of polar ice-caps and a rise in sea levels.
5. To prevent negative outcomes, human activities should focus on maintaining a __________ balance in the
carbon-oxygen levels in the atmosphere.

1. What are some examples of human activities that contribute to the disruption of carbon-oxygen cycles?
2. What are the potential impacts on food-growing areas if the balance in carbon-oxygen levels is not
maintained?
3. How does the green house effect relate to the retention of sun's radiant energy?
CONCLUSION
TOPICAL TEST:
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. Which of the following processes will not introduce carbon dioxide into the atmosphere? A. Breathing B.
Photosynthesis C. Respiration D. Putrefaction.
2. Which of the following processes is not involved in the carbon cycle? A. Burning B. Decay C. Transpiration D.
Respiration
3. In which of the following processes is carbon dioxide not given out? A. Respiration in plants B. Decay of
organism C. Burning of organic matter D. During photosynthesis
4. Which of these processes removes carbon from the atmosphere? A. Putrefaction of animals B. Burning of
fuels C. Photosynthesis D. Volcanic eruption
5. Which of the following processes removes CO2 from the atmosphere? A. Respiration B. Photosynthesis C.
Transpiration D. Excretion

6. Which of the following substances is not recycled in an ecosystem? A. Carbon B. Energy C. Water D.
Nitrogen.
7. Which of the following substances when lost from the body of a mammal will not be returned to the
ecosystem? A. Sweat B. Urea C. Heat energy D. Carbon dioxide
8. What is the primary source of oxygen released into the atmosphere? a) Animal respiration b) Volcanic
activity c) Photosynthesis d) Combustion
9. How does deforestation affect the oxygen cycle? a) It increases oxygen levels b) It decreases carbon
dioxide levels c) It reduces the rate of photosynthesis d) It reduces the release of oxygen through
transpiration
10. What is the main purpose of oxygen in living organisms? a) To release energy through respiration b) To aid
in combustion c) To promote photosynthesis d) To increase atmospheric pressure
11. What is the significance of dissolved oxygen in aquatic ecosystems? a) It supports aquatic plant growth b) It
prevents carbon dioxide dissolution c) It supports aquatic animal respiration d) It accelerates the process of
decomposition
12. How does the burning of fossil fuels influence the oxygen content in the atmosphere? a) It increases
oxygen levels b) It decreases oxygen levels c) It has no effect on oxygen levels d) It leads to oxygen
sequestration in oceans
SUBJECTIVE TEST
1. The majority of Earth's oxygen is present in the form of __________.

2. In aquatic ecosystems, oxygen is dissolved in __________, which aquatic organisms use for respiration.
3. Oxygen is transported in the bloodstream by binding to __________ molecules in red blood cells.
4. The oxygen cycle is closely linked with the __________ cycle, as the two cycles are interconnected.
5. Deforestation and habitat destruction can lead to a decrease in oxygen production due to reduced
__________.
6. Combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the __________.
7. Plants release excess water vapor through small openings called __________.
8. Carbon is transferred from one trophic level to another through __________.
9. The process of carbon being returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide is called __________.
10. Deforestation and land-use changes can lead to an increase in carbon dioxide levels due to reduced
__________.
11. Human activities causing pollution of water bodies can lead to increased decomposer activity and a
significant __________ in oxygen levels, endangering aquatic organisms.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Describe briefly the process of carbon cycling in nature.

2. Of what importance is the carbon cycle to living things?
3. Make a simple diagram of the carbon cycle.
4. Describe the oxygen cycle.
6. List three importance of oxygen to living things.
7. What effect will a rise in the amount of carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere have on living things?

1. Carbon Conundrum: What natural process removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, converting it into
organic molecules, and which human activity disrupts this process by releasing more carbon dioxide into the
air?
2. Oxygen Odyssey: What vital gas is released into the atmosphere as a byproduct of photosynthesis, used by
living organisms for respiration, and how do human activities impact its balance?
3. Cycle Riddles: I'm a process that involves the movement of carbon atoms through living organisms, the
atmosphere, and the Earth's crust. What am I?
4. Gaseous Puzzle: Which gas is responsible for the greenhouse effect, and what consequences could occur
due to its accumulation in the atmosphere?
5. Breath of Life: I'm essential for the survival of most organisms, aiding in energy production and metabolism.
What am I?
6. Mystery Meltdown: I'm an effect caused by the retention of radiant energy due to increased greenhouse
gases. What could I lead to if not controlled?
7. Elemental Exchange: What process helps plants absorb carbon dioxide and release
oxygen, while animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide?
8. Balance Game: How can human activities impact the balance between carbon and oxygen in the ecosystem,
leading to potential environmental consequences?
9. Ocean Guardians: I'm a massive reservoir for carbon dioxide. What role do I play in the carbon cycle and
climate regulation?
10. Nature's Filters: I help remove excess water from plants and release it into the atmosphere. What am I, and
how does this process contribute to cooling plants?
“When there is a will, there is a way.” - Anonymous
"Like the delicate dance of the carbon and oxygen cycles, our world thrives on balance. Let's tread lightly, knowing
that every breath we take and every step we make can shape the rhythm of our planet's harmony."
"Life is really simple, but we insist on making it complicated." – Confucius
WEEK: 11

TOPIC: REVISION
WEEK: 12 - 13
TOPIC: EXAMINATION

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©Deeper Life High School.

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WEEKS TOPICS CONTENT

Digestive System I (a) Types of Alimentary Tracts

Digestive System II (d) classification of mammals based on their diet

Transport System I (a) introduction to transport system (b) media for

Transport System II (g) circulatory systems (h) Mechanism of

Respiratory System (a) Types of respiratory systems: (i) Body surface

7 MID-TERM BREAK MID-TERM BREAK

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Excretory system II (b) Excretory Mechanism in: (i) Earthworm (ii)

10 Nutrient cycle in nature (i) carbon cycle (ii) oxygen cycle

TOPIC: REVISION OF SS1 FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD TERM WORK

SUB-TOPIC 1: REVISION OF SS1 FIRST TERM WORK

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SUB-TOPIC 2: REVISION OF SS1 SECOND TERM WORK

Students answer all questions appropriately.

SUB-TOPIC 3: REVISION OF SS1 THIRD TERM WORK

Students answer all questions appropriately.

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TOPIC: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

I. define digestion and digestive system

ENTRY BEHAVIOUR: Students have knowledge of Nutrition from SS 1 topic.

SUB-TOPIC 1: TYPES OF ALIMENTARY TRACTS

TYPES OF ALIMENTARY TRACT

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

SUB-TOPIC 2: DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

DESCRIPTION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE MAMMALIAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

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ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

SUB-TOPIC 3: HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

THE LARGE INTESTINE:

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A Section of the large intestine

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

TOPICAL TEST: multiple Choice Questions

1. Discuss in details the functions of the duodenum.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS / KEY WORDS / VOCABULARY:

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TOPIC: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM II

ii. List and explain the various feeding habits

iv. Give the dental formula for the classes of mammals.

SUB-TOPIC 1: CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALS BASED ON THEIR DIET

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ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

SUB-TOPIC 2: FEEDING HABITS AND FEEDING MECHANISMS

i. Filter feeding, and

ii. Fluid Feeders

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iii. Saprophytic Feeders

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IV. Parasitic feeders

ii. Biting (cutting) chewing

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iii. Piercing and sucking

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PRACTICE EXERCISE: fill in the gap

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS