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Harmonious
Harmonious passion and passion
procrastination: an exploration
based on actor–partner
interdependence model 4407
Zhenduo Zhang and Yifei Shen Received 4 September 2022
Revised 5 December 2022
School of Economics and Management, Dalian University of Technology, 21 February 2023
Dalian, China Accepted 5 March 2023

Mengxi Yang
School of Economics and Management, University of Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Beijing, China and MOE Social Science Laboratory of Digital Economic
Forecasts and Policy Simulation, UCAS, Beijing, China, and
Junwei Zheng
Faculty of Civil Engineering and Mechanics, Kunming University of Science and
Technology, Kunming, China

Abstract
Purpose – Considering the potential economic losses this might bring about, researchers have begun to
explore ways to mitigate procrastination. Drawing on the job demands-resources model and the spillover-
crossover model, this study aims to investigate the association between harmonious passion and
procrastination at the intra- and interpersonal levels.
Design/methodology/approach – This study used a two-wave multisource questionnaire survey to
acquire 256 cases nested in 128 coworker dyads from two hotels in Shanghai. Multilevel analysis and the
actor–partner interdependence model were adopted to examine the hypotheses.
Findings – The results indicate that employees’ harmonious passion is indirectly negatively associated with
procrastination (i.e., cyberslacking and soldiering) through workplace well-being at the intrapersonal level;
employees’ harmonious passion is indirectly negatively associated with their coworkers’ procrastination (i.e.,
cyberslacking and soldiering) through the coworkers’ workplace well-being; and the crossover influence of
employees’ harmonious passion on coworkers’ workplace well-being is contingent upon interpersonal conflict at the
dyadic level, such that the crossover influence is stronger in condition of low rather than high interpersonal conflict.
Practical implications – Hotels are suggested to provide training programs to employees for enhancing
their capabilities to maintain harmonious passion and promote their communication skills to decrease the
likelihood to experience interpersonal conflict.

Ethics approval statement: The study procedures were approved by the Ethics Committee of
University of Dalian University of Technology and were in line with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration
and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was signed and
obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
International Journal of
Funding statement: This research was supported by the Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Contemporary Hospitality
Project of the Ministry of Education (Grant no. 22YJC630211), the Fundamental Research Funds for Management
Vol. 35 No. 12, 2023
the Central Universities (Grant no. DUT21RC(3)089), the National Natural Science Foundation of pp. 4407-4427
China (Grant no. 72102220, 72161021, and 72192843) and MOE Social Science Laboratory of Digital © Emerald Publishing Limited
0959-6119
Economic Forecasts and Policy Simulation at UCAS. DOI 10.1108/IJCHM-09-2022-1054
IJCHM Originality/value – This study offers a comprehensive insight into the association between harmonious
passion and procrastination in hospitality employees, which extends the understanding of the outcomes of
35,12 harmonious passion and the profit of harmonious passion at the interpersonal level.
Keywords Harmonious passion, Workplace well-being, Procrastination, Interpersonal conflict,
Actor–partner interdependence model
Paper type Research paper
4408
1. Introduction
The increased stress threatens the emotional well-being of hospitality employees, thereby
impacting their work behaviors both directly and indirectly (Sun et al., 2023). Therefore,
researchers have increasingly begun to explore the mechanism through which positive
emotional experiences are impacting subjective well-being and task performance of
hospitality employees during the pandemic (Hwang et al., 2021). These attempts aim to
specify how and when positive emotional experiences promote hotel employees’ self-
development (Teng et al., 2022). Among various positive emotions, harmonious passion has
received substantial attention because of its strong associations with hospitality employees’
mental health and proactive work behaviors (Wu et al., 2020).
Harmonious passion can be described as a deep-seated connection with an activity that has
been embraced and internalized, forming an integral part of one’s identity (Lafrenière et al.,
2009). This connection brings a strong sense of internal satisfaction and freedom of choice
when it comes to further pursuing the activity. According to the hospitality management
literature, harmonious passion exhibits associations with innovative behavior, prosocial
behavior and proactive service performance (Luu, 2021; Sun et al., 2023). However, its
connection with procrastination has rarely been investigated to date. Procrastination is a
detrimental behavior that has become an emerging topic of research in the management field
during the COVID-19 pandemic. The disruptive changes and amplified uncertainty in daily life
associated with the pandemic have provoked the emergence of emotional distress (Arenas et al.,
2022). To avoid and deal with these unfavorable affective experiences, people tend to
procrastinate on other compulsory tasks and are distracted from their own tasks.
Procrastination is defined as the act of postponing the completion of the work by engaging in
personal activities during the working hours, but with no intent of causing any harm to others
(Metin et al., 2016). Employees spend an average of 1.5–3 h on non-work-related activities per
day during working hours and procrastination leads to a 30%–40% loss of productivity, which
adds up to $85bn per year in US companies (Vivien and Thompson, 2006).
Moreover, the hospitality management field should devote much consideration to
procrastination, and there is a need to develop strategies to inhibit procrastination. As
mentioned above, procrastination has been derived from increased emotional stress during
the COVID-19 pandemic (Arenas et al., 2022). Furthermore, harmonious passion has been
examined in prior studies as a positive emotional resource for coping up with emotional
distress (Lafrenière et al., 2009). Therefore, our study attempts to explore the influences of
harmonious passion on procrastination. Well-being also epitomizes a low level of emotional
distress. As a result, well-being is an important mechanism to explain how harmonious
passion impacts work behavior. Therefore, this study adopts workplace well-being as the
mediator to explain how harmonious passion inhibits procrastination.
This study is based on the job demands-resources (JD-R) model. This model depicts that
harmonious passion works as a positive emotional resource to nurture well-being of hotel
employees. When employees have high workplace well-being, they are more motivated to
engage in their work rather than procrastination. The spillover-crossover model (SCM)
further indicates that job resources, and in particular emotional resources, exhibit a Harmonious
crossover influence on coworkers’ work behavior (Wang et al., 2019). Through an emotional passion
contagion mechanism, emotional resources can stimulate coworkers’ positive affect, thereby
enhancing their workplace well-being. Therefore, we further explored the crossover impact
of harmonious passion on coworkers’ workplace well-being.
Furthermore, the JD-R model suggests that job demands may undermine the benefits of
job resources. In coworker dyads, interpersonal conflict is the main job demand that
attenuates the crossover influence of harmonious passion on coworkers’ workplace well-
4409
being (Kim et al., 2019). When employees experience a high level of interpersonal conflicts
with specific coworkers, coworkers are less likely to be impacted by the focal employees
because of their low relationship quality and short shared work time. Thus, to identify the
specific context under which harmonious passion can cross over in coworker dyads to shape
hotel employees’ workplace well-being, this study adopts interpersonal conflict at the dyadic
level as the cross-level moderator.
To test the conceptual model (Figure 1), data were collected from two hotels in Beijing,
China, through a two-time paired questionnaire survey. The actor–partner interdependence
model (APIM) was then used to examine the hypotheses. Our study has three implications to
the existing research on harmonious passion. First, we explore the underlying mechanism
through which harmonious passion inhibits procrastination from an actor-centric
perspective, thereby extending our knowledge of the outcomes of harmonious passion.
Second, our study reveals the crossover impact by which harmonious passion mitigates
coworkers’ procrastination, enriching our insight into the benefits of harmonious passion at
the interpersonal level. Third, this study depicts the boundary condition under which
harmonious passion has a crossover influence on coworkers’ workplace well-being by
identifying the cross-level moderating role of interpersonal conflict.

