Assalamu alaykum and good day everyone!

My name is Munir
Burhan and to formally start, our topic would be about immune
system both for plant and animals

In animals, lets tale a look at how immunes system works when

different viruses infect an animal.

The immune system in action

There are several ways that an animal can be infected by

viruses. And the most common ways are through ingestion of
food or kapag kumakain sila and inhalation of air or kapag
humihinga sila. However, animals can also be infected by virus
by coming into direct contact with an obeject that is already
been contaminated na.

So the immune system in animals is comprosed of a

sophisticated network of cells, proteins and enzymes that are
programmed to monitor the animal wellness. This network of
cells detects and responds to bacteria, viruses, parasites and
pollens as well as toxins grom bee sting and tick bites that may
invade the body.

So ang mangyayari ay, when a virus crosses one of the animal

bodys barrier such as skin, blood vessels lining, then the
immune system will detect the invasion. The immune system
will send signals called cytokines, indicating that help is
needed. This initiates the movement of white blood cells
towards the site of infection.

The first responders to the site of infection is WHITE BLOOD

CELLS called PHAGOCYTES. These cells help protect the
body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria and dead
or dying cells. There are two form of phagocytes:

* neutrophils in mamals or heteropholes in birds- are small, it is

a granular leukocytes that quickly appear at the site of a wound
and ingest bacteria
* Monocytes- are larger leukocytes that appear about three
days after infection and scavenge for bacteria, foreign particles,
and dead cellular material left behind bu the neutrophils or
heterophiles.

No, the macrophages and neutrophiles appear at the site first

and work to engulf and destroy the virus. They then display
pieces of the viruses on their surface to signal the monocytes to
help continue the attack on the invading virus in a more specific
way.

So ang mangyayari, once an infection happens, there is a race

between the immune system and the virus. Then, the virus
hides itself in a cell before that cell shows that it is altered and
different from other cells. That is the time that a virus has to
take advantage and have sufficient offspring to infect new cells.
By the time that the immune system starts to recognize those
patterns and start the inflammatory process, the virus is already
spreading to additional cells.

Macrophages and lymphocytes plays a vital role in identifying

an infection that is ongoing as well as helping the body defend
itself against viral infection.

Additionally, within just a few hours of a viral infection, one of

the natural defense mechanism that the bosy produces is
interferon

Animals with backbones called vertebrates have a type of

general protective mechanism, but they also have more
advanced protective system called the immune system.

Generally, all animals posses a primative system if defense

against the pathogens to which they are susceptible. This
defense is called INNATE OR NATURAL IMMUNITY.

Innate immunity provides an inborn, nonspecific resistance to

infection. It is present to all animals to enable them to survive
from potential patho ge ns encountered. This type of immunity
also has critical role in the activation and regulation of adaptive
immunity. Innate defense mechanism have the capacity to
develop an induced response during prrimary infection and
create inflammatory conditions.
And only vertevrates have an additional and more sophisticated
system of defense mechanism Called ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
that can recognize and destroy specific substances. It is an
immunity that occurs after exposure to an antigen either from a
pathogens or a vaccination. This part of the immune system is
activated when the innate immunty is insufficient to control an
infection. In fact, without information from the innate system,
the adaptive response could not be mobilized.

There are two types of adaptive immunity:

* cell mediated immune response- this is carried out by the T-

cells.
* Humoral immune response- this is controlled by activated B
cells and antibodies.
So, the activated T cells and B cells that are specific to
molecular structures on the pathogens, proliferate and attack
the invading pathogens.

Adaptive immunity also involves a memory to provide long term

protection from re-infection with the same type of pathogen. On
re-exposure, this memory will facilitate an efgicient and quick
response.

LYMPHOCYTES/ HEART OF THE IMMUNITY

- lymphocytes is a class of white blood cells which are thw
principal active components of the adaptive immune system.
The other components are antigen presenting cells, which trap
antigens and brong them to the attention of lymphocytes, so
they can kount their attack.

