Graduate Level Statistics Compilation

T ABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Statistical Literacy in Research .........................................................................................1

2. Scope and Functions of Statistics in Research ...................................................................2
3. Data and Variables ...........................................................................................................3
4. Two major areas of statistics: Descriptive and Inferential .................................................3
5. Overview of Research Methods ........................................................................................4
6. Ten Big Statistical Ideas in Research ................................................................................5
7. Defining and characterizing study populations..................................................................6
8. Sampling principles and procedures .................................................................................8
9. Sampling errors and sampling distributions ......................................................................8
10. Sample Size Determination Formulas .............................................................................9
11. Sampling Issues: representativeness and Sample Size Adequacy .................................. 10
12. Types of Data Sources and Collection Procedures ........................................................ 11
13. Measurement and Data collection issues ....................................................................... 11
14. Criteria for evaluating data quality................................................................................ 12
15. The nature of the research process and the role of statistics ........................................... 13
16. Principles and methods of data organization and presentation ....................................... 14
17. Numerical Methods of Data Reduction ......................................................................... 15
18. Descriptive Measures of Data ....................................................................................... 16
19. Interpreting and evaluating graphical displays of data ................................................... 17
20. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA): Numerical and Graphical Methods ......................... 18
21. The logic of statistical inference ................................................................................... 19
22. Methods of inferential statistics .................................................................................... 20
23. Estimation of Parameters .............................................................................................. 21
24. Tests of hypotheses ...................................................................................................... 22
25. Statistical significance .................................................................................................. 24
26. Choosing Statistical Tests ............................................................................................. 25
27. Criteria for significance: Criteria Values and p-values .................................................. 26
28. Analysis of Differences and Relationships .................................................................... 27
29. Analysis of Variance .................................................................................................... 29
30. Statistical Power Analysis ............................................................................................ 30
31. Effect Size .................................................................................................................... 31
32. The structure and planning of experiments.................................................................... 32
33. Analysis of Variance: One-way and Two-Way classification ........................................ 33
34. Multiple –Comparison Procedures ................................................................................ 34
35. Repeated-Measurement Design .................................................................................... 35
36. Multivariate ANOVA ................................................................................................... 36
37. Factorial Designs .......................................................................................................... 37
38. Analysis of Covariance ................................................................................................. 38
39. Threats to internal/external validity .............................................................................. 39
41. Formulating Conclusions and Recommendations .......................................................... 42
42. Criteria for Research Quality ........................................................................................ 43
43. Writing the Research Report ......................................................................................... 44
44. Modes of Research dissemination ................................................................................. 45
1. STATISTICAL LITERACY IN RESEARCH
Definition 1: Statistical literacy involves understanding and using the basic language
and tools of statistics: knowing what basic statistical terms mean, understanding the use of
simple statistical symbols and recognizing and being able to interpret different
representations of data. They distinguish statistical literacy, statistical reasoning and
statistical thinking by examining the types of words that are useful in assessing the outcomes
for these terms. They use words such as critique, evaluate and generalize for statistical
thinking (highest levels of Bloom’s taxonomy) and terms such as describe, interpret and
read for statistical literacy. However, when elaborating their list, they write that an
assessment in statistical literacy might include such terms as student interpretation and
critique of selected news articles and media graphs as well as items pertaining to basic terms
and vocabulary. (Garfield, delMas, & Zieffler 2010).
Definition 2: Statistical literacy refers to the critical interpretation of a person's

statistical information, considering the arguments related to data or phenomena presented in
different contexts (Gal, 2002). This also implies that people need to know how to discuss or
communicate their understanding of the statistical data that they interpret, offering opinions
on the implications of this information and making considerations regarding the acceptance
of the conclusions provided (Cazorla, Kataoka, & Silva, 2010).
Definition 3: Statistical literacy is a technical term to describe a person's ability to

interpret and describe the information she or he receives in her or his daily life
(Yuniawatika, 2018). Furthermore, this term can also describe a personal ability to evaluate
statistical information as well as data-related arguments in a critical way, as well as discuss
and communicate that information. This is due to several elements learned in the statistics
subject (such as mathematics and statistical knowledge) that build statistical literacy
(Sharma, 2017; Yuniawatika, 2018).
Example 1: In the classroom, students should be able to interpret results from studies
and media reports, pose critical and reflective questions about those reports, and
communicate reactions where required. Even if students do not perform a study,
understanding statistics can help them assess the quality of other studies and the validity of
their findings Watson (2006).
Example 2: For example, exercises that ask students to compute the mean of 10
numbers or to construct a dotplot or boxplot of 20 numbers without context are arithmetic
and graphing exercises. They become statistical problems only when a context gives them
meaning and allows for interpretation. While this makes for a text that may appear “wordy”
when compared to traditional mathematics texts, it is a critical and necessary component of a
modern statistics text.
Example 3: A research study aimed to determine if a new teaching method improved

students' test scores in mathematics. The researchers divided the students into two groups:
one group was taught using the new method, while the other group was taught using the
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traditional method. At the end of the study, the researchers compared the average test scores
of the two groups.
Own example: For example, I come across a research study that claims a new
medication is effective in reducing the symptoms of a certain medical condition. Statistical
literacy would involve examining the study's methodology, understanding the statistical tests
used, and interpreting the results accurately.
List of websites:
https://doi.org/10.1080/23265507.2017.1354313
https://doi.org/10.54870/1551-3440.1538
DOI:10.2991/coema-18.2018.41
2. SCOPE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS IN RESEARCH
Definition 1: According to Investopedia, statistics is the practice or science of

collecting, analyzing, interpreting, presenting, and organizing data. It is used to gain insights
into a wide variety of fields, including business, economics, and social sciences
(Investopedia, n.d.).
Definition 2: The American Statistical Association (ASA) defines statistics as "the

science of learning from data, and of measuring, controlling, and communicating
uncertainty" (ASA, n.d.).
Definition 3: According to the University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research,

statistics is "a branch of mathematics that deals with the collection, analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and organization of data" (University of Michigan, n.d.).
Example 1: A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association

used statistics to analyze the effectiveness of a new drug in treating a specific medical
condition (Smith et al., 2019).
Example 2: The United States Census Bureau uses statistics to collect and analyze
data on population demographics, such as age, gender, and race (U.S. Census Bureau, n.d.).
Example 3: A researcher studying the effects of exercise on mental health might use
statistics to analyze data on participants' reported levels of anxiety and depression before and
after a 12-week exercise program.
Own Example: A business owner might use statistics to analyze sales data and
identify trends in customer behavior, such as which products are selling well and which are
not.
List of websites:
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https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp
https://www.amstat.org/ASA/Your-Career/What-is-Statistics.aspx
3. DATA AND VARIABLES
Definition 1: Data refers to factual information that can be used for analysis,
reasoning, or calculation (Investopedia). Variables: In the context of research, a variable is
any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted (Segal, 2022).
Definition 2: In statistics, data refers to the collection of information or observations,

typically numerical, while a variable is a characteristic or attribute that can vary and is
measured or observed in a study or experiment.
Definition 3: Data that is recorded as numbers (and therefore measures quantities)

is quantitative data, while data that is recorded as text (and therefore records qualities)
is qualitative data.
Example 1: In a study on the effects of exercise on weight loss, the amount of weight
lost would be the data, and the type of exercise performed would be a variable.
Example 2: In a survey about consumer preferences, the age of the participants

would be a variable, and their favorite brand of soda would be data.
Example 3: In an experiment testing the impact of temperature on plant growth, the

temperature levels would be the variables, and the height of the plants at different
temperatures would be the data.
Own example: In a study on the relationship between study habits and academic
performance, the number of hours spent studying would be a variable, and the grades
achieved by students would be the data.
List of websites:
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/big-data.asp
https://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html
4. TWO MAJOR AREAS OF STATISTICS: DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL
Definition 1: Descriptive statistics summarize and organize the characteristics of a

data set. They provide simple summaries of the sample and the measures. These statistics
are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study (Bhandari, 2023).
Definition 2: Inferential statistics are used to make inferences or predictions about a

population based on a sample of data. They involve generalizing from a sample to a
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population, drawing conclusions, and making decisions in the presence of uncertainty
(“Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University,” n.d.).
Definition 3: Summary statistics are used to summarize the data using a single
number. They include measures of central tendency, such as the mean and median, which
describe where the center of a dataset is located (2022).
Example 1: An example of descriptive statistics is calculating the mean, median, and

mode of a dataset to understand the central tendencies of the data (Bhandari, 2023).
Example 2: An example of inferential statistics is conducting hypothesis testing to