2. Hypothesis development and literature review

2.1 Job demands-resources model and spillover-crossover model
According to the related previous literature, job resources facilitate, whereas job demands
impede personal development and well-being. Drawing on this, and on the job demands–
control model proposed by Karasek (1979), Bakker and Demerouti (2007) developed the JD-R

Figure 1.
Conceptual model
IJCHM model. The JD-R model features dual processes to explain why an individual feels burnout/
35,12 engaged (Kwon and Kim, 2020). The first process is that job demands may consume
resources and lead to job burnout. The second process is that job resources may preserve
energies and foster work engagement. Moreover, the JD-R model highlights the interactive
influence of demands and resources on well-being.
The JD-R model has been extensively used in the hospitality management field to explain
4410 why, when and how different job demands/job resources shape employees’ performance and
psychological responses in various hospitality organizations. For example, Wang (2019)
found that surface acting leads to decreased customer loyalty, whereas deep acting enhances
customer loyalty. These two relationships are amplified by perceived organizational
support. Tripathi et al. (2021) found that empowerment works as a job resource that
stimulates work engagement, and that personal resources (i.e. perceived organization
support and locus of control) amplify this relationship.
However, this line of studies has mainly been conducted from an actor-centric
perspective and less attention has been paid to the influences of job demands/resources on
their coworkers, who frequently interact with the focal employees. To fill this research gap,
Bakker and Demerouti (2013) developed the SCM. The SCM indicates that family and work
are two interrelated domains. Spillover is a contagion process that takes place when an
individual carries over emotions, behaviors or attitudes from the work domain to their
family domain, and vice versa. The focus of hospitality management researchers has been
drawn to this spillover process. For example, Zhu et al. (2019) found that workplace sexual
harassment enhanced depression and spillover to the family domains, thereby fostering
family-undermining behavior. Zhu et al. (2021) identified that customer incivility was
transmitted to service employees’ family undermining through increased work-to-family
conflict.
The crossover process involves the transfer of experiences from one individual to
another in a dyadic relationship, with the notion that the well-being of one person influences
that of the other. This is the core principle of crossover. The dyadic relationships at work are
mostly leader–subordinate dyads and employee–coworker dyads. Many hospitality
management studies have provided evidence for the crossover process in leader–
subordinate dyads. For example, Wu et al. (2020) pointed out that leaders’ emotional
resources could be transmitted to their employees through expressing humors. However,
there has been no empirical study focusing on how job demands/resources are transmitted
in employee–coworker dyads in hospitality management area. To bridge this gap, our study
investigates the crossover influence of positive emotional resources, whose importance has
captured the attention of the hospitality researchers, on both employees’ and their
coworkers’ psychological (i.e. workplace well-being) and behavioral (i.e. procrastination)
responses. The theoretical model of JD-R model and SCM is shown in Figure 2.

