DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A SMALL-SCALE UNMANNED

AERIAL VEHICLE MODEL

By

ISAAC ALEYIDEINO

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING SCHOOL

NIGERIAN COLLEGE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY, ZARIA.

May, 2023

i
 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A SMALL-SCALE UNMANNED AERIAL

VEHICLE MODEL

By

ISAAC ALEYIDEINO

NCAT/AME/HND/2020/102

A Project Submitted To The Aircraft Maintenance Engineering School,

Nigerian College Of Aviation Technology Zaria.

In Partial Fulfilment of The Requirement For The Award of Higher National Diploma In

Aircraft Maintenance Engineering (Airframe And Powerplant)

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING SCHOOL

NIGERIAN COLLEGE OF AVIATION TECHNOLOGY, ZARIA.

May, 2023

ii
 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to Almighty God for His grace, mercies, enablement, provision,

strength and courage provided to complete this project effectively.

iii
 DECLARATION

I declare that the work in this project entitled “Design and Construction of Small-Scale

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle model” has been performed by me. The information derived from the

literature has been duly acknowledged in the text and in the references provided.

Isaac Aleyideino .................................... ..........................

Name of student Signature Date

iv
 CERTIFICATION

This is, to certify that this work titled “Design and Construction of a Small-Scale Unmanned

Aerial Vehicle Model” by Isaac Aleyideino (AME/HND/2020/102) has met with the regulation

governing the award of Higher National Diploma in Aircraft Maintenance Engineering of the

Nigerian College of Aviation Technology, Zaria and is hereby approved for its contribution to

knowledge and literary presentation.

Dr. S.O.Balogun ------------------------------ -----------------------------

Supervisor SIGN DATE

Engr. Engr. Kumai ------------------------------ -----------------------------

Minor Supervisor SIGN DATE

Engr. Daniel Lawrence --------------------------------- ------------------------------

Head of school SIGN DATE

v
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

My most generous and profound gratitude goes to GOD the Almighty for his divine protection,

guidance and provision throughout this program.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who have contributed to the completion

of this project. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. S.O. Balogun for his

guidance, support and encouragement throughout the project. His expert advice and valuable

insights have been instrumental in shaping this project.

I would also want to thank minor supervisor Engr. Kumai for his support throughout this project.

I would also like to extend my heartfelt thanks to Engr. Solomon for his invaluable assistance in

pointing out some flaws in the first landing gear design which lead to the construction of a more

durable landing gear.

Lastly, I would like to thank my parents Mr. and Mrs. David Aleyideino for their unwavering

support, love and encouragement throughout the project. Their belief in me has kept me going

and helped me overcome the many challenges I faced.

Lastly, I would want to appreciate my friends for their love and support. I am deeply grateful to

all of you and could not have completed this project without your support and contributions.

Thank you all once again for your invaluable help and support

vi
 ABTRACT

A small-scale UAV modelled after the main features of the MQ-9 Reaper was designed and

constructed. The design involved determination of the UAV’s wing aspect ratio, wing loading,

ceiling, take-off speed and the selection of materials and components. balsa wood and epoxy

coated styrofoam was used for the construction of the fuselage structure. The component of the

UAV comprises of 1000kv electric motor, 10.45 inch propeller, five 9g servos, 3300mAh

battery, extension cables, RC transmitter and receiver. The constructed UAV is capable of flying

within a radius of 3000ft to 3500ft at a velocity of 22m/s.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page ....................................................................................................................................... i

Dedication...................................................................................................................................... ii

Declaration......................................................................................................................................iii

Certification....................................................................................................................................iv

Acknowledgement...........................................................................................................................v

Abstract...........................................................................................................................................vi

Table of content..........................................................................................................................viii

List of figures................................................................................................................................xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

1.2 Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (SUAV)

1.3 Problem statement

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Project.

1.4.1 Aim:

1.4.2 Objectives:

1.5 Scope

1.6 Project Significance

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 An Overview

viii
2.1.1 History of drones

2.2 Review of Past Work (Literature Survey)

2.3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.3.1 Weighing and balancing

2.3.2 Aircraft arms, weight, and moments

2.3.3 Determining the centre of gravity

2.4 WORKING PRINCIPLES

2.4.1 Gravity

2.4.2 Lift

2.4.3 Thrust

2.4.4 Drag

2.4.5 Air Density

2.4.6 Wing Geometry

2.4.7 Stability Concepts

2.5 Steps to consider

CHAPTER THREE

Design, Materials and Methods

3.1 Introduction

3.3.1 Taper Ratio

3.3.2 Mean chord

ix
3.3.3 Wing area

3.3.4 Aspect Ratio

3.3.5 Reynolds Number

3.3.6 Airfoil design

3.3.7 Wing Loading

3.3.8 Takeoff Velocity

3.3.9 Maximum Ceiling

3.8 Fabrication and Assembly

3.9 Manufacturing of Landing gear

3.10 Assembly of the aircraft

3.11 Weight and Balance

3.11.1 Balance procedures

CHAPTER FOUR

Test and Result Evaluation

4.1 Introduction

4.2 View of the UAV Designed

4.3 Preflight check

4.4 Flight Test

4.5 Observation

4.6 Cost Analysis

x
CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion

5.2 Recommendation

Reference ......................................................................................................................................55

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Image of the mq9 reaper in operation………………………………………………………...3

2.1: Evolution of the UAV………………………………………………………………………..6

2.2: Affecting forces on an aircraft……………………………………………………………....14

2.3: Lift…………………………………………………………………………………………..15

2.4: Air Density effect…………………………………………………………………………...17

2.5: Wing Geometry……………………………………………………………………………..19

2.6: Aspect Ratio…………………………………………………………………………………20

3.1 US Air force MQ-9 Reaper schematic diagram……………………………………………...23

3.2 Tapered wing design……………………………………………………………………........25

3.3 CAD design of the tapered wing…………………………………………………………….26

3.3 NACA 4412 Aerofoil design………………………………………………………………...29

3.4 Lift coefficient v/s angle of attack & Lift coefficient v/s drag coefficient…………………..29

3.5 Variation of drag coefficient with AOA……………………………………………………..30

3.6 Variation of lift to drag ratio with AOA…………………………………………………….30

3.7 Image of propeller …………………………………………………………………………...36

3.8 Image of 1000 kv brushless motor …………………………………………………………..36

3.9 Image of 40A ESC…………………………………………………………………………...38

3.10 Image of 9g servo motor…………………………………………………………………...39

3.11 Image of 3000 mAh lipo 4s battery ………………………………………………………..40

xii
3.12 Image of transmitter and receiver…………………………………………………………..41

3.13 Images of the Constructed Wing…………………………………………………………………...44

3.14 3D drawing of the designed UAV………………………………………………………….47

3.15 2D drawing of the designed UAV………………………………………………………….48

3.16 plan view of the designed UAV…………………………………………………………….49

4.1: Pictorial view of the designed UAV………………………………………………………..50

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is a type of aircraft that operates without a human pilot on-

board. Recent technologies have allowed for the development of many different kinds of

advanced unmanned aerial vehicles used for various purposes. An unmanned aerial vehicle is

also commonly known as a drone (NCAA Advisory Circular, 2020). Different sized UAVs are

intended to varying degrees of performance depending on their use.

