DRKS 111

LECTURER: Prof. Mark Maboeta

018 299 2501
LECTURER: Prof. Kerry Malherbe
018 299 4252
Assessment Plan / Assesseringsplan

Calculation of module mark:

A) Participation mark: 50% of final mark
Calculated as follows:

 Short tests during lectures and practicals: 34%

 Class test: 33%
 Practical test: 33%
B) Examination mark: 50% of final mark

Calculation of final mark:

Participation mark: 50% of final mark
Examination mark: 50% of final mark
= Total: 100%

Requirements for successful completion of the module:

 Participation mark: minimum 35% to obtain admission to examination (students who repeat the
module must have a minimum of 40%)
 Examination sub minimum: 40%
 You need a final module mark of at least 50% to pass the module

Important dates/Belangrike datums:

 Maandae na prakties (17h00 – 20h00) – AANLYN PRAKTIES TOETS
 Donderdae (08h00 – 23h59) – AANLYN KLEIN KLASTOETSE
 KLASTOETS – TBA
 PRAKTIESE TOETS – 20/05/2024

Timetable/ Klasrooster:
DAY TIME VENUE
Monday- PRACTICAL 14H30 – 17H15 G4- G06-G09
Wednesday – THEORY 13H00 – 14H15 E9 – G01
Thursday – THEORY 08H00 – 09H15 E9 – G01
Study unit 1A: ARCHITECTURAL PATTERN OF ANIMALS /
ONTWERPSPATRONE VAN DIERE
Opsomming / Conclusion
 Hoëdiversiteitvan diere/ High diversity of animals
 Volgendeleereenheid(LE1) gaan ooreenkomsteuitwys/ Next study unit (SU1) aims to show
similarities
 Leereenheid2 Taksonomie& filogenie/ Study unit 2 Taxonomy & phylogeny
 Leereenhede3–13 invertebraatdiversiteit Study units 3–13 invertebrate diversity
Geselekteerde terme /Selected terms:
1) Protozoa - are one-celled eukaryotes
 cf. Prokariote / Prokaryotes

2) Parazoa –"beside the animals"

 phylum Porifera

3) (Eu)metazoan
 Meersellige organismes met kiemlae
 Multicellular organisms with germ layers
Taxon/ takson :
 A taxon (tak'son), pI. taxa (Gr. taxis, arrangement): is a group of organisms, which a
taxonomist adjudges to be a unit and is given a name and a rank
 Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
Kompleksiteit van diere /Animal Complexity
a) Grade van organisering / Grades of Organization
 Insert table 9.1
Animal Body Plans
i. Simmetrie/ Symmetry:
 Radiale simmetrie (Radial symmetry)
 Biradiale simmetrie (Biradial symmetry)
 Bilaterale simmetrie (Bilateral symmetry

ii. Liggaamsholtes en kiemlae / Body cavities and germ layers

 Acoelomate
 Pseudocoelomate
 Eucoelomate
 Insert figure 9.5
Metamerisme (segmentasie) / Metamerism (segmentation)
 Repetisie van eenderse ligg. Segmente
 Serial repetition of similar body segments along longitudinal axis of body
 Each segment is a metamere (metameer) or somite (somiet)
 Annelids, Arthropods, Chordates
Sefalisasie / Cephalisation
 Process by which specialisation particularly of sensory organs become localised in
the head region of animals
 Advantageous to an animal moving through its environment head first
Tagmatasie / Tagmatisation
 Samesmelting van segmente om funksionele groepe/eenhede te vorm bv. in insekte
(Arthropoda) –kop, toraks & abdomen
 Fusion segments to form functional units e.g. in insects –head, thorax and abdomen
Metasoïese dierkomponente (Metazoan animal components)
a) Sellulêrekomponentewatontstaanuitkiemlae& ekstrasellulêre komponente Cellular
componentsderived from germ layers & extracellular components
b) Nie-sellulêrekomponente(Noncellularcomponents):
 Liggaamsvloeistowwe(Body fluids)
c) Sellulêrekomponente–Weefsels / Cellular Components –Tissues
 Epiteelweefsel (Epithelial Tissue)
 Bindweefsel (Connective Tissue)
 Spierweefsel (Muscular Tissue)
 Senuweefsel (Nervous Tissue)

