9 CONSUMER CHEMISTRY Quarter 2 - FOOD CHEMISTRY Weeks 1 & 2 Module 1 History of Food Chemistry Components of Foods ( Part I; Macronutrients) DepED Consumer Chemistry — Grade 9 Special’ Sdience ‘Elective Alternative Delivery ModeQuarter 2 - Module 1: History of Food Chemistry Components of Foods (Part 4: Macronutrients) 2nd edition, September 2021 Republic Act 8293, section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties. Borrowed materials (Ie, songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names, trademarks, etc.) included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has. been exerted to locate and seek permission to use these materials from their respective copyright owners. The publisher and authors do net represent nor claim ownership over them. Published by the Department of Education Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones ‘Schools Division Superintendent: Dr. Rhea Mar A. Angtud Development Team of the Module PhD. Mit I> Science, Talamban NHS. Engr. Zenaida C. Grapa, PhD, MT I Talamban Natl HS Mrs. Ofelia N. Barrientos, MT -.Don Vicente Rama MNHS Dr. Rhea Mar A,Angtild, Schools Division Superintendent Members: Dr. Bernadette A, Susvilla, Asst. Schools Division Superintendent Mrs, Grecia F. Bataluna, CID Chief Dr. Raylene'S,Manawatao, EPS - Science Mrs. Vanessa L. Harayo, EPS - LRMDS. Printed in the Philippines by DepEd Cebu City Department of Education ~ Region Vil Office Address: New Imus Road, Barangay Day-as, Cebu City Telephone No.: (032) 253 2559 Email Address: cebu.city@deped.gov.phFOOD CHEMISTRY History of Food Chemistry Components of Foods (Part 1): Macronutrients The interactions and chemical processes between the biological and non- biological components of food is known as food chemistry. Some of the biological components include meat, poultry, beer, and milk. It includes carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in biochemistry. A specialized phase of food technology concerned with an understanding of the fundamental changes of composition and the physical condition of foodstuffs which may occur during and after industrial processing. Food. chemists play several roles in the understanding of nutrition and health. Food science deals with the production, processing, distribution, preparation, evaltiation, and utilization of food, Food chemists work with plants that have been harvested for food, and animals that have been slaughtered for food. Food chemists are concerned with how these food products are processed, prepared, and distributed. Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compounds found in plant and animal cells. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and cholesterol. In the body, fat serves as a source of energy, a thermal insulator, and a cushion around organs; and it is an important component of the cell. Proteins are important components of food Every cell requires protein for structure and function. Proteins are complex polymers. composed of amino acids, (scitechnol.com) ea \> What [Need to Know This module will allow you to learn about the history of organic food chemistry and the basic components of foods, So, let’s start. Just readand follow the instruction in this module. Good luck and have fun! After going through his'module, you are expected to, 1. define food & trace the history of chemistry; 2. cite the basic components of food; and 3. discuss the functions, and their effects when taken @ What LKnow MULTIPLE CHOICE. Write the letter of your chosen answer on a separate sheet of Paper.1. Who was the first person to separate malic acid from apples which started the history on food chemistry? A. Robert Boyle C, Alexander Fleming B. Humpy Davy D, Carl Scheele 2. What stimulant is present in regular coffee, coffee, tea, and cola? A. cafleine B, sucrose C. theobromine __D. theophylline 3. When you chop onions, your eyes can burn because a chemical reaction produces what “chemical compound? A. acetic acid ©. nitric acid B. hydrochloric acid D. sulfuric acid 4, What are carbohydrates made up of? A, nutrients C, saturated fatty acids B monosaccharides D. unsaturated fatty acids 5. What type of nutrient should you eat a lot? A. carbohydrate B. fats C. water D. protein 6, What is the suffix of the name of all sugars? A- ion B.- itis C. ly D.-ose 7. What is the function of carbohydrates? A. To give us healthy eyes B. To provide us with energy C. To protect our vital organs D. To give our bodies an insulating layer to maintain body temperature 8. What are the three macronutrients? A. protein, carbohydrate, fat C,ffoteiny carbohydrate, Vitamin A B. protein, carbohydrate, omega 3 D,, protein, carbohydrate, Vitamin C 9. Which best explains why oil is liquid at room temperature while butter is solid at room temperature? A. oil is a saturated fat ©. oil contains double bonds B. butter is a saturated fat D. butter contains double bonds 10. What is the function of fat? A. To give us energy B. To make our body slim C. To make our body.slimmer D. For growth, repair, and maintenance of body cells and tissues 11. Fats provide us with a-source of fat-soluble vitamins, what are they? A.A, B,C & D B.A,C,&E C.B1,D&E D.A,D, By & K 12. What is the function of proteins? A. For healthy skia B. To give the body an insulating power CeTo'provide the body with fat- soluble vitamins D. For growth, repair, and maintenance of body cells and tissues 13. Which of the following is true regarding protein complementation? Protein complementation is when we eat. . A. chicken and pork B. animal sources of protein C. an animal and plant source of protein together D. two plant sources of protein in the same meal to obtain all the essential amino acids 14, What do you calll the foods that are short of one or more of the essential amino acids? A. aldehydes C. incomplete protein B. complete protein D, mallard reaction 15. Which of the following is an animal source of protein? A. beans, B. chicken C. eggplant D. grainsHISTORY OF FOOD CHEMISTRY Components of Food Part I: Macronutrients ‘The human body is made up of a variety of chemical substances, Some are simple ions or molecules; others are complex mixtures of molecules. The two most important substances we need are both simple molecules - oxygen and water. Oxygen (02) is needed in oxidative metabolism that transforms the food nutrients into energy and body mass. It is this process that keeps our body cells alive. Water makes up almost 70 % of our body mass. It is present in every part of the body, acting as medium for body reactions, vehicle for the circulation of nutrients to the body cells, and medium for eliminating the toxic products of body metabolism. \It’ also has a, moderating effect on body temperature. The complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and DNA (but not included in“Our discussion) are already present in our body when we were born. These mdlecules are constantly being changed by body processes as we live and grow. We need food and water daily to keep our cells alive and to replenish the molecules that have been lost or changed in building new tissues and organs. The body gets energy from three important groups of macronutrients - carbohydrates, proteins, and fats and oils. We get 9 cal/g from fats and oils, 7 cal/g from proteins, and 4 cal/g from carbohydrates; regardless of the kind of food source. It takes energy to extract energy from food, The energy used for specific dynamic action (SDA) is spent for digesting and.metabolizing food and converting food energy into our own. This is like the energy used by power plants to produce energy from the fuels they use. The three food groups differ in the amount of energy lost for SDA (4 % for fats, 6 % for carbohydrates, and about 30 % for proteins). What are béing studied in chemistry? ® Can you guess What will be studied in food chemistry? Briefly give your ideas in five (5) sentences. Q XS ~ “What Is It FOOD CHEMISTRY Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of all foods. The biological substances include such items as meat, poultry, lettuce, beer, milk as an example. (Wikipediae) Chemical substances can play an important role in food production and preservation. Food additives, for example) can prolong the shell life of foods; others,such as colors, can make the food more attractive. Flavorings are used to make food tastier. Food supplements are used as sources of nutrition. ‘The importance of food chemistry lies in its ability to counter the effects of decomposition and spoilage and extend the shelf life of foods. Basic food chemistry deals with three primary components in food: carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. HISTORY OF FOOD CHEMISTRY ‘The scientific approach to food and nutrition arose with attention to agricultural chemistry in the works of J. G. Wallerius, Humpy Davy, and others. For example, Davy published Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, in a Course of Lecturés for the Board of Agriculture (1813) in the United Kingdom which would serve a8 foundation for the profession worldwide, going into a fifth edition. Zarlier work included that by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who isolated malic acid from apples in 1785. Some of the findings of Liebig on food chemistry were translated and published by Eben Horsford in Lowell Massachusetts in 1848. In 1874 the society of Public Analysts was formed, with the aim of applying analytical methods to the benefit of the public. Its early experiments were based on bread, milk, and wine It was also out of concern for the quality of the food supply, mainly food adulteration and contamination issues that would first stem from intentional contamination to later with chemical additives by the 1950s. The development and universities worldwide, most notably in the.United States, would expand food chemistry as well with research of dietary substances, most notably the single -grain, experiment during 1907-11. Additional research by Harvey W. Wiley at the United States Department of Agriculture during the late 19 century would play a key factor in the creation of the United’ States Food and Drug Administration in 1906. The American chemical society would establish their Agricultural and Food Chemistry Division. In 1908 while the Institute of food Technologists would establish their Food Chemistry Division in 1995. Food chemistry ¢oncepts are often drawn from rheology, theories of transport phenomena,=physical and chemical thermodynamics, chemical bonds and interaction forces, quantum mechanics and reaction kinetics, biopolymer science, colloidal interactions, nucleation, glass transitions and freezing/disordered or non- crystalline solids, and thus has Food Physical Chemistry as a foundation area. (en.m Wikepedia.org) BASIC COMPONENTS OF FOODS Water in Food Systems A major component of food is water, which can encompass anywhere from 50% in meat products to 95 % in lettuce, cabbage, and tomato products. It is also an excellent place for bacterial growth and food spoilage if it is not properly processed. (One way this is measured in food is by water activity which is very important in the shelf life of many foods during processing. One of the keys to food preservation inmost instances is to reduce the amount of water or alter the water’s characteristics to enhance shelf life. Such methods include dehydration, freezing, and refrigeration. ‘This field encompasses the “physiochemical principles of the reactions and conversions that occur during the manufacture, handling, and storage of foods. (en.m.Wikepedia.org) MACRONUTRIENTS Carbohydrates Comprising 75 % of the biological world and 80 % of all food intake for human consumption, the most known human. carbohydrate is sucrose. The simplest version cup of a carbohydrate is a monosaccharide which Hhegy SHH contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in A Ko 1:2:1 ratio under a general formula of CnH2,0, where n is a minimum of 3, Glucose cho cio is an example of a monosaccharide as is on fructose. When combined in the way that the image to the right depicts, sucrose. “This Phota by Unknown Author isticensed Fig. suaose Sucrose: ordinary table sugar & probably the most familiar carbohydrate of the more common sugar products found in plants, is formed. A chain of monosaccharides form to make a polysaccharide. Such polysaccharides include pectin, dextran, agar, and xanthan. Sugar content is commonly measured in degrees brix. CARBOHYDRATES - THE ENERGY FOOD Rice is for usygrass.is for carabaos and other ruminants. Rice and grass are both foods for each species. Both are good sources of energy. The starch in rice and the cellulose in a grass are both complex carbohydrates. Humans can digest starch, but not cellulose, What makes these molecules similar and different at the same time? Carbohydrates constitute a large part of our diet. Rice and corn are the main sources of carbohydrates for most Asians, including Filipinos. Wheat, potatoes, barley, and sorghum are the main sources of carbohydrates for the Western world, Carbohydrates include the digestible starch and sugars, and the indigestible component called fiber or roughage. The name carbohydrate was derived from “hydrates of carbon “. This is evident from their general formula (CH2) n. The subscript n refers to the number of times the monomer formula is repeated in the molecule. Structures and Properties of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates may be simple or complex. The simple carbohydrates are also known as simple sugars. The simplest carbohydrates are the monosaccharides. Some examples are glucose (also called blood sugar, grape sugar, and dextrose), fructose 3(Known as fruit sugar and levulose), and galactose (obtained from the hydrolysis of lactose). The names in parenthesis are their common names and suggest where they are found or their optical properties. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are all hexoses, meaning they have six carbon atoms in their molecules. They all have the same molecular formula, CeHi2Os. Other simple sugars may contain only three C atoms (triose), four C atoms (tetrose ), and five C atoms (pentose).These groupings in ( parenthesis ) are based on the number of C atoms present. Simple sugars can exist in cyclic or ring forms. The ring is most stable if it has five or six members. ‘This Photo by Unknon Author Is lcensed under CC BY 5A Fig. 2. Examples of carbohydrates In the ring form of glucose, the OH grouip/of C=1 (right picture of Figure 2) may be oriented below the plane (a) or above the plane (a). This orientation is important in determining the kind of polysaccharide that forms. Carbohydrates are characterized by the presence of several alcohol or hydroxyl groups (- OH) and carbonyligroup (- C=0). They can be grouped into aldoses and ketoses. Aldoses are characterized by the presence of aldehyde group while ketoses are identified by the presenee of ketone group. Glucose (an aldose) and fructose ( a ketose )differ in the position\of the carbonyl group in the two molecules. These accounts for their differences in properties. Fructose has less physiological effects, on the body when compared to glucose. a note ‘This Phatby Unknown Authodéehsed unde B-SANC Figure 3. Glucose Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharide molecules minus a molecule of water. They have the general formula CygH 22011. Some disaccharides are sucrose (cane sugar), maltose (malt sugar), lactose (milk sugar), and cellobiose (obtained from partial hydrolysis of cellulose). The two monosaccharide rings in thestructure of sucrose are joined through the ether linkage called a glycoside linkage (between the carbon- 2 of fructose and oxygen of the hydroxyl group of glucose at, position 1.) All carbohydrates are natural products. ‘The disaccharides and polysaccharides are naturally formed from simple monosaccharide. CHLOA _ - HO-F-H “This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CCBY-NC —OH ir H-C-OH H—C—OH Sucrose | adisaccharide) CH,OH CH,OH Glucose an aldohexose) fructose ( a ketose) Figure 4, Structural formulas of some simple sugars Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates. Starch and cellulose are both polymers of glucose. Their structurés are shown below. Take note that starch is a polymer of a -glucose All glucose rings are! lying on the same plane. Cellulose is a polymer of a-glucose. Bach glucose unit lies on one plane above (or below) the next, like a staircase. The spatial difference between starch and cellulose accounts for indigestibility of cellulose to humans. Starch is found in all plants, especially in their seeds. Cellulose makes up 45 to 50 % of the cell walls of plants wood. Cotton contains 90 to 95 % cellulose, Themolecule is largely linear with individual strands aligned with each other through multiple hydrogen bonds. This makes its structure rigid enough to hold the.trunk of a tree, Cellulose is a colorless, amorphous solid which decomposes on heating. ‘The amylose in starch can form an a - helix structure (like a hollow spring). This structure can trap iodine molecules in the form of Is - complex. The starch-iodine complex has a deep blue color, which is used to identify the presence of starch. The deeper the color, the more starch is present.This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC Figure 5. Structures of Cellulose and starch Reducing and Nonreducing Sugars All monosaccharides are reducing _ sugars. They react positively with either Fehling’s solution or Benedict’s reagent. This is due to the presence of the group or the a -hydroxyketo group. Sucrose is a e sugar. When sucrose is hydrolyzed or reacts itbreaks : to produce equimolar amounts of glucose se. The 1 mixture is called invert sugar. Invert the main component of honey. The honeybe: in flowers. The hydrolysis produces the invert sugar. ‘This Photo Unknown into dextrins. Further ,hydro breaks the dextrin molecules to the monomer glucose, Dextrin pri ‘olor with iodine, Glucose does not affect the color of iodine. [20 + Ht] Starch, dextrin ———_ glucose complex depends on the number of glucose units remaining odine complex formation is a reversible reaction that is affected by heat. = Starch + iodine ———__ starch - iodine complex (colorless \(purple - blue ) ‘The purple blue starch-iodine complex can be reduced to colorless form. This reduced form can be oxidized again to the purple blue complex. starch - iodine complex > aStarch + iodine (purple - blue ) (colorless }‘The hydrolysis of starch in the body starts at the mouth through the action of the enzyme amylase or ptyalin in saliva, Amylase is a group of closely related enzymes that degrade starch, glycogen, and other polysaccharides, It causes the breaking of the glycosidic linkages between the glucose monomers. Other groups of amylase enzymes participate in the metabolic breakdown of polysaccharides. By the time the carbohydrates reach the stomach, they are already in simple forms as glucose or fructose. Only these small molecules can penetrate the intestinal wall and enter the bloodstream. Cellulose cannot form the helical structure that can trap the iodine molecule. This is not possible with the staircase geometry of this polymer. Cellulose’ is not hydrolyzed easily as starch, but on heating with dilute HoSOs under pressure, it yields only a - glucose. Linear chain cellulose on hydrolysis yields a disaccharide cellobiase and then produces only a - glucose. All mammals including us/cammot digest cellulose due to lack of the enzyme that can break only’ a- Starch + iodine -glucosidic bonds. Cattle, sheep, and other ruminants have great population of cellulolytic bacteria in their stomach that can break down the cellulose with the help of enzyme cellulase. Cellulose is digested and converted into glucose. Both starch and cellulose are natural polymers, ‘There are other carbohydrate macromolecules like glycogen and dextrin. Glycogen. is the form in which we store energy in our body. Like starch and cellulose, it isa polymer of glucose. It is, however, more highly branched and has a globular strueture; Relative Sweetness of Sugar Neither starch nor cellulose has any significant taste, although many naturally occurring mono- and disaccharides aredistinctly sweet. Table 1 lists the relative sweetness of several mono- and disaccharides, with table sugar (sucrose) assigned a rating of 100 for comparison: Table 1. Relative Sweetness of Sugars a ‘Sweetness ( Relative to Sucrose} Fructose 12-18 Invert sugar | stixture of equal parts glucose és fructose) 1.23) Sucrose 1.00 Glucose 0.60, Maltose 05 Lactose 0.15 - 0.30 How We