Unmanned aircraft have overtaken regions where certain industries were either stagnating or

underperforming in recent years, becoming essential to the operations of several enterprises and

governmental institutions. Drone characteristics are proven to be incredibly helpful in locations

where man cannot access or is unable to operate in a fast and effective manner, from speedy

deliveries during rush hour to surveying an unreachable military post. Some of the main

applications drones provide industries worldwide include boosting job efficiency and

productivity, reducing workload and production costs, improving accuracy, enhancing service

and customer relations, and resolving security challenges on a large scale. Drone technology

adoption across sectors swiftly advanced from the fad stage to the mega-trend level.

As more and more sectors incorporate drone use into their routine everyday operations,

commercial drone usage is gaining ground and has become a hot topic. By 2025, the drone

services industry is projected to reach $63.6 billion, up from $4.4 billion in 2018. Although the

1
commercial drone market is still in its infancy, industrial giants, chip manufacturers, IT

consulting firms, and significant defence contractors have started to consolidate and make

significant investments in the sector. The majority of the early-stage manufacturers in Europe,

Asia, and North America are still the market leaders at this time. Ultimately, according to the

Association of Unmanned Vehicle Systems International AUVSI, the effect of commercial

drones may be $82 billion and a boost of 100,000 jobs to the U.S. economy by 2025 (AUVSI

2019).

UAVs can be categorized into four groups: micro, small, medium and large UAVs. The majority

of big UAVs are more functionally capable than tiny UAVs and have a larger flying ceiling,

speed, and endurance. The MQ9 reaper is a typical large UAV (20m wingspan). In response to a

Department of Defence request to assist plans for foreign contingency operations, the U.S. Air

Force proposed the MQ-9 Reaper system. It is intended to execute time-sensitive targets with

persistence and accuracy, destroy or disable such targets, and is bigger and more powerful than

the MQ-1 Predator. The letters "M" and "Q" stand for multi-role and remotely piloted aircraft

system, respectively. The "9" denotes that it is the ninth system for remotely piloted aircraft in

the series (US Air force).

2
 Figure 1.1 Image of the mq9 reaper in operation (MQ-9 Reaper, 2018)

1.2 Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (SUAV)

Compared to their larger counterparts, SUAVs are far more portable and only need one operator.

Without being seen, a smaller plane may examine ground objects closer to it. Because electric

motors are more dependable and enable stealthier and more reliable flying with lower engine

failure, electric motors are the propulsion option of choice for most SUAVs. An SUAV is also

less costly and is a good example of a disposable asset. Size and cost benefits are luring

consumer and private users in addition to military applications. Because of their lower cost and

lower risk, SUAVs are therefore best suited for non-military uses.

3
Small UAVs are proven to be an effective method of delivering logistical services for the

transportation of commodities in remote regions in several African nations with weak road

infrastructure. UAVs are crucial for the development of African agriculture since they increase

productivity, accuracy, and dependability while costing significantly less.

1.3 Problem statement

In terms of high-altitude surveillance and assault, the MQ-9 Reaper predator is one of the most

effective UAVs in the world. The MQ-9 Reaper Drone can travel at a pace three times faster than

other UAVs its size and can carry 15 times more ordnance payload. The MQ-9 reaper costs $50

million per unit, hence there is a need to construct a small UAV with reasonably priced, locally

available composite materials that is modeled after the MQ-9 reaper. This small UAV should be

able to conduct close-range surveillance, add to literature, and further our understanding of

SUAV assembly.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Project.

1.4.1 Aim:
The aim of this project is to develop a model mq9 reaper

1.4.2 Objectives:
1. To design a small scale UAV modeled after the MQ 9 reaper

2. To construct a small UAV modeled after the MQ 9 reaper

1.5 Scope
The scope of this project is to design a fully functioning SUAV modeled after the MQ 9 reaper

4
1.6 Project Significance
This project will provide the understanding and literature on SUAV design and construction with

locally available materials.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1 An Overview
In today's aircraft, the usage of composite materials for airframe structures is not unusual. The

goal of this study is to create a composite material UAV aircraft. We provide justifications for

my choice of content in this chapter. Multi-rotor and fixed-wing drones are the two types of

unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that are most often employed. The kind of electronics that are

built into it and the material used to manufacture it determine how effectively it performs,

essentially boosting the aerodynamic properties. Nevertheless, battery-powered UAVs have a

lower endurance and a shorter operational window. Thus the key is to build the drones using

high-performance materials. High strength-to-weight ratio, non-corrosiveness, fatigue resistance,

affordability, ease of access to raw materials, low noise output, and environmental friendliness

are important qualities to seek for in UAVs. Large battery power would be needed to keep the

drone in the air if it were too heavy. (Brogan, 2012).

2.1.1 History of drones

The idea of flying preoccupied man since the beginning of time. The wish to fly has been put to

test since ancient times (Daedalus and Icarus), and then to projects with fundamental science

5
(Leonardo da Vinci 1452- 1519, Montgolfier 1783). The flight dreams never stopped here, it

continued with light flyable machines that were easier than air (Santos- Dumont 1899, Zeppelin

1900-1909), then machinery that was heavier than air (Otto Lilienthal, 1890-1896), and then

continued in World War I and World War II. The evolution of unpiloted machines had known

the same evolution as the ones with human command, and military conflicts would have proven

which is more efficient. The technological and design evolution influenced the development of

unpiloted machines, thus reaching a complex design over the years (John, 2010).

Figure 2.1: Evolution of the UAV (Vasile, 2016)

Unpiloted aerial systems have known many names and acronyms throughout history: drones,

RPV (remotely piloted vehicle), UAV (unmanned aerial vehicle), UCAV (uninhabited combat

aerial vehicle), FVO (organic aerial vehicle), UCAV/S (uninhabited combat aircraft

vehicles/system), RPA(remotely piloted aircraft), RPH (remotely piloted helicopter), aerial

robotics, MAV (micro aerial vehicle) and the list goes on.

In 1849 it was first used as an unmanned combat air vehicle when the Austrians attacked the

Italian city of Venice with 200 unmanned balloons loaded with bombs fitted with timer devices.

(Prisacariu et al, 2014).

6
In 1900 Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) presented the concept of wireless control of the balloon and

described a fleet of unmanned aerial vehicles for aerial combat in 1915.

In 1917 November Kettering Bug plane called aerial torpedo, flew in automatic mode for

representatives of the United States military, though he was not ready to fight in the war. After

the war in 1917, aircraft conversion took place, Standard E-1 in drone. (vasile prisacariu, 2017)

In 1922’s first launch of a target (RAE 1921 - larynx) unmanned carried aboard HMS Argus by

the US military. In 1924 September, it held the first successful flight of the same target, RAE

1921 for 39 minutes (vasile prisacariu, 2017)

In 1933 the British fleet used for withdrawals of practice and training drones in the

Mediterranean. De Havilland DH target drones 82B Queen Bee were Tiger Moth biplane based

ubiquitous. (vasile prisacariu, 2017)

In 1935, there were advanced series of Remote piloted vehicle, projects led by Reginald Denny

(1891-1967). In 1939 the same Reginald Denny presented a low-cost RC aircraft for training AA

gunners. In the same year, he revealed another prototype for United States Army RP- 3 and RP-4

In October 1944, the first combat mission and use of a UAV was made from Balla islands.