2.2 Harmonious passion and procrastination from an actor-centric perspective

Once individuals have internalized a beloved activity, and it has become a part of their
identity, the harmonious passion is born. This passion is freely selected by the individuals,
and not imposed upon them, and it interacts harmoniously with different aspects of their
lives (Ji et al., 2022). The activity is controlled by individuals and they have positive
emotional experiences when they engage in such passionate activities (Mehmood et al.,
2023). Harmonious passion is regarded as a valuable resource in the JD-R model literature.
These studies have suggested that harmonious passion can expand individuals’
motivational resources and cognitive processes. Therefore, harmonious passion leads to job
satisfaction, work engagement, positive affect and well-being.
 Harmonious
passion

4411

Figure 2.
Theoretical model of
job demands-
resources model and
spillover-crossover
model

The impact of harmonious passion on workplace well-being has been confirmed by several
studies. For instance, Philippe et al. (2009) believed that harmonious passion could enhance
well-being and subjective vitality in various age and gender groups. Moreover, Carpentier
et al. (2012) suggested that harmonious passion contributes to increase perceptions of
control, task focus, beneficial challenges and skill balance, which are important components
of flow. Notably, the concept of flow has been examined as a critical antecedent to workplace
well-being in the JD-R model literature (Taser et al., 2022); therefore, it is hypothesized that
harmonious passion can stimulate flow, thereby enhancing workplace well-being. Hence, we
hypothesize as follows:

H1. Harmonious passion can significantly enhance workplace well-being.

Prior studies have divided procrastination into the two dimensions of soldiering and
cyberslacking. Soldiering indicates offline off-task activities, such as daydreaming, gossiping
and overlong coffee breaks. Cyberslacking denotes online off-task activity, such as contact
with friends through mobile applications and playing online games. Procrastination at work
is always due to the lack of resources or high costs; for example, procrastination emerges
when employees undergo distress (Fatima et al., 2019). Procrastination is a form of
maladaptive behavior and shows that employees avoid tasks to release themselves from
subjective experiences such as depression and anxiety. For example, Rahimi and Vallerand
(2021) found that anxiety increases the likelihood of academic procrastination during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
IJCHM Workplace well-being is the ability to fulfill goals and achieve life satisfaction. With
35,12 stable, high workplace well-being, employees have the psychological resources needed to
overcome rather than escape from challenges at work (Foster et al., 2020). Workplace well-
being has been examined as a motivational resource that can drive employees to engage in
their job and exhibit outstanding task and contextual performance (Cho et al., 2021).
Moreover, workplace well-being provides resources for employees to enhance their ego
4412 strengths, thereby inhibiting both online and offline nonrelated task activities. For instance,
diminished well-being is a motive for decreased task performance and increased
organizational deviance (Azeem et al., 2021). Tandon et al. (2022) depicted the negative
relationship between workplace well-being and cyberslacking. Thus, this study
hypothesizes as follows:

H2. Workplace well-being is negatively associated with (a) soldiering and (b)
cyberslacking.
The JD-R model highlights the positive impacts of the job resources that are essential for
individuals to cope up with job demands. Emotional resources are associated with
employees’ capability to maintain stable and positive affective experiences. These
experiences are vital to enhancing workplace well-being. Consistent with the benefits of
other emotional resources, harmonious passion can stimulate positive affect and subjective
vitality. Moreover, harmonious passion gives employees perceptions of job control,
autonomous internalization and enhanced work-related skills. These all factors foster
workplace well-being (Foster et al., 2020).
One of the benefits of job resources is to help employees to overcome challenges and achieve
self-development. When lacking in job resources, employees tend to be alienated from work, in
particular, while encountering difficulties at work, and consequently, procrastination emerges.
Workplace well-being works as a psychological resource to motivate employees to focus on
their jobs rather than avoid challenges through procrastination. Thus, we assume that
harmonious passion helps employees to accumulate resources at work and enhance their
workplace well-being, thereby inhibiting procrastination. We thus hypothesize as follows:

H3. Workplace well-being mediates the association between harmonious passion and
procrastination, both as (a) soldiering and (b) cyberslacking.

2.3 Harmonious passion and procrastination from an actor–partner interdependence model

perspective
Based on the JD-R model, Bakker and Demerouti (2013) proposed the SCM to elaborate the
ways in which demands and resources at work domain are transmitted into the home
domain and vice versa, and how these are transmitted to related others (e.g. spouse, children
and coworkers) in the same domain. From the perspective of the crossover model, the
reaction of individuals to job demands and resources is experienced by those with whom
they regularly interact at work. For example, Chen and Ellis (2021) found that job demands
have crossover influences in couple dyads. Moreover, Peeters et al. (2016) found that looking
for challenges and resources are transferred from one individual to another in coworker
dyads on a daily basis.
Ample evidence has been provided for the crossover effect of job resources at work, in
particular, emotional resources (Zhang et al., 2021). Emotional resources can be transferred
from one employee to another through emotional contagion. The ability to pick up on the
emotions of those around us, and consequently to express similar emotions, is known as
emotional contagion. This phenomenon of emotional convergence is characterized by the Harmonious
imitation of body and facial expressions seen in others. This crossover process has also been passion
examined for harmonious passion in leader–subordinate dyads. Li et al. (2017) found that a
leader’s work passion could evoke passion in their subordinates, thereby promoting their
well-being. When employees experience harmonious passion, they are tending to engage
with their workplace environments and initiate more social contacts with their coworkers.
Therefore, their harmonious passion tends to be shared by their coworkers and they
promote their coworkers’ well-being at work. Therefore, we hypothesize as follows:
4413

H4. Employees’ harmonious passion can significantly enhance their coworkers’

workplace well-being.
The SCM indicates that resources are not stable, instead they flow dynamically among
individuals with favorable relationships. When individuals work together and interact
regularly, the resources of one individual can be transmitted to others, thereby impacting
psychological and behavioral responses of others (Grotto and Lyness, 2022). Harmonious
passion is a positive resource in the workplace. When working with a harmoniously
passionate employee, coworkers are impacted by their positive emotional states and feel
energized at work. The positive emotional states are important to nurturing coworkers’
workplace well-being. Bakker and Xanthopoulou (2009) found that daily well-being
transmitted in employee–coworker pairs is beneficial to maintaining task performance of
both employees and coworkers. It indicates that contextual resources can be transmitted
into individuals’ personal resources and consistently shape their work behaviors. When
coworkers’ well-being is stimulated by the focal employees’ harmonious passion, their
following work behaviors are impacted by the workplace well-being. The enhanced well-
being then motivates them to engage in their current jobs and promote their ego strengths to
resist procrastination. Therefore, we hypothesize as follows:

H5. Coworkers’ well-being mediates the association between employees’ harmonious

passion and coworkers’ procrastination, both as (a) soldiering and (b) cyberslacking.
When the crossover process is more effective or when it is less effective has captured
researchers’ attention. Through related literature review, several factors have been
identified that impact the transition mechanisms of job resources, such as similarity to the
sources, frequency and quality of communication and team climate. Studies have suggested
that emotional resources have a higher likelihood of being transmitted in coworker dyads
that have favorable relationships (Dasborough et al., 2009). Furthermore, the JD-R model has
proposed that stressful context is important for buffering the positive influences of job
resources in promoting career growth, maintaining mental health and facilitating task
performance. Combining these two points, this study adopts interpersonal conflict as a
moderator of when employees’ harmonious passion is beneficial for coworkers to enhance
their workplace well-being.
Interpersonal conflict can be described as a dynamic process that happens between two
or more people who are dependent upon each other and who get negative emotions when
they feel disagreements or are hindered from achieving their aims. Interpersonal conflict is
the main risk factor threatening coworkers’ relationship quality (Barki and Hartwick, 2004).
When experiencing high interpersonal conflict, coworkers are inclined to communicate less
and develop negative connections with each other. Employees with harmonious passion are
less likely to communicate with and share their positive experiences with coworkers who
have high-level interpersonal conflicts with them. The crossover process is thus blocked. In
IJCHM contrast, when there is a low level of interpersonal conflict, coworkers have a higher
35,12 likelihood of developing a favorable relationship with each other and sharing their positive
emotional experiences. Therefore, the crossover mechanism is less likely to be inhibited and
employees’ harmonious passion is more likely to enhance their coworkers’ workplace well-
being. Thus, we hypothesize as follows:

H6. Interpersonal conflict moderates the association between employees’ harmonious

4414 passion and coworkers’ workplace well-being, such that this association is stronger
under the condition of lower than higher-level interpersonal conflict.

3. Methodology
3.1 Research design
The APIM provides an effective framework for analyzing the interactions between two
people and apprehending the interdependencies of their relationship (Kashy et al., 2000). By
using proper statistical methods, the APIM can measure and test those dyadic relationships
that have caught limited attention in the hospitality management research field. The APIM
enabled us to depict how independent variables impact the actors themselves, which is
known as the actor effect. Furthermore, we can calculate how the partners’ independent
variables impact the actors’ outcomes, which is known as the partner effect through APIM.
This model has been recommended as a way to explore closed relationships at work and
depict how resources and demands cross over in coworker dyads (Ng and Wang, 2019).
The hypotheses of this study are that harmonious passion Influences both employees
and their coworkers’ well-being and procrastination. Moreover, these influences are
reciprocal, i.e. coworkers’ harmonious passion can simultaneously impact their own and
their partner focal employees’ well-being and procrastination. For this reason, herein, the
APIM was adopted to investigate the crossover influence of harmonious passion on
procrastination among coworkers. Therefore, we recruited dyadic samples who used to or
were currently working together to meet the requirements of the APIM design and our
research purpose. Moreover, to better control common method basis, we decided to use two-
wave and multisource data.

3.2 Participants and procedures

We conducted a multisource, two-wave survey of participants employed full time by two
hotels in Shanghai, China. There are two reasons why these two hotels were selected as our
sample pools. The first is that our research team members had previously collaborated with
the top management teams of these two hotels. Owing to these social relationships, we could
obtain support from the top management teams, which was very helpful for collecting high-
quality data. The second is that these two hotels encourage collaboration between
employees. This would be beneficial and convenient for us to obtain dyadic data from
employees who were accustomed to working together. We were in touch with the human
resource managers of the hotels to explain our process and purpose. With their approval and
assistance, we obtained the roster of the samples. We separated the samples into different
dyads comprised of individuals who had previously worked or were currently working
together to complete assigned tasks. We then asked the human resource managers and team
leaders to ensure the validity of our groupings. We sent recruiting literature to the dyadic
employees to obtain their consent to take part in the survey. The participants were promised
that their answers would be kept confidential and that they could stop taking part at any
moment.
 We distributed 300 pencil-and-paper questionnaires at Time 1; 276 valid responses Harmonious
nested in 138 dyads were collected, giving an effective response rate of 92% for this wave. In passion
this wave, we assessed the respondents’ demographic information, harmonious passion,
interpersonal conflict with their matched employees and workplace well-being. One month
later, at Time 2, the second wave survey was conducted among the same samples used in
Time 1. This time, 254 matched valid questionnaires nested in 127 dyads were collected,
giving an effective response rate of 92.03% for this wave. In this time, the participants were
required to evaluate demographic information and their matched coworkers’ procrastination 4415
behaviors, including soldiering and cyberslacking. After performing a drop-out analysis, we
discovered that the demographic information (e.g. gender, age and education) of the samples
that were excluded did not differ significantly from those that were retained. The
participants received RMB 25 (about $3.94) as a reward after completing both waves of
surveys. The mean age of the respondents was 39.26 years (SD = 4.67), 42.9% of the
participants were male, and 93.7% held bachelor’s degrees.