Digest Carbohydrates: The Secret of Fiber While any of the monosaccharides - glucose or fructose for example - easily penetrates the intestinal wall to enter the bloodstream, neither disaccharides nor the larger carbohydrates normally get through the intestinal barrier. They are simply too large. To assimilate these larger carbohydrates, ranging from maltose and sucrose to starch, we must first clip them down to their component monosaccharides, which can pass through the intestinal wall and into the bloodstream. In forming the larger carbohydrate molecules, the individual monosaccharide rings connect to each otherwith a loss of molecules of water. To reverse this process, to cleave the disaccharides and the polysaccharides to the molecules through hydrolysis Our bodies carry out this hydrolysis through the catalytic action of our digestive enzymes. Enzymes act as biological catalysts that allow chemical reactions to take place more rapidly or under milder conditions than they might otherwise, but without being consumed themselves. In cleaving the nutrient polysaccharides quickly and efficiently in the relatively mild chemical environment of our digestive systems, these molecular catalysts act very much like the platinum and palladium catalysts that help remove unburned hydrocarbons from automobile exhausts. ‘An enzyme that enables us to digest both maltose and starch is. maltase, which our bodies produce in sufficient quantities to allow us to digest the starch we eat. As you tight infer from this example, an enzyme's name usually resembles the name of the substance it acts on. For simple disaccharides, just replace the -ase ending of the sugar with’-ase to get the name of the enzyme that hydrolyzes the disaccharide. Maltase helps us hydrolyze the links of maltose and starch. ‘The combination of two glucose units through an a link prodiices cellobiase, which resembles two links of the cellulose chain. Since.we don’t produce cellobiase, the digestive enzyme that hydrolyzes the a linkage, we can’tdigest either cellobiose or cellulose. For humans, starch constitutes a digestible carbohydrate, while cellulose is one of the indigestible carbohydrates that form a large part of the fiber, bulk, or roughage of our diets. Grass, leaves, and other plant material, all of which are indigestible in our own intestines, provide metabolic enérgy to cows, goats, sheep, and other ruminants, termites, and similar insects,simply because the digestive systems of these animals’ harbor microorganisms that produce the needed cellobiase. We don’t have the required enzyme, and 80 we can't live on grass and wood. Food rich in fiber includes*fruits, vegetables, bran, and nuts. For maintaining good health it’s recommended that these be part of our daily diets. Dietary fiber seems to reduce the risk,Of cancer, especially cancer of the colon. How and why dietary fiber might have this beneficial effect are uncertain. One bit of speculation holds that the,secretof fiber may lie in its mechanical effect on our large intestine Fiber absorbs’a large/amount of water as it passes through us, and in combination with this waterit assumes considerable bulk. This bulk may stimulate the intestine and promote a rapid transit of the fibrous bulk through and out of our bodies. If this, rapid ‘passage of fiber also speeds the elimination of other, cancer-causing substances, then their contact time with intestinal tissue is shortened as well, and their opportunity for acting on intestinal tissue and generating cancer is diminished. Another possibility may simply be that as we increase the proportion of fiber containing foods in our diets, we necessarily decrease the proportion of meats and other fatty foods. Since diets high in fats seem to be associated with cancer, this hypothesis could as easily account for the protective effect of fiber.Lactose Intolerance : Digestive Problems in Two out of Three Adults Lactose (from the Latin lac, for “milk”), the principal carbohydrate of milk, offers a good example of the problems we encounter through defects in our enzyme- catalyzed digestive process. Lactose is a disaccharide that consists of a galactose ring joined to a glucose ring through a alpha link. The monosaccharide galactose differs only subtly from glucose, through the stereochemistry of carbon 4. If the -OH on carbon 4 of the monosaccharide, ring points down, we have glucose; if it points up, we have galactose. Since virtually no disaccharide of any kind gets through the intestinal wall and into the bloodstream, we need the enzyme lactase to hydrolyze lactose into its components, galactose, and glucose. The more milk and milk products we consume, the more lactase we need, Normally, there's plenty of lactase in the digestive systems /of infants and children. That's fortunate, since nursing babies get about 40 % of their calories from the lactose of their mother’s milk. By and large, older children have more than enough lactase to digest all the lactose of the milk, cheese, ice ereamyand other dairy products they eat. But gradually, as we grow from infancy to adolescence, most of us lose the ability to produce lactase in large quantities, so we're largely “lactase deficient” as adults. In this condition we produce very smallamounts of lactase, too little to handle more than a glass of two of milk ata time. It’s been estimated that about 70% of the world’s adult population or about two out of three adults throughout the world, have very low levels of lactase‘in their digestive system ‘Without enough lactase in the digestive-fluids, the lactose of milk and milk products isn’t hydrolyzed effectively, Whenever large quantities of this disaccharide are consumed, much of it, unhydrolyzed and unabsorbed, passes along the intestinal path to a region where it undergoes fermentation to gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen and lactic acid, a bowel irritant. The combination easily produces gastric distress and diarrhea. Not everyone is lactase deficient and, for those who are, the amount of lactose to cause distress varies considerably. Nonetheless, gastric problems produced by drinking large amounts of milk or eating large quantities of cheese and ice cream could result from the simple inability to hydrolyze a linkage connecting a galactose ring to a ghicose ringjin the disaccharide lactose Lipids ‘The term lipid comprises a diverse range of molecules and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or nonpolar compounds of biological origin, including waxes, fatty acids (including essential fatty acids), fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and steroids. Some lipids are linear aliphatic molecules, while others have ring structures, Some are aromatic, while others are not, Some are flexible, while others are rigid, ‘Most lipids have some polar character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar hydrophobie (“water-fearing’), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part oftheir structure is polar or hydrophilic (“water-loving”) and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them amphiphilic molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions). In the case of cholesterol, the polar group is a mere -OH (hydroxyl or alcohol). Lipids in food include the oils of such grains as corn, soybean, from animal fats, and are parts of many foods such as milk, cheese, and meat. They also act as vitamin carriers. FATS AND OILS Fats and oils belong to a class called lipids. Like the carbohydrates, lipids are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats and oils are, more specifically, esters of glycerol. Hence, they are called triglycerides. Structures of Fats and Oils The structure of triglyceride, fatty acid, and glycerol molecule are shown in Figure 6 below. Fatty acids refer to members of carboxylic acid family with continuous chain that generally contain 4 to 20 carbon atoms. The gfoups Ry R’, and R” may be the same or different groups. They are derived from Carboxylic acids. Most of them are straight, unbranched chains containing even number of carbon atoms. Saturated Vs. Unsaturated Fats Fats and oils are not pure compounds but are mixtures of chemically similar triglyceride glycerol 3 fatty acids Dhitaates OF ahamean “This Phote by Uninown Author is lcensed unde CC BY Figure 6. Formation of triglyceride ( triester of glycerol) compounds: that is, they have the same structural features. Fats and oils only differ in melting points. Oils are generally liquid at room temperature, while fats are semisolid or solid. This difference arises from the chain length of molecules present and the degree of unsaturation or the number of double bonds. The longer the chain of carbon atoms, the higher is the melting point of the triglyceride. On the other hand, the greater the degree of unsaturation, the lower the melting point. What is the significance of this in your diet? Fats with high melting points tend to deposit on the walls of the arteries leading to a condition known as arteriosclerosis. This is 10factor that could contribute to heart disease. Table 2 lists representative fatty acids in dietary fats and oils and their respective melting points. ‘Table 2. Some Fatty Acids in dietary Fats and Oils Fatty | Melting Structural Formula No. of No. of Acid | PE(OC) Catoms | Double Bonds lauric acid | 43.2 (CH CH) 1pCOOH, 12 0 Myristic acid] 54 (CHACH)1zCOOH 4 0 palmitic | 69 (CHCH)1 COOH 16 0 Stearic acid | 71 (CHACH,)16COOH 18, 0° Oleic acid [13 (CHA{CH)7 CH=CH (CH: }; COOH 18 1 Linoleic acid | -5 (CHC) CH*CH (CHa); COOH 8 2 Linolenic | -11 (CHsGH,CH=CHCHCH=CHCH:CH=CH 18 5 acid (CH,);COOH The degree of unsaturation in fats and oils canibe easily determined by using iodine (or bromine) test agent. Bromine reacts faster than iodine to double bonds. Results may be visible in a short time. Iodine (L)has a red violet color which slowly disappears as it adds to double bond/s. The-amount of iodine reagent can indicate ‘the degree of unsaturation or how many double bonds are present in fat or oil mixture. Many of the cooling oils mafiufactured in the Philippines are produced from coconut oil, unless otherwise indicated in the label. These are subjected to a refining process to remove substances and impurities that can cause objectionable odor and taste. You may use pure coconut oil if this is available. There are other kinds of vegetable oil that are commercially sold in Philippine markets like palm oil, canola oil, sunflower oil, etc. These are gefterally imported from other countries. Solubility in fats We get more easily satisfied when we have fats in our meals. The fat molecules leave the stomach'more slowly, delaying the onset of hunger. Fats dissolve many flavor molecules and'gome molecules responsible for color. Many foreign substances that enter our body are fat-soluble. These include excess vitamins and dangerous. drugs. These substances tend to accumulate in the fatty tissues and organs of the body. Dangerous drugs tend to exert harmful effects. For example, the effect of LSD (a very dangerous drug) is known to persist even after its intake has stopped for a longer time. Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble. Toxic effects are known to be caused by an excess of these vitamins in the body. Reusing cooking oils ‘The repeated use of cooking oils should not be encouraged because repeated heating may produce acrolein (CH: = CHCHO). At most, cooking oils should be reused. only for the second time. Acrolein’s pungent smell, intensely irritates lachrymator (causes tear formation). It is a nasal irritant even at 1 minute exposure at 1 ppm. It is known to form in fires involving polymeric materials. crNonedible oils ‘The nonedible oils include linseed oil, cottonseed oil, tung oil, and locally, lumbang oil. These are used in the manufacture of paint, lacquers, and varnishes. Because of their high degree of unsaturation, they produce a tough, protective film as they dry. Thus, they are known as drying oils. Saponification of Fats and Oils Different kinds of vegetable oils are used in the preparation of soaps. Soaps are metallic salts of higher fatty acids. Higher fatty acids or triglycerides in oils are hydrolyzed in basic medium using either NaOH or KOH. The reaction isscalled saponification. It is illustrated below. ‘The other product is glycerol. This is removed by salting out or adding salt to increase the ionic property of the medium. CH;-00C—R ‘CH,—OH CH—00c—R + 3HO” ———» s3r4cog+ CH—oH cH,—00c—R CH—OH on Triglyceride carboxylate Glycerol ‘This photo by Unknown author is licensed under CCBY-A Figure 6, Formation of Soap Cholesterol Medical studies of,conneetions between diets and diseases of the heart and circulatory system (ardiovascular disease) indicate that diets content. A large percentage of fish oils seem'to protect against cardiovascular disease, This apparent protective effectof fish oils may come from some special chazacteristic of the fatty acid content of théir triglycerides. ‘ThE use of partially hydrogenated oils in foods brings with it a mixed story that, cefiters on cholesterol, (Figure 7) a compound that is present in virtually all animal cells. Cholesterol falls into the class of steroidal alcohols, or sterols (irom a contraction of steroidal alcohols). It’s classified as a steroid because of its peculiar molecular structure consisting of three (3) rings of six (6) carbon ring of five(5) carbons. All steroids share this same carbon skeleton arranged into the three six- membered rings and one five-membered ring of the figure. High levels of serum cholesterol, which is cholesterol present in the blood, are closely associated with atherosclerosis, a stiffening and thickening of the walls of the arteries sometimes known simply