Japanese positions were bombed by 10 bombs aboard TDR1 built by the Interstate Aircraft

Company in Los Angeles belonging to United States Navy. Also in 1944 held project Aphrodite,

7
a program that converted the United States B-17 and PBY-4Y into bomb flying drones. They

were used later to nuclear tests in the classical missions ”dirty”. (vasile prisacariu, 2017)

In April 1946, the first aircraft flying unmanned scientific research Northrop: Northrop P-61

Black Widow who had the task of gathering weather data for United States Weather Bureau.

The first flight of an unmanned aircraft in reconnaissance (Northrop radio plane SD-1

Falconer/Observer) took place in 1955. It subsequently used by the United States military and

the British company Beech craft. They entered the game with the Model 1001 for the US Navy.

(vasile prisacariu, 2017)

The official birth plan of the unmanned flights with RPV / UAV took place in 1959, when the

USAF was concerned about the loss of United States pilots in hostile territories in theaters at the

time. In 1960, the launch of the program UAV codenamed “Red Wagon” took place, when

Francis Gary Powers piloting a U-2 was shot down over the USSR. And in August that same

year took place the first flight of a helicopter unmanned Gyro dine QH-50A took place in

Maryland. (vasile prisacariu, 2017)

In 1966, commencing the project Lone Eagle (later called Compass Arrow) for the design of

UAV needed for reconnaissance missions over China, so arises D-21 following a competition

launched by the United States Airforce which was also attended by North America Ryan

Aeronautical. The objective was to perform photo reconnaissance missions at high altitude. In

8
1976, the reconnaissance aircraft utility was demonstrated in Vietnam. These are the first steps

for use in combat of UAVs at sea and on land. (vasile prisacariu, 2017)

2.2 Review of Past Work (Literature Survey)

Nuriddin Abdujabarov et.al described the current and future technologies and materials used to

fabricate UAVs. Modern materials like transgenic biopolymers, carbon nanotubes, and shape-

changing and self-healing materials. We can improve the quality of UAVs by improving modern

computer technologies, image processing technologies and navigation systems. It was also found

that composites can reduce the weight of UAV structures by 30-40%.

Daniel Hö che et .al proposed a review of using magnesium in drone construction material and

introduced future applications for aerial, manned, and unmanned vehicles. The components

discussed in which magnesium can be used are due to its lightweight and withstanding collisions

ability. A comparison was made between magnesium, titanium, aluminum alloys, and

composites using Ashby plots. Finally, it was found that magnesium-based components can be

are economically efficient, can be recycled, and has a better carbon footprint than aluminum

when produced by electrolysis.

D Mitridiset. Al investigated a mechanism of transition from vertical to horizontal flight of a

VTOL. It aimed to develop a small portable unmanned aerial system incorporating the

advantages of both fixed-wing configuration and multicolor. Carbon fiber reinforced plastic was

used to make the final design of the canard. The canard shaft was a high-stress area and hence

9
aluminum was used there. The main structural elements are steel rods to hold the hatch in place.

Taking the bending loads into consideration, aluminum alloy 6061-T6 was used as the skin of the

UAS.

Yiqiu Xiang et.al investigated the applications of grapheme-based Nano composites used in

energy devices. It includes application in fuel cells lithium-ion batteries, solar cells and

thermoelectric conversion. It is shown that grapheme has high carrier mobility, high power

density, low resistivity and high-efficiency thermoelectric energy conversion.

Zahid Iqbal Khan et.al investigated the methods to develop a new composite with epoxy resin

LY5052 and carbon fiber. Three different metallic strips with different ratios of carbon fiber and

epoxy laminate were prepared by vacuum bag technique. The tensile strength is mainly added by

the carbon fiber. It was found that tensile strength, flexural strength and thermal properties were

at their best when the ratio of CF/epoxy was 60%.

Shivaji Lamani et.al studied the analysis, fabrication and testing of sandwich composite made by

balsa wood core and fiberglass or polyester resin using COSMOL software. Flexural,

compression and tensile strength tests were performed with the help of a universal testing

machine. The results concluded that balsa wood core and fiberglass/polyester skin exhibit better

structural properties and thermal resistance than conventional polyurethane core.

Benni F. Ramadhoni et.al investigated the manufacturing of E-glass, S-glass, aramidfibre as well

as epoxy resin using a vacuum fusion process. The results showed that the properties enhanced

10
when utilizing aramid fiber. When aramid fibers and E-glass were combined in layers, the tensile

strength of the combined material increased.

Mohamad K. Idris et.al addressed the problem of ice on UAV wings by developing an

electrically and thermally conductive carbon fibre self-healing composite structure for de-icing

using extrusion printing. For this, the electronics were 3D printed directly on the carbon fibre.

The silver pattern was printed on the carbon fibre weave and heated at 150°C for 30 min. The

challenge was to print electronics on the rough surface of the textiles.

Rajkumar Roy et.al investigated the concept of self-engineering that preserves function and

extends the lifetime of the product. There are self-healing and self-adapting materials for this

also. It also presented some biological self-engineering products that can self-heal themselves in

case of wounds. More research is required to make the concept of self-engineering long-term.

James C. et.al discussed the developments and applications of using Ti alloy in the aerospace

industry. It has its own set of advantages like weight saving, high-temperature capabilities and

low young's modulus. There are new advances in manufacturing methods also like cold hearth

melting and superplastic forming. Its application of alpha and beta titanium alloys was also

described.

2.3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.3.1 Weighing and balancing

Two elements are vital in the weight and balance considerations of an aircraft;

 The total weight of the aircraft must be no greater than the maximum allowable weight of

the particular make and model of the aircraft.

11
  The centre of gravity, or the point at which all of the weight of the aircraft is considered

to be concentrated must be maintained within the allowable range for the operational

weight of the aircraft.

2.3.2 Aircraft arms, weight, and moments

The term arm, usually measured in inches, refers to the distance between the center of gravity of

an item or object and the datum. Arms ahead of, or to the left of the datum are negative (-), and

those behind, or to the right of the datum are positive (+). When the datum is ahead of the

aircraft, all of the arms are positive and computational errors are minimized. Weight is normally

measured in pounds. When weight is removed from an aircraft, it is negative (-), and when

added, it is positive (+). The manufacturer establishes the maximum weight and range allowed

for the CG, as measured in inches from the reference plane called the datum. Some

manufacturers specify this range as measured in percentage of the mean aerodynamic chord, the

leading edge of which is located a specified distance from the datum. The datum may be located

anywhere the manufacturer chooses; it is often the leading edge of the wing or some specific

distance from an easily identified location. One popular location for the datum is a specified

distance forward of the aircraft, measured in inches from some point, such as the nose of the

aircraft, or the leading edge of the wing, or the engine firewall.

A moment is a force that tries to cause rotation, and is the product of the arm, in inches, and the

weight, in pounds. Moments are generally expressed in pound-inches (lb-in) and may be either

positive or negative. Table 2.16 shows the way the algebraic sign of a moment is derived.

Positive moments cause an airplane to nose up, while negative moments cause it to nose down.

12
 WEIGHT ARM MOMENT ROTATION

+ + + Nose up

+ - - Nose down

- + - Nose down

- - + Nose up

Table 2.1: Relationships between the algebraic signs of weight, arms, and moments.