IMMUNE SYSTEM OF
PLANTS
Plants do not have an ability to be immune when they are exposed to infections
because plants do not have an adaptive immune system due to their lack of both
circulatory system and specialized immune cells.

But, plants have an innate immune system to avoid pathogens infection.

Plants respond to infection using a two-branched innate immune system.

 The first branch recognizes and responds to molecules common to many

classes of microbes, including non- pathogens.
 The second responds to pathogen virulence factors, either directly or through
their effects on host targets.

Furthermore, Plants cannot defend themselves against pathogens such as bacteria,

viruses, and fungi.
A pathogen is microorganism that causes disease or illness in multicellular
organisms like plants and animals.

But this is why plants have cells that are able to respond to pathogens
independently.

Each plant cell contains receptors that recognize pathogen molecules. When an
invader is identified by the receptor, it triggers defense responses.
Such responses include:

 Cell wall thickening

The cell wall covered with a cuticle, is usually the first obstacle
encountered by pathogens. To prevent pathogens from entering inside the
plant, plants increase the thickness of their waxy cuticle and its cell wall gets
stronger.
  Cell wall production of antimicrobial compounds such as Phytoalexins
and enzymes
Always remember that plants cell also produce toxin chemical.
Phytoalexins is a chemical compound that is toxic and inhibits the
growth of fungi, bacteria and other types of pathogens. Hydrolytic
enzymes are produced by some plants in response to pathogens and
often accumulate in extracellular spaces where they degrade the cell
walls of pathogenic fungi.
 Cellular suicide or Apoptosis

Suicide or apoptosis in plant cells is the most common response to

pathogens.
What is Apoptosis?
Apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death; it is also called “cellular
suicide”. Apoptotic cell death is generally beneficial for the host and detrimental form
the pathogen.

Why do plants need to be suicide or undergo apoptosis when they are infected by
pathogens?
Plants use programmed cell death (PCD) to create a protective zone of dead
cells around the infection site to prevent the invading pathogen from spreading.

How plants getting infected by pathogen?

Pathogen can be sucked into a plant through natural plant opening such as
stomata, hydathodes or lenticels. They can enter through abrasions or wounds
on leaves, stems or roots through placement by specific feeding insects. Insects
can vector or infect a plant with a pathogen when they feed on an infected host
plant, and then feed on an uninfected plant. Pathogens can also spread through
infected seeds, transplant, or contaminated equipment, irrigation water, and
humans.
 How can plants prevent pathogens from spreading?
When plant cell gets infected, this cell itself is going to send a signal to
neighboring cells and sends some of them throughout the entire body to inform them
that there has been an infection in this part of the plant. After that, the cells surround
to the infected cell will cause undergo apoptosis because pathogens feed on living
tissues, so when the infected cells die. This prevents the pathogen from accessing
nutrients and spreading through the rest of the plant. In short, Plants sacrifices cells
to fight invaders or pathogens.

References:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6272513/

https://www.apsnet.org/edcenter/disandpath/prokaryote/intro/Pages/Bac
teria.aspx
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6800630/
https://serc.carleton.edu/integrate/teaching_materials/food_supply/
student_materials/1230
https://youtu.be/csPxUcj-HPo
https://youtu.be/evRE4NjMbpc
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7748258/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4018530/#:~:text=The
%20cell%20wall%2C%20sometimes%20covered,et%20al.%2C
%202013).&text=The%20plant%20cell%20wall.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpls.2015.00987/
full#:~:text=Plants%20do%20not%20have%20an,transmit%20the
%20message%20of%20invasion.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17108957/#:~:text=Plants%20respond
%20to%20infection%20using,their%20effects%20on%20host%20targets.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5648414/#:~:text=A
%20pathogen%20is%20defined%20as,as%20unicellular%20and
%20multicellular%20eukaryotes.
https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104189