3.3 Measurements
A back-to-back translation process was implemented to accurately translate the scales
originally published in English, into Chinese (Brislin, 1980), and then used in this study. All
items were scored on a five-point Likert scale with 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly
agree, if not otherwise stated.
Harmonious passion. The three-item short-version scale of harmonious passion validated
by Lafrenière et al. (2009) was used in our research.
Workplace well-being. Six items measuring workplace well-being, designed by Zheng
et al. (2015), were used in our research.
Procrastination. The 12-item scale of procrastination developed by Metin et al. (2016) was
used in our research. This scale included two subdimensions; namely, an eight-item
soldiering scale and a four-item cyberslacking scale. Items were scored on a five-point Likert
scale ranging from 1= never to 5 = always.
Interpersonal conflict. Four items measuring interpersonal conflict with coworkers,
developed by Frone (2000), were used in our research. Items were scored on a five-point
Likert scale with 1 = less than once per month or never and 5 = several times per day.
Control variables. Given the potential impacts of demographic information on workplace
well-being and procrastination, our research adopted gender, age and education as control
variables in the statistical analysis, following the example of prior studies (Hsu et al., 2019;
Sprigg et al., 2019).

3.4 Analytical strategy

Our study used an APIM to test the hypotheses. To circumvent the data dependence issue in
analyzing the dyadic data, several steps were adopted in this study to conduct APIM
analysis. First, the indirect relationship between harmonious passion and procrastination
through workplace well-being was specified separately for employees and their paired
coworkers. Second, the interdependent nature of the data was acknowledged by specifying
the residues of paired variables to be correlated, in particular, for the independent variable
(i.e. harmonious passion). Third, the partner effect and its boundary condition were
specified. We aggregated interpersonal conflict into the dyadic level (level 2) and conducted
a multilevel regression analysis to calculate its cross-level moderating role in the crossover
association between one’s own harmonious passion and its effect on others’ workplace well-
being at the individual level (Level 1) following suggestions from Bakker and Xanthopoulou
(2009).
IJCHM 4. Results
35,12 4.1 Common method bias
Our research performed confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) by using Lavaan Package in
R (V0.6–12) to assess common method bias. Table 1 presents the CFA results. The
results indicate that the proposed five-factor model exhibits a better fit [x2 (265) = 499.69,
CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.07, SRMR = 0.06] than any of the other models (Dx2

4416 211.08, p < 0.01). This study thus passes the common method bias (CMB) test (Podsakoff
et al., 2003).

4.2 Reliability and validity

The results indicate acceptable consistency and reliability, as the Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients for each scale exceed the 0.7 threshold and the CR values also exceed the 0.7
threshold (Table 2). The CFA was also adopted to examine the validity of the measurements.
The results presented in Table 2 reveal that the estimates of the standardized factor loading
of each item exceed the 0.7 threshold and thus reach the level of significance. The values of
AVE range from 0.61 to 0.84, which is higher than the 0.5 threshold. These two results
indicate a high convergent validity for the measurements adopted in our research. To
examine the discriminant validity, we compared the shared variance between AVE and the
constructs. Table 3 presents that the square roots of the AVE exceed the correlations
between every pair of variables used in this study, indicating acceptable discriminant
validity.

4.3 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis

Table 3 shows the means, standard deviations and correlations of all variables adopted in
our research. Moreover, a quantile–quantile plot was used to examine the normality of our
data. The results indicate that few samples deviated from the line of y = x. Moreover, both
kurtosis and skewness values for all measurements ranged from 1 to þ1, indicating that
the data were normally distributed (Kline, 2011).

4.4 Hypothesis testing

The APIM was adopted to examine the conceptual model. The analysis was conducted by using
Rstudio (V5.12.8) and Lavaan package (0.6–9). The results in Figure 3 presents that harmonious

Model Factor x2 df x2/df 4x2 CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR

Five-factor HP, LW, CL, SO, IC 499.69 265 1.89 0.94 0.93 0.07 0.06
model
Four-factor HP, LW, CL þ SO, IC 710.77 269 2.64 211.08** 0.88 0.86 0.09 0.07
model
Three-factor HP þ LW, CL þ SO, IC 1,055.12 272 3.88 555.43** 0.77 0.75 0.12 0.11
model
Two-factor HP þ LW þ CL þ SO, 1,600.38 274 5.84 1,100.68** 0.62 0.58 0.16 0.15
model IC
One-factor HP þ LW þ CL þ SO þ 2,367.43 275 8.61 1,867.73** 0.39 0.33 0.20 0.18
Table 1. model IC
Results of Notes: N = 254 nested in 127 dyads; **p < 0.01; HP = Harmonious passion; LW = Workplace well-being;
confirmatory factor CL = Cyberslacking; SO = Soldiering; IC = Interpersonal conflict
analysis Source: Created by the authors
 Cronbach’s
Harmonious
Code Item Loadings alpha CR AVE passion
Harmonious passion (Marsh et al., 2013; St-Louis et al., 2021)
HP1 My job is in harmony with other activities in my life 0.88 0.90 0.90 0.75
HP2 My job is in harmony with other things that are a part of me 0.82
HP3 My job is well integrated in my life 0.89
Workplace well-being (Zheng et al., 2015) 4417
LW1 I am satisfied with my work responsibilities 0.79 0.88 0.91 0.62
LW2 In general, I feel fairly satisfied with my present job 0.77
LW3 I find real enjoyment in my work 0.81
LW4 I can always find ways to enrich my work 0.89
LW5 Work is a meaningful experience for me 0.70
LW6 I feel basically satisfied with my work achievements in my current 0.77
job
Procrastination (Metin et al., 2016) 0.92
Soldiering
SO1 When I work, even after I make decision, I delay acting upon it 0.76 0.92 0.93 0.61
SO2 I delay before starting on work I have to do 0.77
SO3 At work, I crave a pleasurable diversion so sharply that I find it 0.76
increasingly hard to stay on track
SO4 When a work task is tedious, again and again I find myself 0.77
pleasantly daydreaming rather than focusing
SO5 I give priority to the lesser tasks, even if there is something 0.71
important, I should do at work
SO6 When I have excessive amount of work to do, I avoid planning my 0.75
tasks, and find myself doing something totally irrelevant
SO7 I take long coffee breaks 0.83
SO8 I delay some of my tasks just because I do not enjoy doing them 0.88
Cyberslacking
CL1 I use Instant Messaging (MSN, WeChat, Weibo, Tiktok. . .) at work 0.73 0.85 0.84 0.63
CL2 I spend more than half an hour on social network sites (Weibo, Pyq 0.90
of WeChat, Tiktok) on work per day
CL3 I read news online at work 0.83
CL4 I do online shopping during working hours 0.70
Interpersonal conflict (Frone et al., 2000)
IC1 How often do you get arguments with your colleagues? 0.92 0.98 0.96 0.84
IC2 How often do your colleagues do things that make you sick and 0.94
disgusting?
IC3 How often are your colleagues rude to you? 0.91
IC4 How often do your colleagues yell at you? 0.90 Table 2.
Results of
Source: Created by the authors measurement model