2.3.3 Determining the centre of gravity

One of the easiest ways to understand weight and balance is to consider a board with weights

placed at various locations. We can determine the CG of the board and observe the way the CG

changes as the weights are moved.

The CG may be determined by using these four steps:

a. Measure the arm of each weight in inches from the datum.

b. Multiply each arm by its weight in pounds to determine the moment in pound-inches of
each weight.

c. Determine the total of all weights and of all the moments. Disregard the weight of the
board.

d. Divide the total moment by the total weight to determine the CG in inches from the
datum.

Center of Gravity =

13
Distance weight is shifted =

Weight Shifted =

CG =

Total weight =

2.4 WORKING PRINCIPLES

In constructing an aircraft , it is the necessary to know how it works, what are the condition for

fly the UAV, which aerodynamic shapes use for lift of flight , what are the dimension for

consume lower power for fly the flight. So to generate the aircraft the working principle and

affecting laws are given below.

Figure 2.2: Affecting forces on an aircraft. (Federal Aviation Administration, n.d.)

14
2.4.1 Gravity

Gravity is a force that is always directed toward the Centre of the earth. The magnitude of the

force depends on the mass of all the aircraft parts. The gravity is also called weight and is

distributed throughout the aircraft .But we can think of it as collected and acting through a single

point called the center of gravity.

In flight, the aircraft rotates about its center of gravity, but the direction of the weight force

always remains toward the center of the earth.

2.4.2 Lift

Lift is the force generated in order to overcome the weight, which makes the aircraft fly. This

force is obtained by the motion of the aircraft through the air.

Factors that affect lift:

Figure 2.3: Lift (Federal Aviation Administration, n.d.)

15
Lift force is therefore dependent on the density of the air , the airspeed V, the type of airfoil

and on the wing’s area according to the formula below:

Lift Force = 0.5 * ρ * V2 * Wing's Lift Coefficient * Wing Area

Where, Lift Force is in Newton,

Wing Area in m2,

Air speed in m/s.

Standard density of the air is 1.225kg/m3.

The wing's lift coefficient is a dimensionless number that depends on the airfoil type, the wings

aspect ratio (AR), Reynolds Number and is proportional to the angle of attack (AOA) before

reaching the stall angle.

2.4.3 Thrust

Thrust is the force generated by some kind of propulsion system. The magnitude of the thrust

depends on many factors associated with the propulsion system used.

 Type Of Engine

 Number Of Engines

 Throttle Setting

 Speed

The direction of the force depends on how the engines are attached to the aircraft.

The glider, however, has no engine to generate thrust. It uses the potential energy difference

from a higher altitude to a lower altitude to produce kinetic energy, which means velocity.

Gliders are always descending relative to the air in which they are flying. (Federal Aviation

Administration, n.d.)

16
2.4.4 Drag

Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes an aircraft's motion through the air. Drag is generated

by every part of the aircraft (even the engines). There are several sources of drag:

One of them is the skin friction between the molecules of the air and the surface of the aircraft.

The skin friction causes the air near the wing's surface to slow down. This slowed down layer

of air is called the boundary layer. The boundary layer builds up thicker when moving from the

front of the airfoil toward the wing trailing edge. Another factor is called the Reynolds effect,

which means that the slower we fly, the thicker the boundary layer becomes. Form drag, induced

drag, interference drag, and parasitic drag, total drag are the various types of drag. (Federal

Aviation Administration, n.d.)

2.4.5 Air Density

The air density depends on the atmospheric pressure and on the air temperature. The air density

increases with decreasing of the air temperature and/or with increasing of the atmospheric

pressure. The air density decreases with increasing of the air temperature and/or with decreasing

of the atmospheric pressure.

Figure 2.4: Air Density effect (Geometry Definitions, 2023)

17
The pressure increases exponentially with increasing of the airspeed. The aircraft's resistance to

the airflow (drag) depends on the shape of the fuselage and flying surfaces. An aircraft that is

intended to fly fast has a thinner and different wing profile than one that is intended to fly

slower. That's why many aircraft change their wings' profiles on landing approach by lowering

the flaps located at the wings' trailing edge and the slats at the leading edge in order to keep

enough lifting force during the much lower landing speed.

The wings' profile of an aircraft is usually asymmetric, which makes the pressure on the wings'

upper side lower than the underside, causing the air on the wing supper side to accelerate

downwards, thereby a lift force is created.

Pockets of rising air are called updrafts. Updrafts are found when the wind blowing at a hill or

mountain rises to climb over it. (However, there may be a downdraft on the other side!) Updrafts

can also be found over dark land masses that absorb more heat from the sun than light land

masses. The heat from the ground heats the surrounding air, which causes the air to rise. The

rising pockets of hot air are called thermals.

2.4.6 Wing Geometry

A vertical cut through the wing parallel to flight's direction (plan view) will show the cross-

section of the wing. This side view (profile) is called Airfoil, and it has some geometry

definitions of its own as shown on the picture below

18
 Figure 2.5: Wing Geometry (Geometry Definitions, 2023)

The longest straight line that can be drawn from the Airfoil's leading edge to trailing edge is

called the Chord Line. The Chord Line cuts the airfoil into an upper surface and a lower

surface. If we plot the points that lie halfway between the upper and lower surfaces, we obtain a

curve called the Mean Camber Line. For a symmetric airfoil (upper surface the same shape as

the lower surface) the Mean Camber Line will fall on top of the Chord Line. But for an

asymmetric airfoil, these are two separate lines. The maximum distance between these two lines

is called the Camber, which is a measure of the curvature of the airfoil (high camber means

high curvature).Asymmetric airfoils are also known as cambered airfoils.

Aspect Ratio is a measure of how long and slender a wing is from tip to tip. The Aspect Ratio of

a wing is defined to be the square of the span divided by the wing area and is given the symbol

AR. The formula is simplified for a rectangular wing, as being the ratio of the span to the

chord length as shown on the figure below. (Geometry Definitions, 2023)

19
 Figure 2.6: Aspect Ratio (Geometry Definitions, 2023)

Wing Dihedral refers to the angle of wing panels as seen in the aircraft's front view. Dihedral is

added to the wings for roll stability; a wing with some Dihedral will naturally return to its

original position if it is subject to a briefly slight roll displacement. Most large airliner wings are

designed with Dihedral. On the contrary the highly manoeuvrable fighter planes have no

Dihedral. In fact, some fighter aircraft have the wing tips lower than the roots, giving the aircraft

a high roll rate. A negative Dihedral angle is called Anhedral. (Geometry Definitions, 2023)

2.4.7 Stability Concepts

The aircraft's response to momentary disturbance is associated with its inherent degree of

stability built in by the designer, in each of the three axis, and occurring without any reaction

from the pilot. An aircraft's stability is expressed in relation to each axis: lateral stability

(stability in roll), directional stability (stability in yaw) longitudinal stability (stability in pitch).

Lateral and directional stabilities are inter-dependent.(Stability Concepts, 2023)

Stability may be defined as follows:

Positive stability: tends to return to original condition after a disturbance.

20
Negative stability: tends to increase the disturbance.

Neutral stability: remains at the new condition.

Static stability: refers to the aircraft's initial response to a disturbance. A statically unstable

aircraft will uniformly depart from a condition of equilibrium.