as. Hardening of the arteries. It’s a condition that can lead to high blood pressure and heart disease. High levels of cholesterol in the blood are thus implicated as one cause of cardiovascular disease, Serum cholesterolappears to have two origins: the cholesterol that’s present in our diet, and that which is manufactured by our bodies from other substances. Controlling our intake of dietary cholesterol depends largely on avoiding foods rich in this sterol. First on the list are egg yolks. Red meat, animal organs, cream butter, and many cheese also contain high levels. On the other hand, egg He oy whites, yogurt, and fat-free milk are ia * among the animal products lowest in cholesterol. Since cholesterol occurs only in animal tissue, we can be certain that all fruits, vegetables, and vegetable oils are cholesterol-free. Table 2 lists the fat and cholesterol content of typical foods. He, Coe “This Bhoto by Unknown Author is icefsed under Cc Figure 7, Cholesterol A set of complex, interacting factors appears to govern the production of cholesterol within our bodies. This includes genetics (over which we have no control no control), exercise, emotional stress, and still other influences, possibly including the amount and kinds of fiber in our diets. At any rate, the cholesterol generated within our bodies comes from the liver, whichymanufactures cholesterol for us from saturated fats. Reducing the amount ofanimél fats in our diets, especially those from red meats, is one recommended way of controlling serum cholesterol. Animal fats pose a double threat: Not only do they provide the liver with the raw materials for its own production of cholesterol, but animal fats carry high levels of cholesterol with them as they enter our digestive systems. Table 3 gives us the list of food with the corresponding amount of chélesterol. Cholesterol, which has many of the properties of alkanes, doesn’t dissolve in. water to any appreciable extent. ‘Table 3. Cholesterol amount in foods Cholesterol Fat and Oil content (g) Foo (me) | Saturated | Monounsaturated | Polyunsaturated Beet a 27 a7 os une 29 505 Ba 30 Cheese, cheat 105 Ba oa 03 Cheese) katage dry P 03 0a 002 cheese, Swiss 2 wa 73 10 Chicken (ight meat no stn) 5 Fry 15 10 Goin ol ° 27 242 587 Fags, whole 348 3a a5 14 aus, yok 1602 39 Ba 43 Frankfurter, all beef a By aa Fr ‘Margarine. Stek (rom com oll) Q Ba 8 180 Wk, sim z oa O05 007 13Mil, whole 4 23 1a oa Olive oil 0 35 737 a4 Peanut butter 0 97 233 152 Peanut oll 0 169 462 320 Safflower all 0 94 wa 745 salmon, pink, canned 35 10 18 27 Tuna (cannedin water) 8 02 oa 02 Turkey light meat, no skin) 2 10 060) 09 Yogurt, plain, low fat) 6 10 oa 0.008 Like the hydrophobic tails of soap molecules, cholesterol seeks out and/dissolves in fatty, greasy substances, including animal fat. Thus, animal fat serves to éoncentrate cholesterol within itself. Diets rich in animal fats, then, are believed to promote high serum cholesterol levels both by carrying their own with them and by providing our liver with saturated fats. It makes sense, then to welcome manufacturers’ boldly written claims that their products are CHOLESTEROL-FREE until we read the 'small print on the labels that spell out, more quietly, the content of hydrogenated vegetable oils. The more highly hydrogenated these vegetable oils are,the more they become like animal fats, the liver’s raw materials for putting its cholesterol into our bloodstream. Furthermore, while a dietary switch’ from) animal fats to vegetable oils will certainly guarantee a reduction of our cholesterol intake, it will not necessarily ensure a nutritional turn to unsaturated side chains. If we want to replace the saturated triglycerides of our diets with their polyunsaturated counterparts, it’s not enough simply to substitute vegetable oils for our dietary fats. We've got to be sure that the oils we choose are, really, polyunsaturated. Otherwise, we could end up with a diet of oils even richef in saturated triglycerides than the animal fats we abandon, Food Proteins Proteins compose over 30 % of the dry weight of an average living cell and are very complex macromolecules. They also play a fundamental role in the structure and fuiétion of cells. Consisting mainly of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some sulfur, they also may contain iron, copper, phosphorus, or zinc. In food, proteins are essential for growth and survival, and requirements vary depending upon a person’s age and physiology (¢.g., pregnancy), Protein is commonly obtained from animal sources: eggs, milk, and meat. Nuts, grains, and legumes provide vegetable sources of protein, and protein combining of vegetable sources is used to achieve complete protein nutritional quotas from vegetables. Protein sensitivity as food allergy is detected with BLISA test. ELISA stands for enzyme-linked immunoassay. It is commonly used laboratory test to detect antibodies in the blood. 14PROTEINS - NATURAL POLYMERS Proteins are present in every living cell, It makes up roughly half of the dry mass of the human body. They perform diverse functions and are found in different parts of the human body as well as those of animals. Proteins along with water are the principal components of our muscles, blood, and organs. Structures of Proteins Protein molecules are more complex than the previous two macromolecules that you have studied. Although proteins perform diverse biological functions, they are basically similar only at the primary structure level. Like complex carbohydrates, proteins are polymers. They are built from alpha (a) amino acids, What is an amino acid and what do we mean when we say alpha (4) amino acids? As the name implies, this molecule contains both an amino group (- NH) and a carboxylic acid (- COOH) group. We designate the different positions in a carboxylic acid by Greek letters, counting from the carboxylic acid group. The position adjacent to the COOH group is the -position; the next is the a position; and the third is designated as a and so on. An alpha (a) - amino a¢id)has'the general formula shown, below: a a R-Cl- CH ddl R- of -C-OH Carboxylic acid Nia a- amino carboxylic acid There are 20-different amino acids in human proteins. They have the same general formula’but are different in R group. Bach of the 20 amino acids has its characteristics)R-group. The simplest amino acid is glycine with H-atom as the R- group, Of the’20 amino acids, 10 of them cannot be produced by our body and must come from)the food we eat. These are labelled as essential amino acids. The rest are labelled as nonessential, not because we do not need them for protein synthesis but because they can be produced by our bodies. An amino group is a basic group. A reaction can occur between basic nitrogen atom (an ammonia or an amine) and the electron-deficient carbon of the -COOH acid group accompanied by loss of a water molecule. : ’ i ! 