passion can significantly enhance workplace well-being (Model 1, B = 0.14, p < 0.05). H1 was
thus supported. Workplace well-being was negatively associated with both soldiering (Model 5,
B = 0.21, p < 0.01) and cyberslacking (Model 4, B = 0.27, p < 0.01). H2 was thus supported.
To further test the mediator of workplace well-being on the association between harmonious
passion and procrastination, a bootstrapping test was conducted (Table 4). The results indicate
that workplace cyberbullying mediated the influences of harmonious passion on both soldiering
(Model 5, Effect = 0.03, SE = 0.01, 95%CI = [0.06, 0.01]) and cyberslacking (Model 4,
Effect = 0.03, SE = 0.02, 95%CI = [0.07, 0.01]). H3 was thus supported.
 35,12

analysis
4418
IJCHM

Table 3.

and correlation
Results of means,
standard deviations
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Employee
1. Gender 1.56 0.50
2. Age 39.26 4.67 0.06
3. Education 2.04 0.38 0.02 0.13*
4. Harmonious Passion 2.34 0.90 0.26** 0.05 0.09 (0.87)
5. Workplace well-being 3.46 0.71 0.15* 0.01 0.14* 0.18** (0.79)
6. Cyberslacking 3.05 0.85 0.11 0.08 0.03 0.29** 0.28** (0.78)
7. Soldiering 2.45 0.82 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.20** 0.31** 0.56** (0.80)
8. Interpersonal conflict 2.18 0.82 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.11 0.42** 0.11 0.15* (0.92)
Coworker
9. Gender 1.56 0.50 0.71** 0.02 0.00 0.22** 0.13* 0.09 0.01 0.15*
10. Age 39.26 4.67 0.02 0.05 0.13* 0.00 0.08 0.04 0.04 0.08 0.06
11. Education 2.04 0.38 0.01 0.13* 0.60** 0.09 0.15* 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.03 0.13*
12. Harmonious passion 2.34 0.90 0.22** 0.00 0.10 0.15* 0.26** 0.25** 0.18** 0.15* 0.26** 0.05 0.09 (0.87)
13. Workplace wellbeing 3.46 0.71 0.13* 0.08 0.16* 0.26** 0.22** 0.10 0.11 0.21** 0.15* 0.01 0.13* 0.18** (0.79)
14. Cyberslacking 3.05 0.85 0.09 0.04 0.07 0.25** 0.10 0.24** 0.12 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.03 0.29** 0.28** (0.78)
15. Soldiering 2.45 0.82 0.01 0.04 0.10 0.18** 0.11 0.12 0.13* 0.09 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.20** 0.31** 0.56** (0.80)
16. Interpersonal conflict 2.18 0.82 0.15* 0.08 0.08 0.15* 0.21** 0.09 0.09 0.40** 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.11 0.42** 0.11 0.15* (0.92)

Notes: N = 254 nested in 127 dyads; **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05; values in the parentheses are the square root of AVE
Source: Created by the authors
Harmonious
passion
4419
Figure 3.
Results of
actor–partner
interdependence
model analysis
IJCHM To examine the crossover influence of harmonious passion on workplace well-being, the
35,12 partner effect was calculated by using the APIM. The results in Figure 3 indicate that
employees’ harmonious passion can significantly enhance the coworkers’ workplace well-being
(Model 1, B = 0.24, p < 0.01). H4 was thus supported. Furthermore, the results of a
bootstrapping test are presented in Table 4. It indicates that harmonious passion was indirectly
associated with both soldiering (Model 5, Effect = 0.06, SE = 0.02, 95%CI = [0.10, 0.02])
4420 and cyberslacking (Model 4, Effect = 0.05, SE = 0.02, 95%CI = [0.09, 0.02]) through
workplace well-being. H5 was thus supported.
To test the crossover moderating effect of interpersonal conflict, hierarchical regression
analysis was conducted through the BruceR package (V0.7.2). First, we aggregated interpersonal
conflict data into the dyadic level because of their ICC (1) = 0.14. The results presented in Table 5
indicate that harmonious passion of employees can significantly enhance the coworkers’
workplace well-being (g = 0.18, p < 0.01), whereas the interactive item of harmonious passion
with interpersonal conflict can reduce workplace well-being (g = 0.12, p < 0.05).
A simple slope test was used to examine the moderating role of interpersonal conflict.
The results summarized in Table 6 indicate that the association between employees’
harmonious passion and coworkers’ workplace well-being weakened in the condition of high
(Effect = 0.45, SE = 0.13, 95%CI = [0.20, 0.69]) rather than low interpersonal conflict
(Effect = 0.28, SE = 0.13, 95%CI = [0.03, 0.53]). The significant difference between these two
slopes (Difference = 0.17, SE = 0.08, 95%CI = [0.33, 0.01]) indicates that H6 was
supported. The moderating effect of interpersonal conflict is presented in Figure 4.