Dynamic stability: refers to the aircraft's ability to damp out oscillations which depends on how

fast or how slow it responds to a disturbance.

Lateral stability is achieved through dihedral, sweepback, keel effect and proper distribution of

weight. The dihedral angle is the angle that each wing makes with the horizontal (see Wing

Geometry).If a disturbance causes one wing to drop, the lower wing will receive more lift and

the aircraft will roll back into the horizontal level.(Stability Concepts, 2023)

The tail fin determines the directional stability. If a gust of wind strikes the aircraft from the right

it will be in a slip and the fin will get an angle of attack causing the aircraft to yaw until the slip

is eliminated.

Longitudinal stability depends on the location of the center of gravity, the stabilizer area and how

far the stabilizer is placed from the main wing. Most aircraft would be completely unstable

without the horizontal stabilizer. (Stability Concepts, 2023)

It is of crucial importance that the aircraft's Centre of Gravity (CG) is located at the right point,

so that a stable and controllable flight can be achieved. In order to achieve a good longitudinal

21
stability, the CG should be ahead of the Neutral Point (NP), which is the Aerodynamic Centre of

the whole aircraft. (Stability Concepts, 2023)

2.5 Steps to consider

Based on the study carried out on the efficiency and the performance of the m9 reaper, it was

decided to systematically design, analyze and build a scaled down version of the mq9 reaper

UAV. In addition it was decided to develop such a plane, to maximize the aspect ratio, minimize

the wing loading and optimize the weight. Basic terms like lift coefficient, tip, root chord, taper

ratio etc. help understand the aerodynamics of flight while movement of air over the airfoil help

understand the behaviour of flight in air. Keeping these considerations in mind the design and

optimization were done. The aim is therefore to explain the systematic methodology followed for

designing, analyzing and building the UAV including details of optimization. The following are

the major steps in this process:-

 Selecting various design targets

 Selecting the type of geometry

 Optimization of parameters to obtain the best performance

 Determining the stress points, critical points on the wing and fuselage (for example -

neutral point on the wing)

 Designing the fuselage, wing, elevator etc. (using the appropriate aerofoil)

 Analysing the structure for its parameters

22
 CHAPTER THREE

Design, Materials and Methods

3.1 Introduction
The MQ-9 Reaper is the base design for the UAV designed in this project; hence the design

criteria will be based on secondary data from the MQ-9 Reaper. The basic features and

dimensions of the MQ-9 is as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 US Air force MQ-9 Reaper schematic diagram

3.2 Design Requirements

The size of a full-sized MQ-9 Reaper will be proportionately reduced to create a scaled replica of

ratio 1:10. As seen in Figure 3.1 the data gotten from the MQ-9 reaper sketch is insufficient to

develop a scaled down model, hence there’s still a need to design and analyze the performance of

23
our UAVs airfoil, wing location, size, and the aircraft's structural components. The approach

utilized in this study begins with the enumerating the expected specification and the design of the

main and tail planes.

Table 3.1 Expected design specifications

Endurance 15 minutes

Navigation Line of sight

Data transmission range 3000ft – 3500ft

Wing span 2.1m

Propulsion Electric motor 1000kv

Airframe strong construction, low production costs,

simple reparability

Operation One man operable

3.3 Wing Design

The MQ 9 Reaper's wing design served as the concept for the wing design. Figure 3.1 shows

that MQ 9 reaper has a tapered wing design, but due to insufficient data we will need to calculate

the taper ratio, wing area, mean chord and aspect ratio of our modelled aircraft.

24
 Figure 3.2 Tapered wing design

3.3.1 Taper Ratio

The ratio of a wing's root to tip chord lengths is known as the taper ratio, which is one of the plan

form geometry characteristics. So, its impacts on the aerodynamics of the wing.

The following formula in equation 3.1 is used to determine the wing taper ratio:

Taper ratio = chord at tip / chord at root ………………………………………………… Eq 3.1

0.1 m
Taper ratio=
0.2 m

Taper ratio=0.5

25
 Figure 3.3 CAD design of the tapered wing

3.3.2 Mean chord

The average chord length of a tapered wing is known as the mean chord. The chord length is the

distance, measured perpendicular to the wing's mean line, between the leading and trailing edges.

The mean chord can be determined from equation 3.2

Mean chord = (2/3)*chord at root * [(1+ taper ratio + taper ratio^2) / (1+ taper ratio)]…… Eq 3.2

2
Mean chord= × 0.2 ׿ Mean chord=0.155 m
3

3.3.3 Wing area

It is essential to determine the wing area in order to calculate the wing loading. To calculate the

wing area of the tapered wing, we will need to use the equation for the area of a trapezoid, which

is:

Wing area = (chord at root + chord at tip) * wing span/2………………………..…………Eq 3.3

0.95
Wing area= ( 0.2+ 0.1 ) ×
2

2
Wing area=0.1425 m

26
3.3.4 Aspect Ratio

The aspect ratio represented by the symbol AR depicts the length and slenderness of a wing from

tip to tip. The square of the span divided by the wing area is the aspect ratio of a wing.

In contrast to low aspect ratio wings, which have either short spans or thick chords, high aspect

ratio wings have long spans (like high performance gliders) (like the Space Shuttle). Induced

drag is a part of an aircraft's drag that is inversely correlated with aspect ratio. A wing with a

larger aspect ratio has a little higher lift and a lower drag than a wing with a lower aspect ratio. A

glider is often built with an extremely high aspect ratio since the glide angle of a glider depends

on the lift to drag ratio.

span length
Aspect ratio= …………………………………………………………Eq 3.4
mean chord length

1.9
Aspect ratio=
0.155

Aspect ratio=7.9

3.3.5 Reynolds Number

By calculating the ratio of inertial to viscous forces, the Reynolds number (Re) in fluid

mechanics aids in the prediction of fluid flow patterns in many contexts. Laminar (sheet-like)

flow often predominates in flows with low Reynolds numbers, whereas turbulent flow typically

predominates in flows with high Reynolds numbers.

At low airspeed and small wing chord (as with a model aircraft) the air viscosity is a dominant

factor, whereas with the full-sized aircraft the viscosity effects of the air are insignificant while

the aircraft's mass inertia becomes more dominant.

27
That is why it is not expect a scaled model aircraft to have the same flight characteristics as its

larger counterpart.

In other words, the Reynolds number will make it easier for us to comprehend the behavioral

characteristics of our downsized aircraft. Standard air density is 1.293 kg/ m^3, air viscosity is

0.0000179 kg/m/sec air velocity is assumed to be 23 m/s, man wing chord is 0.155m

.Re = (air density/air viscosity) * air speed * wing chord

ρuL
ℜ= ………………………………………………………………………………. Eq 3.5
µ

1.293 × 23× 0.155

ℜ=
0.0000179

ℜ=257516.4804

3.3.6 Airfoil design

The selection of the airfoil was based on full sized MQ 9 Reaper which is the NACA 4412 as

shown in Figure 3.3. The characteristics of any particular airfoil may be represented by graphs

showing the amount of lift and drag obtained at various angles of attack as well as the Lift/Drag

ratio. The same airfoil has different Lift and Drag Coefficients at different Reynolds Numbers as

shown in Figure 3.4.