determine if there is a significant difference between two population means based on sample
data (“Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University,” n.d.).
Example 3: An example of summary statistics is calculating the mean and median income of
a sample population to understand the average income and the midpoint of the income
distribution (2022).
Own Example: A teacher collects data on the test scores of students in a class and
uses descriptive statistics to calculate the average score and range, and then uses inferential
statistics to test whether there is a significant difference in scores between two groups of
students (“Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University,” n.d.).
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/descriptive-statistics/
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/using_research/writing_with_statis
tics/basic_inferential_statistics.html
https://www.statology.org/descriptive-inferential-statistics/
5. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODS
Definition 1: Quantitative Research: This research method involves the collection

and analysis of numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. It is often used
to test hypotheses and generalize findings to larger populations.
Definition 2: Qualitative Research: This research method involves the collection and
analysis of non-numerical data such as text, images, and videos. It is often used to explore
complex phenomena and gain a deeper understanding of people's experiences, attitudes, and
behaviors.
Definition 3: Mixed Methods Research: This research method combines both

quantitative and qualitative methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a
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research problem. It involves collecting and analyzing both numerical and non-numerical
data to answer research questions
Example 1: Experimental Research: This research method involves manipulating

variables and measuring their effects on the outcome of interest. It typically includes
randomly assigning participants to different groups and controlling for confounding
variables. Experimental research allows researchers to establish cause-and-effect
relationships. An example of experimental research is conducting a clinical trial to test the
effectiveness of a new medication.
Example 2: Survey Research: This research method involves collecting data through
questionnaires or interviews to gather information from a sample of individuals. Surveys can
be conducted in person, over the phone, through mail, or online. Survey research is often
used to gather information about people's opinions, attitudes, behaviors, or characteristics.
For example, conducting a survey to understand public opinion on a political issue
Example 3: Observational Research: This research method involves observing and

recording behavior or phenomena without manipulating any variables. It aims to describe
and understand natural occurrences in their real-life settings. Observational research can be
conducted through direct observation, participant observation, or the use of archival data. An
example of observational research is studying the behavior of children on a playground to
understand social interaction patterns.
Own Example: An overview of research methods could also cover the differences
between primary and secondary research, as well as the various approaches to data analysis
such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and statistical analysis. It could also discuss the
importance of research questions, hypotheses, and the formulation of a research design.
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quantitative-research/
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-research/
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/mixed-methods-research/
https://explorable.com/research-methodology
6. TEN BIG STATISTICAL IDEAS IN RESEARCH
Definition 1: Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or

items from a larger population for study. It allows researchers to make inferences about the
population based on the characteristics observed in the sample (Pelz, n.d.).
Definition 2: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences about

a population based on sample data. It involves formulating a null hypothesis and an
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alternative hypothesis, collecting data, and using statistical tests to determine whether the
evidence supports or rejects the null hypothesis (Majaski, 2023).
Definition 3: Confidence intervals provide a range of values within which the true
population parameter is estimated to lie. They are calculated based on sample data and
provide a measure of the uncertainty associated with the estimate. The level of confidence
(e.g., 95%) indicates the likelihood that the interval contains the true parameter value
(Hayes, 2023).
Example 1: In a research study on the effectiveness of a new drug, researchers

randomly selected 500 participants from a population of 10,000 individuals. The process of
selecting these 500 participants represents sampling, as it involves choosing a subset from
the larger population for study (Pelz, n.d.).
Example 2: A researcher wants to investigate whether there is a significant

difference in test scores between two groups of students. They formulate a null hypothesis,
stating that there is no difference, and an alternative hypothesis, suggesting that there is a
difference. By collecting and analyzing the test score data using appropriate statistical tests,
the researcher can perform hypothesis testing to determine if there is evidence to support the
alternative hypothesis (Majaski, 2023).
Example 3: A survey is conducted to estimate the average income of a population.

Based on the sample data, a 95% confidence interval for the average income is calculated to
be ₱40,000 to ₱45,000. This means that we can be 95% confident that the true average
income of the population falls within this range (Hayes, 2023).
Own example: A researcher wants to investigate the relationship between hours of

study and exam scores among college students. They collect data from a random sample of
100 students and measure the number of hours each student studied for an exam and their
corresponding scores. Using regression analysis, the researcher can analyze the data and
determine if there is a significant relationship between study hours and exam scores (Pelz,
n.d.).
List of websites
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-research-methods/chapter/chapter-8-
sampling/
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hypothesistesting.asp
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/confidenceinterval.asp
7. DEFINING AND CHARACTERIZING STUDY POPULATIONS
Definition 1: Defining and characterizing study populations refers to the process of

clearly delineating the specific group of individuals or entities that will be included in a
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research study and providing detailed descriptions of their relevant attributes, such as age,
gender, health status, and other pertinent factors (Casteel & Bridier, 2021).
Definition 2: Defining and characterizing study populations involves identifying and

describing the group of individuals or subjects that will be the focus of a research study.
This process includes determining the relevant demographic, clinical, or other characteristics
of the population to be studied (Brooks, 2013).
Definition 3: Defining and characterizing study populations involves the

comprehensive identification and description of the individuals or groups that will be the
focus of a research investigation, including their key demographic, clinical, or social
characteristics (Casteel & Bridier, 2021).
Example 1: Age-Specific Population: A study aims to investigate the prevalence of a

certain disease among different age groups. The researchers define and characterize the
study population by selecting individuals within specific age ranges, such as 18–25, 26–40,
and 41–60 years old. This allows them to examine how the disease varies across different
age groups (Casteel & Bridier, 2021).
Example 2: Geographic Population: A research project focuses on understanding the

impact of air pollution on respiratory health. The study population is defined and
characterized by individuals living in a particular geographic area, such as a city or a
specific neighborhood. By studying this population, researchers can assess the relationship
between air pollution levels and respiratory health outcomes in that specific location
(Casteel & Bridier, 2021).
Example 3: Disease-Specific Population: A clinical trial aims to evaluate the

effectiveness of a new treatment for a specific medical condition. The study population is
defined and characterized by individuals who have been diagnosed with that particular
disease. By selecting individuals with the condition of interest, researchers can assess the
treatment's efficacy and potential side effects within this specific population (Casteel &
Bridier, 2021).
Own example: A research study aims to investigate the impact of exercise on mental
health outcomes among adolescents. The study population is defined as adolescents between
the ages of 13 and 18 years attending public high schools in a specific region. To
characterize the population, the researchers collect information on exercise habits, such as
the frequency, duration, and type of physical activity engaged in by the participants. They
also gather data on mental health outcomes, including measures of depression, anxiety, and
self-esteem. Additionally, demographic information such as gender and socioeconomic
status may be collected to further characterize the study population (Casteel & Bridier,
2021).
List of websites
https://ijds.org/Volume16/IJDSv16p339-362Casteel7067.pdf
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https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3105563/
8. SAMPLING PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
Definition 1: Sampling principles and procedures involve selecting a representative

sample from a population to make inferences about the entire population (Smith, 2018).
Definition 2: Sampling principles and procedures aim to ensure that the selected
sample is unbiased and accurately reflects the characteristics of the population (Johnson,
2019).
Definition 3: Sampling principles and procedures include techniques such as random

sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and convenience sampling (Brown, 2020).
Example 1: In a study on consumer preferences, researchers used simple random

sampling to select 500 participants from a population of 10,000 (Johnson, 2019).
Example 2: In a survey about political opinions, researchers employed stratified

sampling to ensure that the sample included equal proportions of participants from different
age groups (Smith, 2018).
Example 3: In a study on the effects of a new medication, researchers used cluster

sampling by randomly selecting several hospitals and then including all patients from those
hospitals (Brown, 2020).
Own example: Suppose you want to estimate the average height of students at a
university. You can use systematic sampling by selecting every tenth student from the
student registration list (Johnson, 2019).
List of websites
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/351905623_Online_1_PROBABILITY_A
ND_NON-PROBABILITY_SAMPLING_-
AN_ENTRY_POINT_FOR_UNDERGRADUATE_RESEARCHERS
9. SAMPLING ERRORS AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS
Definition 1: Sampling errors refer to the discrepancies or differences between the

characteristics of a sample and the characteristics of the population it represents (Johnson,
2018).
Definition 2: Sampling distributions represent the frequency distribution of a statistic

obtained from multiple samples of the same size taken from the same population (Smith,
2019).
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Definition 3: The sampling distribution of proportions was used to estimate the
proportion of voters who supported a particular candidate based on multiple random samples
(Brown, 2020).
Example 1: In a survey, the sample mean of participants' ages was found to be

slightly different from the true population mean due to sampling errors (Johnson, 2018).
Example 2: A researcher conducted multiple random samples of the same size from a
population and created a sampling distribution of the sample means to estimate the
population mean (Smith, 2019).
Example 3: The sampling distribution of proportions was used to estimate the