Metasoïese diere (Metazoan animals)

1. Epiteelweefsel (Epithelial Tissue)
 Sheet of cells that covers an internal or external surface
 Beskerming (Protection)
 Absorbsie (Absorption)
 Sekresie (Secretion)
 Eenvoudige epiteel (Simple epithelia)
 Enkel laag selle (Single layer of cells)
 Alle metazoa (All metazoa)
 Meerlagige epiteel (Stratified epithelia)
 2 of meer sellae (2 or more cell layers)
 Vertebrate
2. Bindweefsel (Connective Tissue)
o Widespread in body
 o Min selle, baie vesels en matriks (Contains relatively few cells, many fibers, and a
ground substance or matrix)
o 2 Tipes (2 types)
 Los bindweefsel (Loose connective tissue)
 Digte bindweefsel (Dense connective tissues)
 Bloed, limf, kraakbeen en been (blood, lymph, cartilage, and bone)
3. Spierweefsel (Muscular Tissue)
3 Tipes (3 Types):
 Skeletspier (Skeletal muscle)
 Gestreep, onvertak, meerkernig, willekeurig
 Striated, unbranched, multinuclei, and voluntary
 Hartspier (Cardiac muscle)
 Gestreep, vertak, 1-2 kerne, onwillekeurig
 Striated, branched, 1-2 nuclei, involuntary
 Gladdespier (Smooth muscle)
 Ongestreep, onvertak, 1 kern, onwillekeurig
 No striations, unbranched, 1 nucleus, involuntary

Metasoïese diere (Metazoan animals)

Senuweefsel (Nervous Tissue)
 Specialized to receive stimuli and conduct impulses from one region to another
 2 basic cell types
1. Neurons
 Structural and functional unit of nervous system
2. Neuroglia
 Insulate and support neurons

Kompleksiteit & liggaamsgrootte/ Complexity & Body Size

  More complex gradesof metazoan organization
 Permit and promote evolution of large body size
 Toename in ligg.grootte (Increases in body size)
 Oppervlak-area-tot-volume vehoudings belangrik t.o.v. respirasie, temperatuur, ens.
(Surface-area-to-volume ratios have important consequences for animal respiration,
heat, etc.)
 Oppervlakarea = [Ligg. lengte]² / Surface area = [body length]²
 Volume = [Ligg. lengte]³/ [body length]³
Groter diere het kleiner oppervlak relatief tot volume / Larger animals have less surface
area relative to its volume
Nadele van groter ligg. (Disadvantages of larger body)
 A large animal has less surface area compared to its volume than does a smaller
animal - May be inadequate for respiration and nutrition by cells located deep within
its body
 Flattening or infolding of the body increases surface area, as in flatworms
 Most animals developed internal transports systems to shuttle nutrients, gases and
waste products, as they became larger
 Benefits of Being Large
 Buffers against environmental fluctuations
 Provides protection against predators and promotes offensive tactics
 Cost of maintaining body temperature is less per gram of body weight than in small
animals
 Energy costs of moving a gram of body weight over a given distance less for larger
animals

Study unit 1B: TAKSONOMIE & FILOGENIE

VAN DIERE / TAXONOMY AND PHYLOGENY OF ANIMALS
TAKSONOMIE (TAXONOMY)? & FILOGENIE (PHYLOGENY)?
Definisies (Definitions)
 Taksonomie (Taxonomy)
 Formele sisteem om species te benaam en klassifiseer
 Formal system for naming and classifying species
 Filogenie (stam + oorsprong) / Phylogeny (tribe + origin)
 Die oorsprong en diversifikasie van ‘n takson … evolusionêre geskiedenis voorgestel
met dendogram
 The origin and diversification of a taxon ... evolutionary history represented by dendo
gram
 More than 1.5 million species of animals are named
 Estimated that these account for
 Less than 20% of all extant animals
 Less than 1% of extinct animals