15R-C- OH+ RNH2 GR -C- Nip + HOH Between two amino acids, the reaction is between the -NH2 group of one molecule and the - COOH group of the other molecule: NE: O NH,O NRO | R | tl Ill Ley R-CH-C.OH + R-CH-C-oH = RCH. EWN. CH-COOH H ‘The -C- N -H group which joins the amino acid monomers is called the peptide linkage. Two amino acids joined by a peptide bond constitute a dipeptide: three males a tripeptide and so on. Several amino acids can join each other through'peptide bonding and form a protein or polypeptide which is a polymer of Giflerent kinds of amino acids. we eee aE ! Functions of Proteins Proteins have varied functions. Enzymes like urease and catalase act as body catalysts. Hemoglobin and cytochromes aré transport molecules carrying ions or molecules (oxygen or carbon dioxide)*around the body. Hormones or messenger proteins like insulin and oxytocin perform, regulatory functions. Insulin regulates metabolism of carbohydrates and fats in the body. Oxytocin stimulates the mother’s contractions during childbirth. Actin and myosin are involved in muscle contraction and movement. Some proteins like keratins and collagens strengthen or protect biological structures. Keratins strengthen the protective coverings of hairs, quills, feathers, horns, and beaks. Collagens support connective tissues like tendons and ligaments. Antibodies serve as defense molecules protecting the body from invading species. Growing embryos need a lot of nutrition. This is provided by ovalbumin found in egg white. Other proteins serve as storage for ions. There are also toxic proteins like the.ones present in snake venom. Most often the properties and functions ofthe protéins are dictated by their complex structures. Denaturation of Proteins Proteins exhibit complex structure when they are folded or coiled, form globules, or when’ two similar or different polypeptides form one protein molecule. These complex structures can be modified or changed by physical or chemical agents. The process is called denaturation. Shaking, freezing, heating and chemical agents like acids, bases, salts, baking soda, alcohols, and radiations like X-rays, ionizing, and ultrasonic radiations can cause denaturation, When a protein is denatured, its primary functions are also affected. For example, raw egg white is transparent and gel-like. Albumin molecules in egg white are globular. Their round, compact shape makes them soluble in water. Heat can destroy this shape. The globule coils into long strands that are insoluble in water. The uncoiled albumin molecule is more active to enzymes. This explains why boiled egg is more digestible than raw egg. 16Essential Amino Acids Since all the amino acids found in protein are a- amino acids, we can view each one of them as a variant of glycine in which an a- hydrogen is replaced by some other substituent. Table 3 below presents 20 amino acids of which you are going to draw the structures given the name, abbreviation as well as the dietary requirements. The question of whether any one of these amino acids must be part of the foods we eat, or whether we can form it within our bodies (from other nutrients} as we need it, it is important in assessing the quality of proteins in our diet. Of these 20 amino acids, our bodies lack the ability to synthesize about half, ofall of which are known as essential amino acids. We must get these essential amino acids from the proteins of the foods we eat so that we can use them informing our own body protein. The remainder, those that our own bodies can produce as they are needed, are nonessential amino acids. Activity 1 ‘Table Completion. Complete the first column by writing the structure, given the name of the amino acids Table 4. The 20 Amino Acids of Human Protein Structure Name ‘Abbreviation, Dietary Requirements Glycine Gly Nonessential ‘Alanine ‘Ala Nonessential ‘Arginine Arg, Essential for infants Asparagine Ast Nonessential ‘Aspartic aid ‘Asp Nonessential Cysteine Cys ‘Nonessential Glutamicjacid Gh ‘Nonessential (Glutamine Gin) ‘Nonessential Histidine His Essential for Infants Isoleucine Tle Essential, Teucine Lew Essential Lysine Lys ‘Essential Methionine Met Essential Phenylalanine Phe. Fssential Proline Pro ‘Nonessential Serine ‘Ser Nonessential ‘Threonine Thr Essential “Tryptophan rp Essential ‘Tyrosine Tyr Nonessential Valine Val Essential The dividing line between the two classes isn’t always completely clear. Complete the table by drawing the structures (from your knowledge in biology & Biotech }. As shown in Table 3, eight of the amino acids appear to be essential for everyone; two more, arginine and histidine, probably can be generated in an adult’s body but not in the body of a young child, What's more, a couple of the nonessential amino acids 7seem to be able to substitute for at least a portion of two essential amino acids. Cysteine seems to be able to take up part of the slack left by a deficiency of dietary methionine (another sulfur containing amino acid), while tyrosine stands in, at least partially , for phenylalanine. The Quality of Our Protein ‘The quantities of total protein contained in various food appear in Table 5. But total protein isn’t enough. The essential amino acids must be there in the protein formation. Table 5. Protein Content of Foods Food % Protein (ave/zange | Food % Protein [ave/range ) Cheese Cream cheese 9-36 parmesan Mille Whole 4 & condensed Peanuts a7 Rice 3S Chicken 21 Peas 7 Fish, Flounder 15-21 sardines |_| Corn 4 Beet Hamburger 16-20 round | [Dates 2 Eggs 13 Potatoes 2 ‘Wheat flour 13 ‘Bananas 1 White flour 12 Carrots, a Cornmeal 3 ‘Orange juice iT Tima beans & Since we can’t store significant amounts of any essential amino acids for future use in the same way we store fat, for example; all of them must be present as part of any meal. When our cells start to produce proteins, all the necessary components must be present in good supply, then and there, or the synthesis simply doesn’t take place. Instead, the cells metabolize the unused acids that do happen to be present for the 4 Cal / g of energy that. they yield. To do us any good, then the proteins of our foods must provide us with substantial amounts ofall the essential amino acids, and in about the same ratio as. they occur in our own proteins!The dietary proteins that provide us with something close to that ratio are the complete or high-quality proteins; those deficient in one or more of the nutrients aré the incomplete or low-quality proteins. Of all common foods, eggs furnish substantial amounts of the essential amino acids in a proportion closest to human on the average. They provide us with the highést -quality’ dietary protein. This shouldn’t surprise us since chickens are vertebrates, with proteins not far different from ours, and each egg must contain all the amino acids that eventually become the proteins of a whole chicken. The