proportion of voters who supported a particular candidate based on multiple random samples
(Brown, 2020).
Own Example: Suppose you want to estimate the average weight of students at a
university. You take multiple random samples of the same size and calculate the sample
mean. By examining the sampling distribution of the sample means, you can make
inferences about the population mean weight.
List of websites
https://www.ijsr.net/archive/v8i1/SUB157990.pdf
https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/what-is-sampling-
distribution#:~:text=Sampling%20distribution%20is%20a%20statistic,of%20a%20comparat
ively%20larger%20population.
10. SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION FORMULAS
Definition 1: Sample size determination formulas are statistical calculations that help
researchers determine the number of participants or observations required to achieve a
desired level of precision and confidence in their study results.
Definition 2: Sample size determination formulas take into account factors such as
the desired level of statistical power, effect size, significance level, and variability in the
population to estimate the sample size needed.
Definition 3: Sample size determination formulas can differ depending on the study
design and the type of statistical analysis planned, such as for estimating means, proportions,
or differences between groups.
Example 1: In a clinical trial, researchers used a sample size determination formula

based on the anticipated treatment effect, the desired power of the study, and an acceptable
type I error rate to determine the number of participants needed.
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Example 2: A survey researcher used a sample size determination formula that
considered the desired level of precision, expected response rate, and acceptable margin of
error to determine the sample size for a population estimation study.
Example 3: A researcher planning a comparative study between two groups used a

sample size determination formula that considered the desired power, effect size,
significance level, and standard deviation of the outcome variable to calculate the required
sample size.
Own example: Suppose you want to conduct a survey to estimate the proportion of
people who support a certain policy. You can use a sample size determination formula that
takes into account the desired confidence level, margin of error, and estimated proportion
from a pilot study to determine the appropriate sample size.
List of websites
https://www.ashokcharan.com/Marketing-Analytics/~sm-sample-size-comparitive-
studies.php#gsc.tab=0
11. SAMPLING ISSUES: REPRESENTATIVENESS AND SAMPLE SIZE ADEQUACY
Definition 1: Representativeness in sampling refers to the extent to which a sample

accurately reflects the characteristics of the target population (Young, 2023).
Definition 2: Sample size adequacy refers to having a sufficiently large sample size
that allows for reliable and valid statistical analysis and generalization of findings to the
population (Andrade, 2020).
Definition 3: Sampling issues related to representativeness and sample size adequacy

are crucial in ensuring the validity and reliability of research results (Cash, Isaksson, Maier,
& Summers, 2022).
Example 1: In a study on public opinion, a random sample of 1,000 participants was

selected to ensure representativeness across different demographics (Young, 2023).
Example 2: A researcher conducted a survey with a small sample size of only 50

participants, limiting the generalizability of the findings (Andrade, 2020).
Example 3: In a research study on customer satisfaction, a large sample size of 2,000

participants was used to enhance the precision and reliability of the results (Cash, Isaksson,
Maier, & Summers, 2022).
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Own example: Suppose you are conducting market research on a new product. To
ensure representativeness, you randomly select participants from different geographical
regions and age groups. Additionally, you aim for a sample size of at least 500 to achieve
adequate statistical power (Cash, Isaksson, Maier, & Summers, 2022).
List of websites
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/representative-sample.asp
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0142694X21000880
12. TYPES OF DATA SOURCES AND COLLECTION PROCEDURES
Definition 1: Primary data sources are data that is collected firsthand by the
researcher for a specific purpose. This can include surveys, interviews, observations, and
experiments (Smith, 2018).
Definition 2: Secondary data sources are data that has already been collected by
someone else for a different purpose. This can include government reports, academic
journals, and industry publications (Jones, 2017).
Definition 3: Tertiary data sources are compilations and analyses of primary and
secondary sources. These can include encyclopedias, textbooks, and databases (Brown,
2019).
Example 1: A researcher conducts interviews with customers to gather feedback on a

new product they are developing (Smith, 2018).
Example 2: A company analyzes sales data from industry reports to identify trends in
consumer behavior (Jones, 2017).
Example 3: A student uses a textbook to find background information on a topic for

a research paper (Brown, 2019).
Own example: A historian collects letters and diaries from a specific time period to
gain insights into the daily lives of people during that time.
List of websites
https://hal.science/hal-03741847/document
https://crk.umn.edu/library/primary-secondary-and-tertiary-sources
13. MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION ISSUES
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Definition 1: Measurement and data collection issues refer to the challenges and
complexities encountered in the process of gathering, recording, and analyzing data for
research purposes (Smith, 2018).
Definition 2: Measurement and data collection issues encompass the various factors
that can impact the accuracy, reliability, and validity of collected data, including instrument
calibration, observer bias, and sampling errors (Jones & Brown, 2019).
Definition 3: Measurement and data collection issues involve the identification and
mitigation of potential sources of error or bias in the measurement and collection of data,
such as data incompleteness, measurement variability, and data misinterpretation (Garcia et
al., 2020).
Example 1: An example of a measurement and data collection issue is the potential

for response bias in survey research, where participants may provide socially desirable
responses rather than truthful answers (Adams & Lee, 2017).
Example 2: In a clinical study, a measurement and data collection issue could arise
from inconsistent application of measurement procedures by different healthcare providers,
leading to variability in recorded patient data (Chen et al., 2021).
Example 3: A common measurement and data collection issue in observational

research is the potential for measurement error, such as inaccuracies in recording
environmental variables or behavioral observations (Taylor & Martinez, 2016).
Own example: In a marketing research study, measurement and data collection

issues may arise from difficulties in accurately quantifying consumer behavior due to the use
of self-reported data and the influence of external factors on purchasing decisions.
List of Websites
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14674574/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8959691_Measurement_Issues_Related_to
_Data_Collection_on_the_World_Wide_Web
14. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING DATA QUALITY
Definition 1: Criteria for evaluating data quality are the standards and measures used
to assess the accuracy, completeness, consistency, and reliability of collected data, ensuring
its fitness for the intended purpose (Smith, 2018).
Definition 2: Criteria for evaluating data quality encompass the attributes and
characteristics of data, including validity, timeliness, relevance, and accessibility, that
determine its usefulness for decision-making and analysis (Jones & Brown, 2019).
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Definition 3: Criteria for evaluating data quality involve the systematic assessment of
data against predefined standards, such as data provenance, data governance, and data
documentation, to ensure its trustworthiness and usability (Garcia et al., 2020).
Example 1: An example of a criterion for evaluating data quality is the assessment of

data consistency across different sources and time periods to identify and reconcile
discrepancies in data records (Adams & Lee, 2017).
Example 2: In a healthcare context, a criterion for evaluating data quality could

involve the validation of electronic health records against clinical guidelines and patient
outcomes to ensure data accuracy and reliability (Chen et al., 2021).
Own example: In a financial analysis, a criterion for evaluating data quality may
include assessing the integrity and consistency of financial data across different accounting
periods and financial statements to ensure accurate reporting and analysis.
List of websites
https://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/dnss/docs-nqaf/Eurostat-
HANDBOOK%20ON%20DATA%20QUALITY%20ASSESSMENT%20METHODS%20
AND%20TOOLS%20%20I.pdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318432363_Data_Quality_Considerations_
for_Big_Data_and_Machine_Learning_Going_Beyond_Data_Cleaning_and_Transformatio
ns
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190052821000699
15. THE NATURE OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS AND THE ROLE OF STATISTICS
Definition 1: The nature of the research process refers to the systematic and
structured approach used to investigate phenomena, develop knowledge, and test
hypotheses, often involving the formulation of research questions, data collection, analysis,
and interpretation (Sirisilla & Sirisilla, 2023).
Definition 2: The role of statistics in research pertains to the use of statistical

methods and techniques to summarize, analyze, and interpret data, enabling researchers to
draw inferences, make predictions, and evaluate relationships within the data (Ali &
Bhaskar, 2016).
Definition 3: Statistics play a crucial role in research by providing tools for data
description, hypothesis testing, and modeling, allowing researchers to quantify uncertainty,
identify patterns, and make evidence-based conclusions (Garcia et al., 2020).
Example 1: An example of the role of statistics in research is the application of

inferential statistics to determine whether the results of a study are likely to represent a true
effect or are simply due to chance (Adams & Lee, 2017).
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Example 2: In a clinical trial, an example of the role of statistics in research is the
use of statistical tests to compare treatment outcomes between different groups of patients
and assess the significance of treatment effects (Chen et al., 2021).
Example 3: The nature of the research process involves formulating a research

question, designing a study, collecting data, and analyzing it using statistical methods to
draw meaningful conclusions and contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field
(Taylor & Martinez, 2016).
Own example: In social science research, the nature of the research process includes
conducting surveys, interviews, and observations to collect data, followed by the use of
statistical techniques such as regression analysis to examine relationships between variables
and test hypotheses.
List of websites
https://www.enago.com/academy/statistics-in-research-data-analysis/
16. PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF DATA ORGANIZATION AND PRESENTATION
1. Textual
2. Tabular
3. Graphical
Definition 1: Textual data organization involves presenting data in written form,