Geskiedenis & ontwikkeling van klassifikasie / History & development of taxonomy a

nd classification
Linnaeus and Taxonomy
 Greek philosopher Aristotle first classified organisms
  Plants & animals
 Carolus Linnaeus designed the current system of classification
 Swedish botanist with extensive experience classifying objects, especially flowers
 Used morphology to develop a classification system of animals and plants
 Divided animal kingdom into species and gave each a distinctive name
 His classification scheme has been drastically altered, but the basic principle is still f
ollowed.
 Hickman

Classification
 Definition: The identification, naming, and grouping of organisms into a formal/structured
system
 Linnaean (Carolus Linnaeus) system of classification has two main characteristics:
 A two‐part name consisting of a genus and species e.g. Homo sapiens (genus &
species is always underlined!!)- binomiale nomenklatuur...Spesie‐epiteton
 A hierarchical classification of species into broader groups of animals.
o A scientific name of an animal consists of two words (binomial nomenclature)
 First word is the genus and is capitalized.
 Second is the specific epithet written in lower case.
o Scientific name should be printed in italics or underlined if handwritten.
 Homo sapiens of Homo sapiens
o Species epithet
 Never used alone.
o Ryk (Empire): Eucaryota (A type of cell with amembraneenclosednucleusandmembrane‐
enclosedorganelles)
 Kingdom: Protista (Protozoa, Archezoa & Chromista)
 Kingdom: Plantae
 Kingdom: Fungi
 Kingdom: Animalia
o Ryk (Empire): Procaryota (A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and
membrane‐enclosed organelles)
 Kingdom: Monera

Linnaeus and Taxonomy

Hierarchy of taxonomic ranks now includes 7 major groups:
 Koninkryk (Kingdom)
Linnaeus
 Filum (phylum)
 Klas (class)
 Orde (order)
 Familie (family)
 Genus (genus)
 Spesie (species)

Species
Biologists have repeatedly used certain criteria for identifying species
 Gemeenskaplike afkoms (Common Descent)
 Central to nearly all modern concepts of species
 Kleinste onderskeidende groepe van organismes wat patrone van voorouers en nageslagte
deel. Smallest distinct groupings of organisms sharing patterns of ancestry and descent
 Voortplantende gemeenskap (ReproductiveCommunity)
 Member of a species must form a reproductive community that excludes members of
other species
o Geslagtelike voortplanting (Sexually reproducing populations)
o Ongeslagtelike voortplanting (Asexually reproducing
populations)
Any species has a distribution through space and distribution through time
Geografiese verspreiding (Geographic range)
 Species having very large geographic ranges or worldwide distributions–
Cosmopolitan
 Species with very restricted geographic distributions–Endemic
Evolusionêre duur (Evolutionary duration)
 Distribution through time

 Today, organismal morphology still important in recognizing species.

 However, species no longer viewed as classes of organisms defined by possession of
certain morphological features.
 Type specimens serves only as a guide to general morphological features that one may
expect to find in a particular species.
 Variation is not viewed as an imperfect manifestation of an eternal “type”.

Typological Species Concept

Before Darwin, a species was considered a distinct (kenmerkende) & immutable (onveranderlike)
entity (entiteit)
 A type specimen (tiepspesie) was labelled and deposited in a museum.
 Represented the ideal form of a specimen.
 Small differences from the type
 Considered accidental imperfections.

Biological Species Concept

  Proposed by Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr
 Been refined and reworded several times
 ‘n Spesie is ‘n voortplantende gemeenskap van populasies (geskei van ander dmv
voortplanting) en wat ‘n spesifiek en is in die natuur bewoon.
 A species is a reproductive community of populations (reproductively isolated from
others) that occupies a specific niche in nature.
 Ability to successfully interbreed is central to the concept
 Lacks an explicit temporal dimension
 Gives little guidance regarding the species status of ancestral populations relative to their
evolutionary descendants
 Proponents of the biological species concept
 Disagree on the degree of reproductive isolation necessary for considering two populations
separate species
 The biological species concept has received strong criticism
 A species has limits in space and time
o Boundaries between species may be difficult to locate
o Interbreeding is not an operational definition in a sexual organisms