28
 Figure 3.3 NACA 4412 Aerofoil design (NACA 4412 (Naca4412-Il), 2023)

Figure 3.4 Lift coefficient v/s angle of attack & Lift coefficient v/s drag coefficient

29
Figure 3.5 Variation of drag coefficient with AOA (NACA 4412 (Naca4412-Il), 2023)

Figure 3.6 Variation of lift to drag ratio with AOA (NACA 4412 (Naca4412-Il), 2023)

30
The above graphs refer to the airfoil only, as the coefficients of a whole wing also depend on the

wings Aspect Ratio, Taper Ratio and on the shape of the wing tips. Note that this airfoil still

produces lift at negative geometric angles of attack. The graphs also show a portion of the

negative Coefficients (when flying inverted)

A large wing that is flying fast has a higher Re and thinner boundary layer than a small wing that

is flying slow. The boundary layer is thinnest when its flow is laminar and thickens when it is

turbulent. The turbulent flow may separate from the wing's surface, producing more drag and

decreasing the lift, which may lead to stall. Thus, a low Re wing is more likely to suffer from

laminar separation and to stall sooner than a wing with high Re.

As stated in Forces in Flight, the lift force is dependent on the density of the air ,the airspeed V,

the wing's Lift Coefficient and the wing’s area according to equation 3.6:

V = √ (2 W g / ρ S Cl) ……………………………………………………….……………. Eq 3.6

V= velocity of aircraft

W= weight in Kg

Cl=coefficient of lift

S = wing area

ρ = air density

2× 1.5
V =√
1.293× 0.003655 ×1.2

V =23 m/s

31
Lift Force = 0.5 *  * v 2 * Wing's Lift Coefficient * Wing's Area………….…………Eq 3.7

Consider air density = 1.293 kg/m^3, coefficient of lift = 1, velocity = 23m/s, area = 0.1425m2.

The Wing's Lift Coefficient is a dimensionless number that depends on the airfoil type, the

wing's aspect ratio (AR), Reynolds Number (Re) and is proportional to the angle of attack

(alpha) before reaching the stall angle.

2
L=0.5 × cl × p × v × A

2
¿ 0.5 ×1.2 ×1.293 ×23 × 0.1425

¿ 58.48 Newton

¿ 5.96 kg

However, the wing's generation of lift also produces Induced Drag, which along with Parasitic

Drag are forces that oppose the aircraft's motion through the air. One may also say that Induced

Drag is the price we pay for getting lift. Induced Drag is also dependent on the density of the air

, the airspeed V, the wing's Drag Coefficient and the wing’s area according to the formula:

Drag Force= 0.5 *  * V ^2 * Wing's Drag Coefficient * Wing's Area

2
D=0.5× cd × p × v × A

2
¿ 0.5 × 0.5× 1.293× 23 ×0.1425

¿ 24.36 Newton

¿ 2.4 kg

32
3.3.7 Wing Loading

Wing loading in aerodynamics is calculated by dividing the entire mass of an aircraft or flying

creature by the area of its wing. The wing loading of an airplane in level, straight flight affects

its stalling speed in part. In comparison to an aircraft with a high wing loading, one with a low

wing loading has a bigger wing area in relation to its mass.

A smaller wing can carry the same mass in level flight because each unit of wing area may

provide more lift as an airplane flies faster. Hence, in comparison to slower aircraft, quicker ones

often have larger wing loadings. Takeoff and landing distances are also increased as a result of

the higher wing loading. Furthermore, wing is expressed as shown in equation 3.8

Wing loading = aircraft mass/wing area ……………………………………………………Eq 3.8

Total aircraft mass = 1.6 kg

Wing area = 0.1425 m2

1.6 kg
Wing loading= 2
0.1425 m

2
Wing loading=11.228 kg /m

3.3.8 Takeoff Velocity

The takeoff velocity of an airplane refers to the speed at which it lifts off the ground. The

aircraft's initial velocity is equal to zero when it begins to move from its resting position. The

takeoff velocity is defined in equation 3.9

V ¿ =1.2 ¿………………………………………………….....………………….Eq 3.9

33
3.3.9 Maximum Ceiling

The Maximum Ceiling, 8500ft, is obtained from ρ in the Standard Atmosphere chart at a given

velocity V and wing loading 11.228 kg/m^2

2. W / S
ρ= 2 …………………………………………………………………………………...Eq
Cl . V

3.10

3.4 Design of Stabilizer

The design of stabilizer is obtained from the various dimension of aircraft wing.

Stabilizer area is given in equation 3.11

Stab ilizer Area=22.5 % of wings area .........................................................................Eq 3.11

22.5
Stabilizer Area= × 0.1425
100

2
stabilizer area=0.032 m

3.4.1 Elevator Trim Angle

The longitudinal control during the aircraft flight is done by the elevator located on the

horizontal stabilizer. The elevator functions for the pitch control during the flight and is deflected

upwards or downwards accordingly to maintain an equilibrium flight. This process allows the

aircraft to fly at trim angle of attack and is said to be longitudinally stable.

3.5 Design of Fin

The different dimensions of the airplane stabilizer are used to create the fin design.

34
To determine the fin area, the equation 3.12 is used.

Fin Area=46 % of stabilizer area .................................................................................Eq 3.12

Fin Area=0.46 ×0.032

Fin Area=0.01472

3.6 Material selection

Expanded polystyrene and extruded polystyrene foam (Styrofoam) came to be used more

recently for the construction of the entire airframe. Depron blends rigidity with flexibility,

allowing aircraft to absorb the stress of flying. Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is an extremely

resilient variety of foam, often used in basic trainers, which take considerable abuse from

beginners. So Styrofoam was chosen for the project and epoxy is used to make the Styrofoam

more rigid and balsa wood will be used to reinforce the wing.

3.7 Component Selection

Based on the design requirements the following components have been selected:

 Propeller

 Motor

 Electronic Speed Controller

 Servos

 Battery

 RC Transmitter Receiver

 Extension cables

35
3.7.1 Propeller

The primary component of an airplane that produces propulsion is the propeller. Propeller sizes

vary according on the pitching ability and blade diameter. For instance, a blade with a 10 inch

diameter has a 4.5 inch pitch. For model RC planes, double bladed propellers in the sizes of 10 x

4.5 and 8 x 6.5 are preferred. The motor that pushes or propels the plane forward or backward

provides the rotational motion for the propeller, a revolving fan-like device.

The plastic propeller used in this project is 10 x 4.5 inches and has two blades that move the

airplane forward. The following are the primary benefits of employing a propeller:

i. Efficiency: Twin-bladed propellers generally have better efficiency than single-

bladed propellers, using less power from the engine.

ii. High Thrust- Propeller is the main thrust producing component of an aircraft. The

chosen propeller in the design phase should be able to provide enough thrust to

sustain flight and low drag at the same time.

Figure 3.7 Image of propeller

36
3.7.2 Motor
The motor in RC aircraft has one main purpose, to power the propeller to produce the thrust. The

motor has various types and configurations and are chosen according to the requirements and the

applications of the aircraft under consideration. For this project, the motor chosen was a

brushless motor of 1000kv powered by a battery of 3000 mAh, this gives an average flight time

of 10 minutes. There is no restriction to choose this specific type of motor and battery only,

choosing higher power motor and battery would result in greater thrust and thus greater

endurance in terms of battery power. The main characteristics of the motor are:

i. Brushless motor- These motors have greater efficiency and have a lesser chance of

failure.

ii. High Torque- For the configuration of propeller used, it is understood that this motor

provided produces enough torque to rotate the propeller and produce the required

thrust.