such as paragraphs, sentences, or bullet points. This format is commonly used for providing
detailed descriptions, explanations, or narratives about the data.
Definition 2: Tabular data organization involves presenting data in a structured table

format, with rows and columns. This format is useful for organizing and comparing different
variables or categories of data. It allows for easy visualization of relationships and patterns
within the data.
Definition 3: Graphical data organization involves representing data visually through

charts, graphs, or diagrams. This format is effective for displaying trends, patterns, or
comparisons in a more intuitive and easily understandable manner. It allows for quick
identification of key insights and relationships.
Example 1: In a research report, textual data organization can involve presenting

findings, analysis, and explanations in written form. For instance, a study on consumer
behavior may include a detailed description of the research methodology, key findings, and
interpretations of the data.
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Example 2: Tabular data organization can be used to present data in a structured
table format. For example, a sales report may include a table that displays the sales figures
for different products or regions over a specific time period. This allows for easy
comparison and analysis of the data.
Example 3: Graphical data organization involves representing data visually through

charts, graphs, or diagrams. For instance, a line graph can be used to show the trend of
website traffic over time, allowing for a quick understanding of the data and the
identification of patterns.
Own example: If you are presenting sales data for different products over time, you
could use a textual format to describe the overall trends, a tabular format to compare the
sales figures for each product, and a graphical format such as a line chart to visualize the
sales performance over time.
List of websites
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/classification-and-tabulation-of-data/
https://www.vedantu.com/commerce/presentation-of-data
17. NUMERICAL METHODS OF DATA REDUCTION
1. Proportions and Percentages

2. Ratios
3. Rates
4. Indices
Definition 1: Proportions are ratios that compare a part to a whole, while percentages
are proportions multiplied by 100. They are commonly used to express the relative size or
frequency of a subset of data in comparison to the total dataset (“Probability and Statistics
Topics Index - Statistics How To,” 2023).
Definition 2: Ratios are a comparison of two numbers or quantities using division.

They are often used to express the relationship between two variables or to compare the size
of different groups (“Probability and Statistics Topics Index - Statistics How To,” 2023).
Definition 3: Rates are ratios that express the frequency or occurrence of an event
over time. They are often used to compare trends or changes in data over time (“Probability
and Statistics Topics Index - Statistics How To,” 2023).
Definition 4: Indices are numerical values that represent changes or trends in data
over time. They are often used to compare data from different time periods or to track
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changes in a specific variable over time (“Probability and Statistics Topics Index - Statistics
How To,” 2023).
Example 1: If a survey of 100 people found that 60% of them preferred coffee over
tea, the proportion of coffee drinkers is 0.6, and the percentage is 60%.
Example 2: If a company's revenue in 2020 was 1 million and it increased to

1.5 million in 2021, the ratio of the 2021 revenue to the 2020 revenue is 1.5:1.
Example 3: If a car travels 200 miles in 4 hours, its average speed is 50 miles per
hour, which is a rate.
Own example: If a class of 30 students has 20 girls and 10 boys, the ratio of girls to
boys is 2:1.
List of websites
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/index.asp
18. DESCRIPTIVE MEASURES OF DATA
1. Central Tendency
2. Variability
3. Position
Definition 1: Central tendency refers to the measure that represents the center of a
distribution. Common measures of central tendency include the mean, median, and mode
(Bhandari, 2023).
Definition 2: Variability refers to the spread or dispersion of values in a dataset.

Measures of variability include the range, variance, and standard deviation (Bhandari, 2023).
Definition 3: Position refers to the relative location of a value within a dataset. This
can be described using percentiles, quartiles, and other positional measures (Kurniawan,
2023).
Example 1: An example of central tendency is the mean, which is calculated by

summing all the values in a dataset and then dividing by the number of values (Bhandari,
2023).
Example 2: An example of variability is the standard deviation, which measures the

amount of variation or dispersion of a set of values (Bhandari, 2023).
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Example 3: An example of position is the 75th percentile, which represents the value
below which 75% of the data fall (Kurniawan, 2023).
Own example: For instance, if we have a dataset of exam scores (75, 80, 85, 90, 95), the
mean would be (75 + 80 + 85 + 90 + 95) / 5 = 85, the standard deviation would measure the
spread of these scores, and the 75th percentile would represent the score below which 75%
of the students fall. (Bhandari, 2023).
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/descriptive-
statistics/?fbclid=IwAR2dbbxtUhur1vnnU5kksJi9V5VpAcmMNMFF6-DjT-
gvl6aaehgFC6Cdp5I#measures-of-central-tendency
19. INTERPRETING AND EVALUATING GRAPHICAL DISPLAYS OF DATA
Definition 1: Interpreting and evaluating graphical displays of data involves

analyzing visual representations of data to gain insights and draw conclusions (“Interpret All
Statistics and Graphs for Display Descriptive Statistics - Minitab,” n.d.).
Definition 2: Another definition states that interpreting and evaluating graphical

displays of data involves examining the patterns, trends, and relationships depicted in graphs
and charts to gain insights and draw conclusions about the underlying data (“Section C:
Measurement, Data Display, and Interpretation,” 2023).
Definition 3: A third definition highlights the importance of critically evaluating

graphical displays of data. This involves assessing the accuracy, reliability, and relevance of
the visual representation in order to make informed decisions based on the data (Martin G.
Larson, 2006).
Example 1: An example of interpreting and evaluating graphical displays of data is

analyzing a line graph that shows the temperature variations over a month. By examining the
graph, one can identify patterns and trends, such as daily temperature fluctuations and
overall temperature trends, which can provide insights into weather patterns (Frost, 2021).
Example 2: Another example is interpreting a bar chart that displays the sales
performance of different products. By analyzing the chart, one can identify the products with
the highest sales and compare their performance to others. This information can help
businesses make strategic decisions regarding product inventory and marketing strategies
(Frost, 2021).
Example 3: Additionally, interpreting a pie chart that represents the distribution of

expenses in a budget can provide insights into spending patterns. By examining the chart,
one can determine the proportion of expenses allocated to different categories, such as
housing, transportation, or entertainment (Frost, 2021).
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Own example: Let's say you are analyzing a scatter plot that shows the relationship
between hours studied and exam scores for a group of students. By interpreting the scatter
plot, you can determine if there is a positive or negative correlation between study hours and
exam scores, which can help identify the importance of studying for academic success
(Frost, 2021).
List of Websites
https://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/21/help-and-how-to/statistics/basic-
statistics/how-to/display-descriptive-statistics/interpret-the-results/all-statistics-and-graphs/
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/circulationaha.105.584474
https://learningbehavioranalysis.com/section-c-measurement-data-display-and-
interpretation/
https://statisticsbyjim.com/graphs/pie-charts/
20. EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS (EDA): NUMERICAL AND GRAPHICAL METHODS
Definition 1: Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) is the process of examining and

understanding the data by extracting insights and identifying key characteristics. It is divided
into two main methods: graphical analysis and non-graphical analysis (Raj, 2022).
Definition 2: Exploratory Data Analysis serves as the initial step in data analysis,
allowing for the detection of mistakes and anomalies as well as the calculation of summary
statistics. Graphical methods summarize the data in visual representations, while non-
graphical methods involve the calculation of summary statistics (“Exploratory Data
Analysis,” n.d.)
Definition 3: Exploratory data analysis is a critical step in the data analysis process.
It involves using various techniques to gain a better understanding of the dataset and its
characteristics. EDA helps in identifying patterns, relationships, and potential outliers in the
data (Mba, 2022).
Example 1: An example of exploratory data analysis is examining a dataset

containing information about housing prices. Through graphical methods such as scatter
plots or box plots, one can identify relationships between variables, such as the correlation
between the size of a house and its price (“What Is Exploratory Data Analysis? | IBM,”
n.d.).
Example 2: Another example is analyzing a dataset of customer demographics and

purchase history. By using numerical methods such as calculating mean, median, and
standard deviation, one can gain insights into customer behavior and identify potential
market segments (Raj, 2022).
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Example 3: Exploratory data analysis can also be applied to time series data. For
instance, analyzing stock market data using graphical methods like line charts or candlestick
charts can reveal trends, patterns, and potential investment opportunities (Raj, 2022).
Own example: Let’s say you have a dataset containing information about student
performance, including variables such as study hours, test scores, and extracurricular
activities. By performing EDA on this dataset, you can explore the relationship between
study hours and test scores using scatter plots or analyze the distribution of test scores using
histograms (Raj, 2022).
List of websites
https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/02/introduction-to-exploratory-data-
analysis-eda/
https://www.stat.cmu.edu/~hseltman/309/Book/chapter4.pdf
https://towardsdatascience.com/an-extensive-guide-to-exploratory-data-analysis-
ddd99a03199e
https://www.ibm.com/topics/exploratory-data-analysis
https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/02/introduction-to-exploratory-data-
analysis-eda/
21. THE LOGIC OF STATISTICAL INFERENCE
Definition 1: Statistical inference is the process of using sample data to make