Evolutionary Species Concept

 Simpson proposed the evolutionary species concept in the1940s
 Biological species concept persists but with modification
 An evolutionary species
 A single lineage of ancestor‐ descendant populations that maintains its identity from
other such lineages and that has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate
 Definition accommodates both sexual and asexual forms as well as fossils

Phylogenetic Species Concept

o Phylogenetic species
 An irreducible (basal) grouping of organisms diagnosably distinct from other such
groupings and within which there is a parental pattern of ancestry and descent
 Both asexual and sexual groups are covered
 Phylogenetic species is a single population line age with no detectable branching

Taksonomiese eienskappe & filogenetiese rekonstruksie/

Taxonomic Characters and Phylogenetic Reconstruction
o Hoofdoel van sistematiek¹
- ¹klassifikasie & rekonstruksie van filogenie²
- ²oorsprong en diversifikasie van takson…evolusionêre geskiede
nis voorgestel as dendogram
o Major goal of systematics¹
- ¹classification & reconstruction of phylogeny²
- ²origin & diversivication of taxon…evolutionary history presented
i/t form of a dendogram
o Afleiding van die evolusionêre boom (filogenie) wat van verwantskappe tussen lewende en
uitgestorwe spesies
Infer the evolutionary tree or phylogeny that relates all extant and extinct species
o Word bereik deur eienskappe (kenmerke) van organismes te identifiseer wat varieer tussen
spesies [kenmerkvariasies]
 Accomplished by identifying organismal features called characters that vary among species
[character variations]

o Filogenetiese analise hang af van die vind van gemeenskaplike eienskappe…oorerf van
gemeenskaplike voorouer
Phylogenetic analysis depends upon finding shared features…inherited from common
ancestor.
o Homologie (Homology)
- Eienskap ooreenkoms agv geemeenskaplike voorouer
- Character similarity resulting from common ancestry

o Homoplasie (Homoplasy)
- Ooreenkomste nie altyd agv gemeenskaplike voorouer
(Similarity does not always reflect common ancestry)
- Character similarity that misrepresents common descent
Kenmerk variasie en filogenetiese rekonstruksie/
Using Character Variation to Reconstruct Phylogeny
1. Eerstestap…bepaal watter kenmerk variasie was teenwoordig in gemeenskaplike voorouer
First step is to determine which variant form of each character was present in the common
ancestor of the entire group
2. Kenmerkstaat teenwoordig in voorouer…voorouer kenmerkstaat
The character state present in the common ancestor…Ancestral character
3. Alle ander variasies v/d kenmerk wat later ontwikkel het in groep… afgeleide kenmerkstaat
All other variant forms of the character arose later within the group…derived characterstate

Buitegroep (Outgroup)
 Polariteit van kenmerk verwys na watter eienskap is afkomstig van voorouer en watter is
afgelei
Polarity of a character refers to identifying which one of its contrasting states is ancestral
and which one(s) is derived
 Buitegroep vergelyking word gebuik om bg te bepaal
Outgroup comparison… method used to examine the polarity of a variable character
 Buitegroep (Outgroup)
- Filogeneties naby, maar nie deel van groep wat ondersoek word
Group that is phylogenetically close but not within the group
being studied
 Hickman vir voorbeeld (example)

Afwesigheid van eienskap voorouerlik /

Absence of character ancestral

Taksonomiese Teorieë/ Theories of Taxonomy

Tradisioneel‐evolusionêre taksonomie & filogenetiese sistematiek (kladistiek)
Traditional Evolutionary Taxonomy & Phylogenetic Systematics (cladistics)
 Die verhouding tussen taksonomiese groep en filogenetiese boom belangrik in albei (A relat
ionship between a taxonomic group and a phylogenetic tree or cladogram important in both
theories)
Verhouding kan een van die volgende 3 vorme wees (Relationship can take on one of three
forms):
1. Monofiletiesegroup (Monophyletic group)
‘n Monofiletiese takson sluit die mees onlangse
gemeenskaplike voorvader en nakomelinge in.
A monophyletic taxon includes the most recent common
ancestor and all descendants of that ancestor
2. Parafiletiese groep (Paraphyletic group)
‘n Takson is parafileties indien dit die mees onlangse
gemeenskaplike voorvader insluit maar nie al die
nakomelinge nie
A taxon is paraphyletic if it includes the most recent
common ancestor of all members of a group and some
but not all descendants of that ancestor
3. Polifiletiese groep (Polyphyletic group)
‘n Takson is polifileties indien dit nie die mees onlangse
gemeenskaplike voorouer van die groep insluit nie…ten
minste 2 verskillende evolusionêre oorspronge
A taxon is polyphyletic if it does not include the most
recent common ancestor of all members of a group
The group has at least two separate evolutionary origins