Figure 3.8 Image of 1000 kv brushless motor

37
3.7.3 Electronic speed controller:
The main job of the ESC is to control the speed and direction of the brushless motor. It acts as an

interface between the battery and the brushless motor by simultaneously turning on and off the

power to the motor. Out of the three wires from the ESC to the motor, two of them transmit AC

signals, and the third one regulates the direction of the motor rotation.

Figure 3.9 Image of 40A ESC

3.7.4 Servos

Servos are employed in aircraft to operate the control surfaces like ailerons, rudders, elevators,

and other functions. Specifications including torque, speed, weight, and size must be taken into

consideration while choosing a servo motor.

Tower Pro SG90 9g Micro servo motors were the servos we employed for this project. This

airplane has four servo motors: one for the rudder, one for the elevator, and the other two for the

ailerons. Before connecting it to the receiver, both aileron servos are attached to a Y-connector

so that their movement may be maintained.

38
 Figure 3.10 Image of 9g servo motor

3.7.5 Battery
The power house of the UAV is its batteries. Because of its excellent power to weight ratio and

rechargeability, Li-Po or lithium polymer batteries are frequently utilized in RC airplanes. The

flight performance and duration are both significantly influenced by battery power. Therefore, it

is crucial to base your battery choice on the following factors:

Voltage/cell count, capacity, discharge rating, and charge rate are the first four factors.

In this project, we've utilized a 2200mAh Li-Po battery. Since the battery is the heaviest part of

the aircraft and has a significant impact on the CG and, thus, the stability of the aircraft, its

weight is important to consider throughout the design process.

The primary purposes of his battery are:

i. To power the motor to produce thrust through ESC

ii. ii. To power the servos for the movement of the control surface

39
 Figure 3.11 image of 3000 mAh lipo 4s battery

3.7.6 Receiver and transmitter

The Radio-controlled (RC) transmitter and receiver control the aircraft by utilizing radio waves

to broadcast and receive signals from the transmitter.

The servos then receive those signals from the receiver. Therefore, the control surfaces are

activated by the servo mechanism. The two levers in the transmitter are crucial for controlling

the aircraft's control surfaces, such as the ailerons, elevator, rudder, and others, which in turn

alter the plane's direction.

40
 Figure 3.12 Image of transmitter and receiver

3.8 Fabrication and Assembly

The following steps were involved in fabricating the UAV:

1. Extruded polystyrene foam (Styrofoam) sheet is required as the first raw material for

making aircraft wings, along with a sharp, clean edge cutter, a larger-than-3-foot

scale, and a T-square for measuring and directing work. tools for the cutter's edge

2. Initially the wing airfoil is printed and which is glued in to the Styrofoam sheets.

Later they are cut accordingly.

3. Then, balsa wood with the length of 2 m and thickness of 3cm was passed through

25% of chord of the airfoils to get the wing skeleton. It was done to add strength to

the wing, while keeping the weight as light as possible.

4. Then, using a cutter and scale, cut the two foam sheet plates that are 7 X 100 and 3.5

X 100 cm in size. The illustration illustrates how to adhere the short foam sheet plate

to the long foam sheet plate while maintaining a space of 1/3 longer sheet plate.

41
 Following that procedure, using a glue gun and glue stick, these joined foam sheet

plates were adhered to a 23 x 100 cm rectangle at a distance of 8 cm, which was the

maximum thickness distance.

5. Then, using a glue gun, adhere the foam sheet by bending it at the 45-degree junction

where the rectangle was cut, touching the little foam sheet plate with the bottom of

the large rectangle.

6. Once the main wing assembly is complete, it is sanded and coated with epoxy.

7. The fuselage of the UAV is made from Styrofoam. The entire tubular structure is

covered with the epoxy.

8. For tail and fuselage sections Styrofoam was simply cut and folded to get the required

size. A room was created in the fuselage, beneath the wing surface, to allocate

batteries and all other electronics. The rudder is a component of the airplane that

controls the direction of the aircraft, either right or left. The tools used to make wings,

such as a cutter and glue gun, are employed to create the fin. Using a cutting tool, first

cut a rectangle of 16 x 15 cm from the foam sheet. Make a rectangle that is 12 cm by

15 cm and 4 cm by 15 cm in two halves. The material was cut 65' from the fin, and it

was noted that the top chord was 55 cm long. Cut the material 45' from the rudder's

leading edge and fin's end. The glass papers 220 and 320 sharpened and rounded the

rudder's trailing edge. Next, link the rudder's leading and trailing edges.

9. Next, all the basic electronics required for manual flight were placed at their

appropriate locations, i.e., servos for control surfaces, control horns, battery, motor,

ESC and receiver.

42
10. The epoxy( resin and hardener) are mixed in equal proportion and applied on to the

electronics on board the UAV. This is act as a seal, that prevents the entry of water in

to the electronics.

11. The servos and esc are connected to receiver channel as follows Throttle control:

channel 3 Rudder control: channel 4 Aileron control: channel 2

43
 Figure 3.14 Images of the Constructed Wing

3.9 Manufacturing of Landing gear

The landing gear system is the assembly of wheels and links. The wheels are taken from the

bike toys which have 40 mm diameter and 20 mm thickness. The link is the bicycle so bend the

link 2.5 cm 90’ from the bottom end with the help of snap wrench. Then once again bend the link

from the distance 14.5 cm 90’. Again bend 2 cm 90’. Do this procedure for second wheel and

join the end of the link with the help of glue gun. So now landing gear is ready. The rear landing

gear have also same diameter and thickness but it have small link height 4 cm.

3.10 Assembly of the aircraft

The aircraft consist Wing, fuselage, stabilizer, fin, mounting, Brushless DC motor, prop,

Electronic speed controller, battery, radio control, servo motor, control horn, pushrod and

landing gear. First of all we installed the servo motor then attached control horns in the control

surfaces and shaft of the servo motor then connect them by pushrod. Then installed the mounting

plate in the fuselage and attached the BLDC motor with the mounting with the help of fasteners.

After that completion attached the prop with the BLDC motor shaft with the help of bushes and

44
screw driver. For support the wing stick the wooden support stick with the help of glue gun as

shown in the figure. After that the landing gear was stock with the fuselage base with the help of

glue gun. With the help of conductor wires installed the electronic speed controller with the

BLDC motor. Then also connect the ESC with the battery. After that completion installed the

receiver and connect the terminals of aileron servo with channel – 1, elevator servo with channel

– 2, BLDC motor with channel – 3, rudder servo with channel – 3. Here aileron servo connection

is temporary connection because it is connected when the wing is attached with fuselage with the

help of rubber bands and wooden stick. So we connected battery terminal with ESC terminal and

attached the wing and connected the aileron servo with receiver after that start the remote control

transmitter then fly the aircraft.