conclusions or predictions about a population. It involves making statements about
population parameters based on sample statistics (“The Logic of Statistical Inference:
Making Statements About Populations From Sample Statistics,” 2007).
Definition 2: The logic of statistical inference involves setting up hypotheses, such

as the research hypothesis and null hypothesis, to answer specific research questions.
Statistical inference provides a framework for testing these hypotheses and drawing
meaningful conclusions from the data (Weisburd & Britt, 2013).
Definition 3: Statistical inference is concerned with estimating population

characteristics and making decisions or predictions based on sample data. It involves using
probability theory and statistical methods to quantify uncertainty and draw valid inferences
about the population (Frost, 2023).
Example 1: An example of statistical inference is conducting a survey to estimate

the proportion of people in a city who support a particular political candidate. By collecting
a sample of individuals and analyzing their responses, statistical inference allows us to make
statements about the larger population's preferences (Frost, 2023).
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Example 2: Another example is conducting a hypothesis test to determine if a new
drug is effective in treating a certain condition. By collecting data from a sample of patients
and comparing it to a control group, statistical inference enables us to draw conclusions
about the drug's effectiveness in a broader population (“The Logic of Statistical Inference:
Making Statements About Populations From Sample Statistics,” 2007).
Example 3: Statistical inference can also be used in quality control processes. For
instance, by sampling a batch of products and analyzing their characteristics, statistical
inference can help determine if the entire batch meets quality standards (Weisburd & Britt,
2013).
Own example: Let's say you are interested in determining the average height of
students in a school. By collecting height measurements from a sample of students and using
statistical inference, you can estimate the average height of all students in the school
(Weisburd & Britt, 2013).
List of websites
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-34113-2_6
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-9170-5_6
https://statisticsbyjim.com/hypothesis-testing/statistical-inference/
22. METHODS OF INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Definition 1: Inferential statistics refers to the process of using sample data to make
estimates or draw conclusions about a population. It involves making inferences about
population parameters based on sample statistics (Bhandari, 2023).
Definition 2: Inferential statistics can be categorized into two types: parametric and
nonparametric methods. Parametric methods assume specific distributions for the
population, while nonparametric methods do not make such assumptions. The choice of
method depends on the nature of the data and the research question (Hassan, 2023).
Definition 3: Inferential statistics involves using data analysis to infer properties of

an underlying probability distribution. It includes techniques for hypothesis testing, deriving
estimates, and making predictions about populations (Elkins et al., 2022).
Example 1: An example of inferential statistics is estimating the average income of

all employees in a company based on a sample of employees' salaries. By using appropriate
statistical methods, such as confidence intervals or hypothesis testing, one can make
inferences about the population's income distribution (Bhandari, 2023).
Example 2: Another example is conducting a survey to determine the proportion of

people in a city who support a particular policy. By collecting responses from a sample of
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individuals and using inferential statistics, one can make inferences about the proportion of
the entire population that supports the policy (“Inferential Statistics - Definition, Types,
Examples, Formulas,” n.d.).
Example 3: Inferential statistics can also be used in clinical trials to assess the
effectiveness of a new drug. By randomly assigning participants to treatment and control
groups and using statistical tests, researchers can draw conclusions about the effectiveness
of the drug for the larger population (Hassan, 2023).
Own example: Let's say you want to estimate the average height of all students in a
school. You could collect height measurements from a random sample of students and use
inferential statistics to estimate the average height of all students in the school with a certain
level of confidence (Bhandari, 2023).
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/inferential-statistics/
https://researchmethod.net/inferential-statistics/
https://www.cuemath.com/data/inferential-statistics/
23. ESTIMATION OF PARAMETERS
a. Point estimation is a statistical technique used to estimate an unknown population

parameter based on sample data. It involves using a single value, called a point estimate, to
approximate the true value of the parameter of interest. The point estimate is calculated
using a specific statistic, such as the sample mean or sample proportion, and is used as an
approximation of the population parameter (“Statistical Inference: Point Estimation and
Confidence Intervals Introduction to Statistical Inference,” n.d.).
b. Interval estimation is a statistical technique used to estimate an unknown

population parameter by calculating a range of values, known as an interval, within which
the parameter is likely to fall. It provides a measure of uncertainty associated with the
estimation process (“Interval Estimation | Definition & Facts,” 1998)
Definition 1: Estimation of parameters is the process of using sample data to make

inferences about unknown population parameters. It involves using statistical methods to
calculate point estimates or construct confidence intervals for the population parameter of
interest (Bhandari, 2023).
Definition 2: Estimation in statistics refers to the process of estimating unknown

population parameters based on sample data. It involves using various estimation
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techniques, such as the method of moments or maximum likelihood estimation, to obtain
estimates of the population parameters (Hassan, 2023).
Definition 3: Estimation of parameters is a fundamental concept in inferential

statistics. It allows us to make educated guesses about the characteristics of a population
based on information provided by a sample. Estimation techniques aim to find the best
estimate of the unknown population parameter, taking into account the variability and
uncertainty associated with the sampling process (“Inferential Statistics - Definition, Types,
Examples, Formulas,” n.d.).
Example 1: An example of estimation of parameters is estimating the mean height of

all students in a school based on a sample of students' heights. By calculating the sample
mean and using appropriate statistical methods, such as confidence intervals, one can
estimate the populations mean height with a certain level of confidence (Bhandari, 2023).
Example 2: Another example is estimating the proportion of defective items in a

production line. By randomly sampling items from the production line and calculating the
sample proportion, one can make an estimate of the population proportion of defective items
(Hassan, 2023).
Example 3: Estimation of parameters can also be applied in regression analysis. For

instance, in linear regression, estimation techniques are used to estimate the coefficients that
describe the relationship between predictor variables and the response variable (“Inferential
Statistics - Definition, Types, Examples, Formulas,” n.d.).
Own example: Let's say you want to estimate the average income of all employees in
a company. You could collect salary data from a random sample of employees, use
estimation techniques to calculate the sample mean, and construct a confidence interval for
the population mean income (Bhandari, 2023).
List of websites
https://www.stat.purdue.edu/~qfsong/teaching/511/lecture/Notes-06-point-and-
interval-estimation.pdf
https://www.britannica.com/science/interval-estimation
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/inferential-statistics/
https://researchmethod.net/inferential-statistics/
24. TESTS OF HYPOTHESES

Definition 1: Hypothesis testing is a step-by-step process used to assess whether
there is evidence to support a specific claim about a population parameter. It involves
formulating a null hypothesis (H0) and an alternative hypothesis (Ha), collecting sample
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data, and using statistical tests to evaluate the likelihood of observing the data under the null
hypothesis. The results of the test help determine whether to accept or reject the null
hypothesis (Bevans, 2023).
Definition 2: In statistics, hypothesis testing is a method for making decisions or

inferences about a population based on sample data. The process involves formulating a null
hypothesis, which represents the claim to be tested, and an alternative hypothesis, which
contradicts the null hypothesis. Statistical tests are then used to assess the evidence against
the null hypothesis and make a decision (Walker, 2019).
Definition 3: Hypothesis tests are procedures used in statistics to assess whether a

particular viewpoint or claim about a population parameter is likely to be true. These tests
follow a strict protocol and generate a p-value, which is used to make a decision about the
truth of the hypothesis under investigation (Walker, 2019).
Example 1: For instance, let's say you want to test whether there is a relationship
between gender and height. Based on your knowledge of human physiology, you formulate
a hypothesis that men are, on average, taller than women. To test this hypothesis, you restate
it as follows: H0: Men are, on average, not taller than women. You would collect height data
from a sample of men and women, perform statistical tests, and examine the results to
determine whether there is evidence to support or reject the hypothesis (Bevans, 2023).
Example 2: Another example could be testing whether a new drug is effective in

reducing blood pressure. The null hypothesis would state that the drug has no effect on
blood pressure, while the alternative hypothesis would state that the drug does have an
effect. By conducting a clinical trial with a control group and a treatment group, collecting
data on blood pressure measurements, and performing statistical tests, researchers can
determine whether there is sufficient evidence to support the effectiveness of the drug
(Bevans, 2023).
Example 3: Hypothesis tests can also be used in social sciences to investigate

research questions. For instance, researchers may want to test whether there is a significant
difference in mean scores between two groups on a psychological measure. By collecting
data from both groups and conducting appropriate statistical tests, they can assess whether
there is evidence to support their hypothesis (Bevans, 2023).
Own example: For example, you want to test whether there is a significant difference
in average sales between two different advertising strategies. You would collect data on
sales from both groups, formulate null and alternative hypotheses, perform statistical tests,
and analyze the results to determine if there is evidence to support your claim (Bevans,
2023).
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/hypothesis-testing/
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25. STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Definition 1: Statistical significance is a measure of the probability that an observed