amounts of each of the eight amino acids known to be essential for adults, as they occur in the protein of hen’s eggs (and in the protein of cornmeal as well, for comparison in a few moments). All this, incidentally, isn’t meant to suggest that eggs are perfect food. Their very high cholesterol content limits their use by people who must avoid this substance. ‘To sum up, then, the ratio of the essential amino acids in particular food in every bit is as important as the actual quantities of each. Although the cornmeal contains almost as much total protein as eggs, and even more leucine per 100 g, this grain serves as a comparatively poor source of dietary protein. Much of its leucine is lost 18through conversion to energy since cornmeal’s deficiencies in the other essential amino acids don’t allow very much protein formation. Most other grains and grain products also provide inferior dietary protein. The Vegetarian Diet A vegetarian diet should include a diverse mix of fruits, vegetables, grains, healthy fats, and proteins. To replace the protein provided by meat in your dict, include a variety of protein rich plant foods like nuts, seeds, legumes, tempeh, tofu, and seitan. ( www.healthline.com.nutrition. vegetarian) Why vegetarian diet bad? It can make you gain weight and lead to high blood pressuie, high cholesterol, and other health problems. You can get protein from the other foods, too, like yogurt, eggs, beans, and even vegetables. In fact, veggies can give you all you need if you eat different kinds and plenty of them. (www.webmd.com obesity. news). Is a vegetarian diet healthier? A vegetarian diet can be very healthy,/but’ your diet won't automatically be healthier if you cut out meat. Like everyone, vegetarians need to make sure they: eat at least 5 portions of a variety of fruit and vegetables per day.(www.nhs.uk.live- well.cat-well) ‘Types of vegetarian diets: When people think about a vegetarian diet, they typically think about a diet that doesn’t include meat, poultry, or fish. But vegetarian diets vary in what foods they include and exclude: > Lacto-vegetarian diets exclude meat, fish, poultry, and eggs, as well as foods that contain them. Dairy. products}such as milk, cheese, yogurt, and butter, are included. > Ovo-vegetarian diets exdlude meat, poultry, seafood, and dairy products, but allow eggs. > Lacto-ovo vegetarian diets exclude meat, fish, and poultry, but allow dairy products and eggs > Pescatarian diets exclude meat and poultry, dairy, and eggs, but allow fish > Vegamdiets exclude meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products - and foods that céntain these products > Some people follow a semi vegetarian diet - also called flexitarian diet - which is primarily a plant-based diet but includes meat, dairy, eggs, poultry, and fish on occasion or in small quantities. (mayoclinic.org) Animal products such as milk, fish, beef, and chicken typically provide more high-quality protein than do plant products. Enzymes Enzymes are biochemical catalysts used in converting processes from one substance to another, They are also involved in reducing the amount of time and energy required to complete a chemical process. Many aspects of the food industry 19use catalysts, including baking, brewing, dairy, and fruit juices, to make cheese, beer, and bread. Enzymes are mainly globular proteins-protein molecules where the tertiary structure has given the molecule as a generally rounded, ball shape (although perhaps a very squashed ball in some cases). The other type of proteins (fibrous proteins) have long structures and are found in tissues and hair. Ribozymes are enzymes made of RNA that are sometimes also associated with auxiliary proteins. After their discovery in the early 1980s, ribozymes have been found in the genomes of many species from all kingdoms of life. ‘The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively demonstrated by John Howard Northrop and Wendell Meredith Stanley, who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin (1930), trypsin and chymotrypsin. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. An enzyme is a type of protein found within the cell. Enzymes ¢reate'chemical reactions in the body. They speed up the rate of a chemical réaction to help support, life. Enzymes: amylase and other carbohydrates enzymes break down starch into sugar; protease enzymes break down proteins into amino acidsy lipase enzymes break down lipids (fats and oils) into fatty acids and glycerol Enzymes synthesized by hyperthermophiles (bacteria and archaea with optimal growth temperatures of >80 0 C), also called hyper thermophilic enzymes, are typically thermostable (ie., resistant to) irfeversible inactivation at high temperatures) and are optimally active at high temperatures. Enzymes serve as catalysts to make biological processes, and $6 they @re not used up in reactions and they may be recovered and reusedy However, in a laboratory setting, reactions involving enzymes can leave the enzyme at once less reactive but more stable. Other food components include micronutrients - vitamins and minerals, additives, flavorings, coloring, and antiéxidants, which will be taken up separately. What I Have Learned Food chemistry isthe study of (1) and (2) of all biological and non- biological components of foods. Chemical substances can play an important role in @) and.(4) +. Food additives can prolong (5) ___ of foods. Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated (6) 4» acid from apples in 1785. (7), is amajor component of food. Carbohydrates have a general formula of (8) A (9) is formed by a chain of monosaccharides. Sugar content is commonly measured in (10)___. An enzyme that enables us to digest both maltose and starch is (11) ___, which our bodies produce in sufficient quantities to allow us to digest the starch we eat. Food rich in fibers includes (12) (13), (14) ,and (15)__. (16) ____ and (17) ___ belong to a class called lipids. They are esters of glycerol called (18) Generally, oils are (19) ___ at room temperature while fats are (20) The sickness when fats with high melting points deposit on the wall of the arteries is called (21) __. Proteins are present in every (22) __. These proteins with (23) ____ are the principal components of our (24) __. (25) 5 and (26). (27) __ and (28) __are transport molecules carrying ions or molecules around the body. (29) ___ stimulates the mother’s contractions during 20childbirth, (30) and (31) are involved in muscle contraction and movement. Some proteins like (32) and (33) strengthen or protect biological structures. (34) support connective tissues like tendons and ligaments. (35) serve as defense molecules protecting the body from invading species. Complete the table below, Write your answers in tabular form on your answer sheet. Macronutrient/ Function Ailment if deficient in component of food amount a1