5. Discussion
5.1 Conclusion
Through a two-time two-source survey design, our research tested the relationship between
harmonious passion and procrastination both at the intra- and interpersonal levels. Our

Confidence
interval
Model Effect SE 95%LL 95%UL

Model 1
Employee effect 0.11 0.05 0.02 0.21
Coworker effect 0.19 0.05 0.09 0.28
Model 2
Employee effect 0.24 0.06 0.35 0.13
Coworker effect 0.20 0.06 0.31 0.09
Model 3
Employee effect 0.16 0.06 0.27 0.05
Coworker effect 0.14 0.06 0.25 0.03
Model 4
Employee indirect effect 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.01
Coworker indirect effect (through coworker harmonious passion) 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.02
Model 5
Employee indirect effect 0.03 0.02 0.07 0.01
Coworker indirect effect (through coworker harmonious passion) 0.06 0.02 0.10 0.02
Table 4.
Results of APIM Note: Bootstrapping = 20,000
bootstrapping test Source: Created by the authors
 Partner’s workplace well-being
Harmonious
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 passion
Variables g SE g SE g SE g SE

Intercept 3.46 0.05 3.86 0.43 3.15 0.45 3.46 0.50

Level 2 (Dyadic level; N = 127)
Interpersonal conflict 0.06 0.15
Level 1 (Individual level; N = 254) 4421
Employee
Harmonious passion 0.18** 0.05 0.36** 0.12
Coworker
Gender 0.23 0.13 0.16 0.12 0.17 0.11
Age 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01
Harmonious passion 0.10* 0.05 0.06 0.05
Cross-level interactive item
Employee harmonious passion  0.12* 0.06
Interpersonal conflict
Marginal R2 0.01 0.09 0.21
Table 5.
Conditional R2 0.22 0.23 0.42 0.43
Results of
Notes: **p < 0.01; *p < 0.05 hierarchical
Source: Created by the authors regression analysis

results present that harmonious passion can decrease procrastination through enhancing
workplace well-being. Moreover, employees’ harmonious passion can cross over to their
coworkers, thereby enhancing their workplace well-being and inhibiting procrastination.
This crossover process is moderated by interpersonal conflict at the dyadic level. The
crossover influence is weakened in the condition of high rather than low interpersonal
conflict.

5.2 Theoretical implications

This research has three theoretical contributions for the hospitality management
literature. First, this study unveils the underlying path linking harmonious passion to
procrastination by testing the mediator of workplace well-being. Although
procrastination has become more prevalent and has led to increasing costs, few
hospitality management studies have examined this phenomenon. Procrastination is a
form of maladaptive behavior for coping up with emotional distress. In this vein, ample
emotional resources offered to hospitality employees are vital to decreasing the likelihood
of procrastination. The JD-R model depicts that employees with resources are more likely

Confidence interval
Groups Effect SE 95%LL 95%UL

Low interpersonal conflict (M  SD) 0.44 0.13 0.20 0.69

High interpersonal conflict (M þ SD) 0.28 0.13 0.03 0.53
Difference 0.17 0.08 0.33 0.01
Table 6.
Note: Bootstrapping = 20,000 Results of simple
Source: Created by the authors slope test
IJCHM 5
35,12

Coworker Workplace Well-Being

4.5

3.5
4422 3

2.5
Low Interpersonal Conflict
Figure 4. 2
Moderating effect of High Interpersonal Conflict
interpersonal conflict 1.5
in the relationship
between employee 1
harmonious passion Low Employee Harmanious High Employee Harmanious
Passion Passion
and coworker
workplace well-being
Source: Created by the authors