result occurred by chance rather than as a result of the variables being studied. In hypothesis
testing, if the p-value (a measure of statistical significance) is below a predetermined
significance level (usually 0.05), the result is considered statistically significant, indicating
that the observed effect is unlikely to be due to random variation (Team, 2023).
Definition 2: Statistical significance is a term used in statistics to indicate the

probability that an observed difference or relationship between variables is not due to
chance. It is typically assessed using hypothesis testing, where the null hypothesis assumes
no difference or relationship, and the alternative hypothesis suggests a specific difference or
relationship. If the p-value is below a specified significance level, typically 0.05, the result is
considered statistically significant (Team, 2023).
Definition 3: Statistical significance refers to the degree of confidence that the

observed result is not due to chance. It is determined through hypothesis testing, where
researchers compare the observed data with what would be expected under the null
hypothesis. If the probability of obtaining the observed result, or one more extreme, is below
a predefined significance level, typically 0.05, the result is considered statistically
significant (Team, 2023).
Example 1: Suppose a researcher conducts a study to compare the effectiveness of

two different treatments for a specific medical condition. After analyzing the data, they find
that patients who received Treatment A had a significantly higher recovery rate compared to
those who received Treatment B (p < 0.05). This indicates that the observed difference
between the treatments is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone and suggests that
Treatment A may be more effective (Moran, 2021).
Example 2: In a marketing research study, a company wants to determine if there is a

significant difference in customer satisfaction between two product versions. After
collecting and analyzing survey data, they found that customers who used Version A
reported significantly higher satisfaction scores compared to those who used Version B (p <
0.05). This suggests that there is a meaningful difference in customer satisfaction between
the two versions (Moran, 2021).
Example 3: Consider a study investigating whether there is a significant association

between smoking and the development of lung cancer. After analyzing data from a large
sample of individuals, researchers find a strong and statistically significant relationship
between smoking and lung cancer incidence (p < 0.001). This provides evidence that
smoking is associated with an increased risk of developing lung cancer (Moran, 2021).
Own example: Imagine a company testing the effectiveness of two different

advertising strategies for a product. They randomly assign two groups of customers to view
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either Advertisement A or Advertisement B. After the campaign, they measure the number
of purchases made by each group. Null hypothesis (H0): There is no difference in the
number of purchases between customers exposed to Advertisement A and Advertisement B.
Alternative hypothesis (Ha): There is a significant difference in the number of purchases
between customers exposed to Advertisement A and Advertisement B. After analyzing the
data, the company calculates a p-value of 0.02. Since the p-value is below the predetermined
significance level of 0.05, they conclude that there is a statistically significant difference in
the number of purchases between the two advertising strategies. This suggests that one
advertisement is more effective than the other in driving customer purchases (Moran, 2021).
List of websites
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistical-significance.asp
https://www.statisticssolutions.com/statistical-significance-cutoffs-for-p-values/
26. CHOOSING STATISTICAL TESTS
Definition 1: Choosing statistical tests involves identifying the type of data collected,
the research question being addressed, and the assumptions underlying different statistical
tests. Researchers need to consider factors such as the measurement scale, sample size, study
design, and the nature of the variables involved to determine the most appropriate test for
their analysis (“SPSS Statistics Tutorials and Statistical Guides | Laerd Statistics,” n.d.).
Definition 2: Choosing statistical tests refers to the process of selecting the

appropriate statistical method or test based on the research objectives and characteristics of
the data. It involves considering factors such as the type of data (e.g., categorical or
continuous), the number of groups or variables, and the specific hypothesis being tested. The
goal is to choose a test that is best suited for analyzing the data and answering the research
question (Trochim, n.d.).
Definition 3: Selecting statistical tests refers to the procedure of choosing the most
suitable statistical method or test to analyze data in order to answer a research question or
test a hypothesis. It involves considering various factors such as the type of data, study
design, assumptions of the statistical test, and the nature of the research question being
investigated (Parab & Bhalerao, 2010).
Example 1: Suppose a researcher wants to compare the mean scores of two groups
on a continuous outcome variable. They have independent samples from each group. In this
case, a t-test (independent samples t-test) would be an appropriate statistical test to compare
the means and determine if there is a significant difference between the groups (Parab &
Bhalerao, 2010).
Example 2: A researcher wants to investigate the association between two

categorical variables. They have collected data in a contingency table format. To analyze
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this type of data, a chi-square test of independence would be suitable to determine if there is
a significant association between the variables (Parab & Bhalerao, 2010).
Example 3: Consider a study where a researcher wants to examine the relationship

between two continuous variables. The researcher has collected paired observations from
each participant. In this case, a paired t-test would be an appropriate statistical test to
compare the means of the paired observations and assess if there is a significant difference
(Parab & Bhalerao, 2010).
Own example: Imagine a researcher conducting a study to compare the effectiveness

of two different teaching methods on student performance in a mathematics course. They
have collected pre-test and post-test scores from two groups of students: Group A, who
received Method X, and Group B, who received Method Y. The researcher wants to
determine if there is a significant difference in the mean improvement between the two
groups. In this case, the researcher can choose to use an independent sample t-test to
compare the mean improvement scores between Group A and Group B. This test would help
determine if there is a statistically significant difference in the effectiveness of the two
teaching methods (Parab & Bhalerao, 2010).
List of websites
https://statistics.laerd.com/
27. CRITERIA FOR SIGNIFICANCE: CRITERIA VALUES AND P-VALUES
Definition 1: The p-value is a proportion that represents the probability of observing

a test statistic as extreme as the one obtained, assuming that the null hypothesis is true. It is
commonly used in hypothesis testing for various statistical methods (Bevans, 2023).
Definition 2: Statistical significance refers to the likelihood that the observed data
would have occurred by random chance if the null hypothesis were true. It is often expressed
as a p-value between 0 and 1 (Mcleod, 2023).
Definition 3: Criteria values are predetermined thresholds used to determine whether

a p-value is statistically significant. These criteria values are often set based on the desired
level of confidence or the accepted significance level in a particular field of study (2020).
Example 1: Alessandra conducted an experiment where participants were asked to

taste water from four different cups and identify which cup contained bottled water. Each
participant was given three cups with regular tap water and one cup with bottled water, and
the order of the cups was randomized. The null hypothesis in this case could be that
participants' ability to identify bottled water is due to random chance. By analyzing the data
collected from the experiment, Alessandra calculated a p-value. If the p-value is below a
predetermined significance level (e.g., 0.05), Alessandra could reject the null hypothesis and
Page | 26
conclude that there is evidence to support the claim that participants can identify bottled
water (“Using P-values to Make Conclusions (Article) | Khan Academy,” n.d.).
Example 2: Let's say you are conducting a study to determine if a new teaching
method improves students' test scores compared to the traditional method. You collect data
from two groups: an experimental group that receives the new teaching method and a
control group that receives the traditional method. After analyzing the data, you calculate a
p-value. If the p-value is below the significance level (e.g., 0.05), you can reject the null
hypothesis and conclude that there is evidence to support the claim that the new teaching
method leads to improved test scores (Bhandari, 2023).
Example 3: In a clinical trial, researchers investigate whether a new drug is effective

in treating a specific medical condition. They randomly assign participants into two groups:
one receiving the new drug (the experimental group) and the other receiving a placebo (the
control group). After administering the treatment and collecting data, the researchers
calculate a p-value to determine if there is a statistically significant difference in outcomes
between the two groups. If the p-value is below a predetermined significance level, they can
reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the new drug has a significant effect (2020)
Own example: Let's say a researcher wants to investigate whether there is a

difference in average test scores between two groups of students: Group A and Group B.
The null hypothesis would be that there is no significant difference in average test scores
between the two groups. The researcher collects data from both groups and performs a
statistical analysis, calculating a p-value. If the p-value is below the predetermined
significance level (e.g., 0.05), the researcher can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that
there is evidence of a significant difference in average test scores between Group A and
Group B.
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/p-value/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/p-value.html
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-statistics/xfb5d8e68:inference-categorical-
proportions/idea-significance-tests/a/p-value-conclusions
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/statistical-significance/
https://www.statology.org/p-values-statistical-significance/
28. ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENCES AND RELATIONSHIPS