3.11 Weight and Balance

Weight and balance are two prominent factors that affect the performance of aircraft. Maximum

allowable weight is determined by the surface area of the wing, and how much lift it will

generate at a safe and appropriate airspeed. However, the greater the weight allowable for any

aircraft, the stronger the aircraft structure has to be, as it not only has to support the aircraft

during ground manoeuvres, but also flight manoeuvres. Where an aircraft balance plays a

significant role in determining if the aircraft is safe to operate. An aircraft that does not have

good balance can exhibit poor manoeuvrability and controllability, making it difficult or

impossible to fly; possibly resulting in an accident. The most efficient condition for an aircraft is

to have the point where its center of balance falls very closely to the aircraft center of lift.

Subsequently, little or no flight control inputs would be needed to keep the aircraft straight and

level in flight. Considering weight and balance is necessary for two main reasons; safety and

aircraft efficiency (Thompson, 2020). While not exceeding the aircraft maximum allowable

45
weight and proper loading of the aircraft to ensure good balance have obvious safety benefits,

overloading any aircraft has immense negative impacts on every phase of its operation.

3.11.1 Balance procedures

An easier way to carryout balancing on an RC airplane requires:

a) Two stripes of paper

b) A marking pen

Place the two sheets of paper on the airplane wing (ensure the two stripes of paper are few inches

longer than the width of the wing). Mark the leading edge of the wing on each of the paper

(allowing a few inches out). Mark the trailing edge of the wing on the other end of each of the

papers. Take the papers off, the distance marked on both papers is the full width of the wing.

Take one of the paper, fold it into equal half first and into another equal half. Taking careful note

of the leading and trailing edge marks on the paper, by doing this, you have divided the width

into four equal lengths (25%, 50%, 75%, 100% position). Place the paper on the wing and

transfer the exact 25% position on each wings (port and starboard), thus, helping you mark out

the forward CG limit (forward position for the safe zone). Take the second paper, fold it into

three equal parts also taking careful note of the leading and trailing edge marks on the paper, by

doing this, you have divided the width into three equal lengths (33.3%, 66.6%, 99.9%). Place the

second paper on the wing and transfer the exact 33.3% position on each wings (port and

starboard), thus, helping you mark out the aft CG limit (aft position for the safe zone)

46
Figure 3.14 3D drawing of the designed UAV

47
Figure 3.1 2D drawing of the designed UAV

48
Figure 3.10 plan view of the designed UAV.

49
 CHAPTER FOUR

Test and Result Evaluation

4.1 Introduction

In this chapter the completed UAV constructed is presented. The UAV was flown and the

performance of the system is evaluated.

4.2 View of the UAV Designed

The pictorial view of the constructed UAV is show in Figure 4.1

Figure 4.1: Pictorial view of the designed UAV

50
4.3 Pre-flight check

Before the UAV was flown it Pre-flight tests are done to make sure the UAV is airworthy and in a

condition for safe flight. The minimal checks performed before takeoff are given below:

 All servos are secure, and linkages to servo and control surfaces are secure.

 Servo horns and control horns are secure and not loose.

 Servo linkages are able to move freely and are not binding.

 All servo connections to the receiver, battery pack and ESC are secure and correct.

 The receiver and motor battery pack are securely fixed and cannot move during flight.

 Receiver antenna (aerial) is correctly positioned and not damaged.

 The propeller nut is tight / spinner is secure.

 The wing and tail plane (and fin) are secured properly, as per the instructions (i.e. with the

correct method of fixing; rubber bands or wing nuts etc.)

 All control surfaces move in the correct sense moving the rudder stick left moves the rudder

to the left.

 All control surface hinges are secure i.e. you can't pull the control surface away from its

respective flying surface.

 The motor power works correctly.

 The radio failsafe is set and working correctly.

 A range check.

51
4.4 Flight Test

The objective was to create a SUAV that mimicked the characteristics of the full sized MQ-9

reaper. The following were observed from the flight test:

 The UAV had a smooth take-off.

 The plane stalled and crash before it reached the necessary angle, which was largely due

to pilot inexperience.

4.5 Observation

From the result of the flight test it was observed that the UAV suffered some defects due to the

crash, the UAV sustained some damage to the left wing root and to the mid-section of the

fuselage.

4.6 Cost Analysis

The cost associated with the design and construction of the UAV was approximately one

hundred and thirty thousand Naira. The breakdown of the cost is shown in table 4.1

Table 4.1 Cost analysis

COMPONENTS COST

DXW 3536 1200KV MOTOR N 10,000

DXW 90 9g SERVO MOTOR 5 Pcs N2,000 each

TOTAL N10,000

LANDING GEAR N6,000

ESC(ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER) N6000

60A

RECIEVER AND TRANSMITTER N60,000

STYROFOAM N10,000

PLYWOOD N3,000

52
BATTERY 3300mAh cell Li-Po BATTERY N25,000

TOTAL N130,000

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 Conclusion

The design and construction of an SUAV modelled after the MQ-9 has been successfully carried

out, and the following conclusions can be drawn from this work:

1. The design of a scaled down version of the MQ-9 reaper can be achieved using wood

Styrofoam and epoxy airframe and servos, receivers and mechanical connecting rods.

With a wing loading of 11.63 and a battery capacity of 330mAh, an endurance of 10

minutes was achieved.

2. The UAV is capable of capable of flying round a radios of 3000ft to 3500ft at a velocity

of 22m/s and will be suitable for short range surveillance.

5.2 Recommendation

The project is limited to line of sight operation which can be improved with better electronics

and the endurance of our UAV is about 10 minutes of normal flight time which can be improved

with bigger and better batteries.

54
 REFERENCES

AUVSI. https://www.auvsi.org/our-impact/economic-report. 2020

Brogan. (2012). “Unmanned aerial System in African Agriculture”. Retrieved from

https//: uas_agro.africa.co.za

‌Federal Aviation Administration. (n.d.). Forces Acting on the Aircraft Aerodynamics of

Flight.https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/
phak/media/07_phak_ch5.pdf

Geometry Definitions. (2023). Nasa.gov. https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-

12/VirtualAero/BottleRocket/airplane/geom.html

NACA 4412 (naca4412-il). (2023). Airfoiltools.com.

http://airfoiltools.com/airfoil/details?airfoil=naca4412-il

NCAA, Advisory Circular “Unmanned Aircraft System Operations In Nigeria’s Airspace”

Guidance, 2020.

Nuriddin Abdujabarov. (2020) “Prospects of The Development Of Unmanned Aerial

Vehicles”(UAVs)

Prisacariu et al.(2014). Retrieved september 25, 2021, from

http://webbut.unitbv.ro/teze/rezumate/2014/rom/prisacariuvasile.pdf

Stability Concepts. (2023). Rcplanes.online. https://rcplanes.online/index5.htm

US Air Force. "MQ-9 REAPER fact sheet". 18 August 2010. Archived from the original on 26
August 2013. Retrieved 27 December 2011.

US Air Force. "'Reaper' moniker given to MQ-9 unmanned aerial vehicle".14 September 2006.
Archived from the original on 14 September 2011. Retrieved 1 January 2012.

‌Vasile Prisacariu. (2017). THE HISTORY AND THE EVOLUTION OF UAVs FROM
THE BEGINNING TILL THE 70 s. Academia.edu.
https://www.academia.edu/en/70179321/THE_HISTORY_AND_THE_EVOLUTI
ON_OF_UAVs_FROM_THE_BEGINNING_TILL_THE_70_s

55