Beide(Both):
- Aanvaar monofilie (Accepts monophyletic)
- Verwerp polifilie (Rejects polyphyletic groups)
- Verskil oor parafiletiese groepe(Differ on accepting paraphyletic
groups)
Verskil het belangrike evolusionêre implikasies
(Difference has important evolutionary implications)

Tradisioneel‐evolusionêre taksonomie/ Traditional Evolutionary Taxonomy

 Twee hoofbeginsels (The two main principles)
- Gemeenskaplike afkoms (Common descent)
 - Mate van adaptiewe evolusionêre verandering (Amount of
adaptive evolutionary change)
 Spesifieke tak op evolusionêre boom (A particular branch on an evolutionary tree)
- Beskou as hoër taksa indien dit aanpassingsoneverteenwoordig
(Considered a higher taxon if it represents a distinct adaptive
zone)
- Unieke “manier van leef” (Distinct “way of life”)
- Takson wat adaptiewe sone verteenwoordig… graad
(A taxon that represents an adaptive zone is a grade)
- Evolusionêre taksa kan mono-of parafileties wees (Evolutionary
taxa may be either monophyletic or paraphyletic)

Kritiek / Critique
 Filogenetiese bome moeilik (Phylogenetic trees difficult to obtain)
 Taksonomie moet makliker meetbare eienskap verteenwoordig ongeag filogenie…
fenetiesetaksonomie [algehele ooreenkomste om te klassifiseer]
(Taxonomy should represent more easily measured feature without regard to phylogeny…
phenetic taxonomy [overall similarity to classify)
»nie groot impak gehad op taksonomie (no strong impact on taxonomy & interest in this me
thos has declined)

Filogenetiese taksonomie (kladistiek)/ Phylogenetic Systematics (Cladistics):

 Teenstrydig met evolusionêre taksonomie (Challenge to evolutionary taxonomy)
 Willi Hennig (1950)
- Het eertse kladistiek/filogenetiese sistematiek voorgestel (First
proposed cladistics or phylogenetic systematics)
- Lê klem op gedeelde afkoms en kladogramme (Emphasizes
common descent and cladograms)
 Vermy parafiletiese groepe deur definisie van lang lyste sustergroepe (Cladists avoid parap
hyletic groups by defining a long list of sister groups to each more inclusive taxon

Gee ’n kritiese evaluering van die verdeling van die biota in subgroepe (ryke) soos
voorgestel: in die tyd va nAristoteles deur Haeckel in, 1866 ens. & Dui aan watter
kenmerke gebruik is om tenopsigte van elk van die gevalle soos genoem in vraag 1tot ‘n
slotsom te kom oor verdeling van ryke

 Aristotle’s two kingdom system

- Included plants and animals i.e. photosynthesis vs food
ingesting
- One-celled organisms became a problem
- What about e.g. Euglena?
 Haeckel (1866)
- Proposed Protista for single-celled organisms
- Three kingdoms, animals, plants & single celled organisms
- No discrimination between bacteria (no nucleus), cyanobacteria
(prokaryote) & eukaryotes
 R.H. Whittaker (1969)
- Proposed a five-kingdom system to distinguish prokaryotes and
fungi
 -
Monera (prokaryotes), Protista (unicellular eukaryotes + algae),
Plantae, Fungi & Animalia
 Woese, Kandler and Wheelis
- Proposed three monophyletic domains above kingdom level
- Eucarya (all eukaryotes), Bacteria (true bacteria) and Archaea
(prokaryotes differing from bacteria in membrane structure &
ribosomal RNA)
- Based on ribosomal RNA sequences