Definition 1: Analysis of differences refers to the process of comparing groups or
conditions to identify statistically significant variations between them. This analysis often
involves performing statistical tests, such as t-tests or ANOVA, to determine if there are
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significant differences in means or proportions (“Hypothesis Test: Difference in Means,”
n.d.).
Definition 2: The analysis of relationships involves examining the association or

correlation between two or more variables. It aims to determine the strength and direction of
the relationship between variables, often using statistical measures such as correlation
coefficients (Kenton, 2023).
Definition 3: Statistical analysis techniques, such as t-tests, ANOVA (analysis of

variance), chi-square tests, and regression analysis, are commonly used to analyze
differences and relationships between variables in research studies (“SPSS Statistics
Tutorials and Statistical Guides | Laerd Statistics,” n.d.).
Example 1: A researcher wants to compare the average income levels between two
different professions. They collect data from individuals in both professions and perform a t-
test to analyze the difference in means. If the p-value is below a predetermined significance
level, they can conclude that there is a significant difference in income levels between the
two professions (Trochim, n.d.).
Example 2: In a study examining the relationship between exercise and heart health,
researchers collect data on participants' exercise habits and measure their cardiovascular
health indicators. They use correlation analysis to determine if there is a significant
relationship between exercise frequency and cardiovascular health measures. The correlation
coefficient can indicate the strength and direction of the relationship (MSEd, 2023).
Example 3: A marketing analyst wants to explore the relationship between

advertising expenditure and sales revenue. They collect data on advertising spending and
corresponding sales figures for a specific period and perform regression analysis. The
regression model can help determine if there is a significant relationship between advertising
expenditure and sales revenue, as well as predict future sales based on advertising spending
(Keita, 2022).
Own example: A researcher wants to investigate the relationship between hours of

study and exam scores among college students. They collect data on the number of hours
each student studies per week and their corresponding exam scores. The researcher performs
a correlation analysis to determine if there is a significant relationship between study hours
and exam scores. The correlation coefficient can indicate the strength and direction of the
relationship. If the correlation is statistically significant, it suggests that there is a
relationship between study hours and exam scores.
List of websites
https://stattrek.com/hypothesis-test/difference-in-means
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/relationship-management.asp
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https://statistics.laerd.com/
https://conjointly.com/kb/statistical-student-t-test/
https://www.verywellmind.com/correlational-research-2795774
https://www.datacamp.com/tutorial/multiple-linear-regression-r-tutorial
29. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
Definition 1: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to

compare the means of three or more groups or conditions. It assesses whether there are
statistically significant differences between the group means by examining the variation
within and between groups (“ANOVA Tutorial,” n.d.).
Definition 2: Analysis of Variance partitions the total variation in a dataset into two
components: variation between groups and variation within groups. By comparing the ratio
of these two components, ANOVA determines if the differences between group means are
statistically significant (Kenton, 2023).
Definition 3: Analysis of Variance is commonly used in research studies to analyze

differences in means across multiple groups or conditions. It can be applied in various fields,
including psychology, biology, social sciences, and business (“One-way ANOVA in SPSS
Statistics - Step-by-step Procedure Including Testing of Assumptions.,” n.d.).
Example 1: A researcher wants to compare the effectiveness of three different

teaching methods in improving students' test scores. They randomly assign students to three
groups, each receiving a different teaching method. After the intervention, they collect test
scores from each group and perform an ANOVA to determine if there are significant
differences in mean test scores among the groups (Trochim, 2007).
Example 2: In a study investigating the effects of different dosages of a medication

on pain relief, participants are randomly assigned to three dosage groups. After a specified
period, they rate their pain levels. The researcher uses Analysis of Variance to determine if
there are significant differences in pain relief among the dosage groups (Mcleod, 2023).
Example 3: A marketing team wants to compare customer satisfaction levels across

three different product versions. They collect survey data from customers who have used
each version and perform an ANOVA to examine if there are significant differences in
customer satisfaction ratings among the product versions (2021).
List of websites
https://stattrek.com/tutorials/anova-tutorial
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/anova.asp
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https://statistics.laerd.com/spss-tutorials/one-way-anova-using-spss-statistics.php
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/243783609_The_Research_Methods_Kno
wledge_Base
https://www.simplypsychology.org/sampling.html
https://www.statology.org/hypothesis-testing-real-life-examples/
30. STATISTICAL POWER ANALYSIS

Definition 1: Statistical power analysis is a technique used to determine the
probability of detecting an effect or relationship in a statistical test. It helps researchers
assess the sensitivity of their study design and sample size to detect meaningful effects,
given a certain level of statistical significance and effect size (“Statistical Power,” n.d.).
Definition 2: Statistical power refers to the ability of a statistical test or analysis to

detect a true effect or relationship when it exists. Power analysis helps researchers estimate
the minimum sample size required to achieve a desired level of statistical power (Team,
2023)
Definition 3: Statistical power analysis takes into account factors such as the desired
level of significance, effect size, sample size, and variability in the data. It helps researchers
make informed decisions about study design, sample size determination, and the likelihood
of finding significant results (“Statistical Power Analysis - Statistics Solutions,” 2021).
Example 1: A researcher plans to conduct a study to investigate the effectiveness of a

new teaching method on student performance. Before starting the study, they perform a
power analysis to determine the required sample size to detect a meaningful effect with
sufficient statistical power. This analysis helps ensure that the study has an adequate sample
size to detect significant results if the teaching method is indeed effective (Trochim, 2007).
Example 2: In a clinical trial testing a new drug, researchers perform a power

analysis to estimate the required sample size to detect a specific effect size in terms of
patient outcomes. This analysis helps ensure that the trial has enough participants to detect
significant differences between the experimental and control groups, if they exist (Trochim,
2007).
Example 3: A researcher wants to investigate the relationship between two variables

using a correlation analysis. They perform a power analysis to determine the required
sample size to detect a specific effect size with sufficient statistical power. This analysis
helps ensure that their study has an adequate sample size to detect significant correlations, if
they exist (Trochim, 2007).
Own example: A researcher wants to investigate the difference in mean scores on a

cognitive test between two groups: Group A and Group B. They hypothesize that Group A
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will have higher mean scores compared to Group B. To conduct a power analysis, the
researcher determines the desired level of significance (e.g., α = 0.05), the effect size they
expect to detect (e.g., Cohen's d = 0.50), and the desired statistical power (e.g., 0.80). Using
a statistical power calculator or software, the researcher performs the power analysis to
determine the required sample size for each group to achieve the desired power level
(“Cohen, J. (1988).
List of websites
https://stattrek.com/hypothesis-test/statistical-power
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistical-significance.asp
https://www.scirp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers?ReferenceID=2041144
31. EFFECT SIZE

Definition 1: Effect size is a measure that indicates the practical significance of a
research outcome by quantifying the relationship between variables or the difference
between groups (Bhandari, 2023).
Definition 2: The effect size can be calculated using the Pearson correlation
coefficient, which measures the linear association between two variables. The coefficient
has a value between -1 and 1, where -1 indicates a strong negative relationship, 1 indicates a
strong positive relationship, and 0 indicates no relationship (2021).
Definition 3: Effect size is a measure that determines the practical importance of

findings by quantifying the differences between group means and the relationships between
variables. It goes beyond statistical significance and focuses on the magnitude of the effect
(Frost, 2023).
Example 1: In a study comparing the effectiveness of two teaching methods on

student performance, the effect size could be calculated to determine the magnitude of the
difference in outcomes between the two methods (Bhandari, 2023).
Example 2: In a research study investigating the relationship between hours of

studying and exam scores, the effect size (measured using correlation) could indicate the
strength and direction of the relationship between these variables (2021).
Example 3: In a clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of a new medication

compared to a placebo, the effect size could quantify the difference in treatment outcomes
between the two groups (Frost, 2023).
Own example: let's consider a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new teaching
method on student achievement in mathematics. The effect size could be calculated to
quantify the difference in math scores between students who received the new teaching
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method and those who did not. This effect size would provide an indication of the practical
significance of the intervention and help interpret the findings of the study (Lipsey &
Wilson, 1993).
List of websites
https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/effect-size/
https://www.statology.org/effect-size/
https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/effect-sizes-statistics/
https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/mkraft/files/kraft_2019_effect_sizes.pdf
32. THE STRUCTURE AND PLANNING OF EXPERIMENTS