to acquire more resources and achieve resource gain spirals. Consistent with this, this
study explored how harmonious passion enables employees to gain resources at hotel
organizations.
Harmonious passion is one of the most important emotional resources in the JD-R model. It
motivates employees to engage in their work enthusiastically and freely with few conflicts with
other important domains during their life span. The pleasure and actualization they derive
from work make harmonious passion necessary for employees to enhance their workplace well-
being (Amarnani et al., 2020). In line with prior studies, our study finds a positive association
between harmonious passion and workplace well-being. Moreover, this study is built upon
existing studies by incorporating procrastination and adopting workplace well-being as the
underlying mechanism of the indirect influence of harmonious passion on procrastination. Our
research enriches the hospitality management literature by introducing harmonious passion as
a strategy to inhibit procrastination. This study further confirms that employees with high
harmonious passion can effectively realize the resource gain spiral to enhance workplace well-
being, thereby reducing the possibility of procrastination.
Second, this study explores the crossover influence of harmonious passion in employee–
coworker pairs, thus enlarging the scope of our understanding of the benefits of harmonious
passion. Previous research has been largely devoted to exploring the benefits of harmonious
passion from the actor-centric perspective. For instance, harmonious passion can enhance
innovative behavior, task performance and career adaptability (Amarnani et al., 2020;
Hwang et al., 2021). These results provide deep insights into how and when harmonious
passion is beneficial for employees. However, previous studies have largely overlooked
harmonious passion as an important emotional resource.
Harmonious passion not only exhibits an important impact on itself, but also may be
passed on to other people who interact with focus employees, such as leaders and coworkers.
Bakker and Demerouti (2013) suggested that resources, in particular, emotional resources, are
dynamic, flowing from one individual to another. Recently, limited studies have explored the
interpersonal influences of harmonious passion in leader–subordinate dyads. For example,
leaders’ passion can instill subordinates’ passion by enhancing relational energies and
promoting emotional contagion (Li et al., 2017). Compared to leaders, employees exhibit a Harmonious
higher likelihood of interacting with their coworkers and thus harmonious passion is inclined passion
to be transmitted in coworker dyads. To fill this gap, in this study, the APIM approach was
used to simultaneously uncover the crossover influence of harmonious passion for employees
and their coworkers. We found that employees’ harmonious passion can enhance coworkers’
well-being, thereby decreasing the risk of engaging in procrastination, and thus our research
contributes to the literature concerning the advantages of harmonious passion. By
introducing the APIM into the hospitality management field, we provide a new perspective 4423
for hospitality management researchers to study the interpersonal influences of job demands
and job resources on employee–coworker pairs.
Third, our study reveals that interpersonal conflict is a vital demand that buffers the
interpersonal benefits of harmonious passion. This finding provides new empirical evidence at the
interpersonal level from the perspective of JD-R model that job demand may harm the benefits of
job resources. Relationship quality has been addressed in the SCM, and it limits the crossover of job
resources (Bakker and Xanthopoulou, 2009). Prior studies have mainly examined the moderating
effects of communication frequency and quality on the resource transition process (Bakker and
Demerouti, 2013). The influences of interpersonal demands, which also act as an indicator of
relationship quality, have been largely overlooked (Kundi and Badar, 2021). Within the framework
of SCM, this study adopts interpersonal conflict at the dyadic level as the moderator and examines
its buffering role in the transition process through which harmonious passion exerts influence on
coworkers’ workplace well-being. This contributes to the SCM by specifying the interpersonal
demands that constrain the interpersonal benefits of job resources. Moreover, this result provides
new insight into the process by which relationship quality moderates the effect of the crossover of
job resources on coworkers’ behavioral and attitudinal choices.

5.3 Practical implications

The implications of our research hold significance for practitioners in the hospitality
management field. Our results suggest that the employee with harmonious passion can easily
cross over to others, which in turn enhances the others’ workplace well-being and undermines
procrastination. Several strategies are recommended to better take advantage of employees’
harmonious passion. One is to enhance employees’ capabilities to nurture harmonious passion
themselves. Several personal resources are associated with harmonious passion, and one of these
resources that have been addressed in the hospitality management literature is job crafting
(Hwang et al., 2021; Teng et al., 2022). Psychologists have developed several training programs to
foster employees’ job crafting, which can be provided to hospitality employees to promote their
capabilities and enhance their harmonious passion. Another strategy involves the optimization of
the human resource management system at the organizational level to promote employees’
harmonious passion. Prior studies have suggested that an effective human resource management
system design can help nurture harmonious passion. For example, Luu (2021) found that flexible
human resource practice can enhance harmonious passion in hospitality employees.
Moreover, hospitality managers should attach importance to building high-quality
interpersonal relationships among employees. This study found that interpersonal
conflict is detrimental to the crossover process of harmonious passion in coworker
dyads. Several ways of resolving mutual interpersonal conflict have been summarized
by researchers, such as treating others respectfully, active listening, perspective taking
and setting the right tone for a conversation (Hung and Lin, 2013). Hospitality
organizations can integrate these strategies into an intervention to enhance employees’
abilities to construct favorable interpersonal relationships and avoid interpersonal
conflicts.
IJCHM 5.4 Limitations and future research
35,12 The limitations of our research have provided us with insight into the promising avenues for
future research. First, our research could not test causal relationships between harmonious
passion and procrastination. Undeniably, a lot more systematic explorations are further
recommended to use random control trials to explore the causal relationship between
harmonious passion and procrastination, which will be pursued in the future.
4424 Second, this study cannot rule out CMB. Although a two-time two-source data collection design
was adopted, there were still two limitations that should be further overcome. The first is that we
collected data on harmonious passion, interpersonal conflict and workplace well-being at the same
time point. Future research may further divide this stage into two time points. The second is that
we invited the employees and coworkers to rate each other’s procrastination; however, these results
could be impacted by the quality of their relationship. Future research may invite the supervisors to
complete this assessment to ensure the objectivity of the measurement.
Third, future research may further explore other possible underlying mechanisms in
investigating the association between harmonious passion and procrastination. For
example, harmonious passion has always been regarded as a critical antecedent to self-
efficacy and affective commitment, both of which can potentially explain procrastination
(Scales and Quincy Brown, 2020). The exploration of these two variables as mediators would
further unveil the cognitive and emotional pathways through which harmonious passion
enables employees to prevent procrastination.

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Further reading
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Theoretical and Conceptual Approaches to Job Stress (Research in Occupational Stress and Well Being),
Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, Vol. 8, pp. 237-268, doi: 10.1108/S1479-3555(2010)0000008009.

Corresponding author
Junwei Zheng can be contacted at: zjwkmust@163.com

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