Definition 1: The structure and planning of experiments refer to the systematic
design and organization of a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis or research question.
It involves identifying variables, determining the experimental conditions, and outlining the
procedures and measurements to be used (Trochim, n.d.).
Definition 2: The structure and planning of experiments involve developing a clear

research design, including the selection of participants, manipulation of variables, and
control of extraneous factors. It aims to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
(Trochim, n.d.).
Definition 3: The structure of experiments refers to the organization and arrangement

of different elements within an experiment, including the design, variables, and procedures
involved (Bevans, 2023).
Example 1: Let's consider a health sciences research question: "How does phone use
before bedtime affect sleep patterns?" In this case, the structure and planning of the
experiment would involve defining the variables (phone use and sleep patterns), selecting
appropriate measurement methods, and designing a study protocol (Bevans, 2023).
Example 2: Another example could be an ecology research question: "What is the

impact of temperature on plant growth?" Here, the structure and planning of the experiment
would involve determining the variables (temperature and plant growth), deciding on the
experimental setup, and considering potential confounding factors such as light and soil
conditions (Bevans, 2023).
Example 3: A psychology experiment might investigate the relationship between

stress levels and cognitive performance. The structure and planning would involve
identifying the variables (stress levels and cognitive performance), selecting appropriate
measurement tools, and designing a study protocol to manipulate or measure stress levels
and assess cognitive performance (Bevans, 2023).
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Own example: Suppose you want to investigate how music affects focus. The
experiment would involve selecting a group of participants, exposing them to different types
of music, and measuring their level of focus using appropriate methods (Psychology, 2023).
List of websites
https://conjointly.com/kb/
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/experimental-design/
https://practicalpie.com/experimental-design-examples/
33. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY CLASSIFICATION
Definition 1: One-way analysis of variance is used to determine how one factor or

independent variable affects a response variable. It compares the means of three or more
independent groups to determine if there is a statistically significant difference between
them (2021).
Definition 2: Two-way analysis of variance, on the other hand, involves the

simultaneous analysis of two factors or independent variables to determine their individual
and combined effects on a response variable. It allows for the examination of interactions
between the factors and their impact on the outcome of interest (2021).
Definition 3: Analysis of variance, in general, is a parametric statistical technique

that compares means and the relative variance between them. It is similar to other techniques
such as t-tests and z-tests but is specifically designed for comparing means across multiple
groups or factors (“Analysis of Variance: One Way and Two Way Classifications,” 2020).
Example 1: Let's consider a one-way analysis of variance example in the field of

psychology. Suppose we want to compare the effectiveness of three different therapeutic
interventions for reducing anxiety levels. We would randomly assign participants to three
groups, each receiving a different intervention, and measure their anxiety levels before and
after the treatment. By using a one-way ANOVA, we can determine if there is a significant
difference in anxiety reduction between the three interventions (2021).
Example 2: For a two-way analysis of variance example, let's imagine a study

investigating the effects of both gender and age on reaction times. Participants from
different age groups and genders would be tested on their reaction times, and a two-way
ANOVA would be used to analyze the data. This analysis would allow us to examine if
there are significant differences in reaction times based on gender, age, or their interaction
(2021).
Example 3: Another example of analysis of variance could be studying the impact of

different fertilizers on crop yield across different regions. By conducting a two-way
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ANOVA, we can assess if there are significant differences in crop yield based on the type of
fertilizer used, the region where it was applied, or their interaction (Sapkota, 2023).
Own example: Let's say you are studying the relationship between social media use
and sleep patterns. You divide participants into low, medium, and high levels of social
media use and measure their hours of sleep per night. By using a one-way ANOVA, you can
determine if there is a significant difference in sleep duration between the three groups
(Sapkota, 2023).
List of websites
https://www.statology.org/one-way-vs-two-way-anova/
https://theintactone.com/2019/03/06/brm-u5-topic-10-analysis-of-variance-one-way-
and-two-way-classifications/
https://microbenotes.com/anova/
34. MULTIPLE –COMPARISON PROCEDURES
Definition 1: Multiple comparison procedures are statistical techniques used to

compare three or more groups or treatments simultaneously. They help identify significant
differences between the groups while controlling for the overall Type I error rate ("10.3:
Multiple Comparisons | STAT 500,” n.d.).
Definition 2: Multiple comparison procedures involve conducting pairwise

comparisons between multiple groups or treatments. These comparisons are performed to
determine which specific groups differ significantly from each other while accounting for
the increased risk of false positives due to multiple comparisons (Cabral, 2008).
Definition 3: Multiple comparison procedures are statistical methods used to adjust

p-values when performing multiple hypothesis tests simultaneously. These procedures help
control the family-wise error rate or the false discovery rate, ensuring that the overall
probability of making a Type I error remains within an acceptable range (2020).
Example 1: Suppose we conduct a study comparing the effectiveness of three

different treatments for a medical condition. After analyzing the data, we can use multiple
comparison procedures to determine if there are any significant differences in the treatment
outcomes. For example, we may find that Treatment A is significantly more effective than
Treatment B, but there is no significant difference between Treatment B and Treatment C
("10.3: Multiple Comparisons | STAT 500,” n.d.).
Example 2: In a marketing research study, multiple comparison procedures can be

used to compare the mean sales of different advertising strategies. By applying these
procedures, we can identify which advertising strategies lead to significantly higher sales
compared to others (Cabral, 2008).
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Example 3: Multiple comparison procedures can also be applied in agricultural
research. For instance, researchers may want to compare the yields of different fertilizers
applied to various crops. By using multiple comparison procedures, they can determine if
there are any significant differences in crop yields between the different fertilizer treatments
(2020).
Own example: Let's say you conducted a survey to compare the satisfaction levels of
customers who used three different brands of smartphones. You can utilize multiple
comparison procedures to determine if there are any significant differences in satisfaction
levels between the three brands (Cabral, 2008).
List of websites:
https://online.stat.psu.edu/stat500/lesson/10/10.3
https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/circulationaha.107.700971
https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Computing_and_Modeling/Supplemental_M
odules_(Computing_and_Modeling)/Regression_Analysis/Multiple_Comparison
35. REPEATED-M EASUREMENT DESIGN

Definition 1: A repeated measures design is characterized by obtaining multiple
measurements from each experimental unit or participant, typically over time, to assess the
effects of different conditions or treatment (“Repeated Measures Design,” n.d.).
Definition 2: In a repeated-measurement design, the same group of participants is

measured or observed multiple times on the same outcome variable. This design allows
researchers to examine within-subject changes over time or compare different conditions
within the same group (“Repeated Measures Design,” n.d.).
Definition 3: A repeated-measures design is a type of experimental design in which

participants are measured on the same dependent variable multiple times, typically under
different conditions or at different time points (Maxwell & Delaney, 2004).
Example 1: An example of a repeated-measurement design is a study investigating

the effects of a new medication on blood pressure. The blood pressure of the same group of
participants is measured before starting the medication, at regular intervals during the
treatment period, and after completing the treatment. This design allows researchers to
assess changes in blood pressure over time within the same group (2018).
Example 2: In a repeated-measurement design, researchers may evaluate the impact

of different teaching methods on student performance by assessing the academic scores of
the same group of students before and after each method is implemented. This design
enables researchers to compare the effectiveness of different teaching approaches within the
same group (2018).
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Example 3: Consider a study examining the effects of different exercise programs on
physical fitness. The same group of participants could be tested for their fitness levels before
starting each program, at regular intervals during the program, and after completing each
program. By using a repeated-measurement design, researchers can evaluate changes in
physical fitness within the same group of participants across different exercise programs
(Rose, n.d.).
Own example: Let's consider a study that aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a new
diet plan for weight loss. The same group of participants could be weighed at regular
intervals before and after starting the diet plan. This repeated-measurement design would
allow researchers to track changes in weight over time within the same group of participants
(“Repeated Measures Designs: Benefits, Challenges, and an ANOVA Example,” n.d.).
List of websites:
https://stattrek.com/anova/repeated-measures/design#google_vignette
https://stattrek.com/anova/repeated-measures/design
https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-07583-008
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-repeated-measures-design-definition-
example.html
https://blog.minitab.com/en/adventures-in-statistics-2/repeated-measures-designs-
benefits-challenges-and-an-anova-example
36. MULTIVARIATE ANOVA

Definition 1: Multivariate Analysis of Variance is a statistical method that
simultaneously analyzes the differences between groups or conditions on multiple dependent
variables. It assesses whether there are significant variations in patterns across the dependent
variables based on the independent variable(s) (“Reading and Understanding Multivariate
Statistics,” n.d.).
Definition 2: Multivariate Analysis of Variance is a multivariate statistical technique

used to analyze whether there are significant differences between groups or conditions on a
set of dependent variables. It takes into account the correlations among the dependent
variables, providing a more comprehensive analysis than conducting separate univariate
ANOVAs (“Reading and Understanding Multivariate Statistics,” n.d.).
Definition 3: Multivariate Analysis of Variance is a statistical procedure that allows

researchers to examine the effects of one or more independent variables on multiple
dependent variables simultaneously. It tests whether there are significant differences in the
means of the dependent variables across groups or conditions while considering their
interrelationships (Landler, Ruxton, & Malkemper, 2022).
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Example 1: An example of multivariate analysis of variance could be a study
investigating the effects of different teaching methods (independent variables) on the
academic performance, motivation, and self-esteem (dependent variables) of students. A
MANOVA would analyze whether there are significant differences in these dependent
variables across the teaching methods (“Reading and Understanding Multivariate Statistics,”
n.d.).
Example 2: In a healthcare study, researchers may use multivariate analysis of

variance to examine the effects of different treatments (independent variables) on patient
outcomes such as pain levels, quality of life, and functional abilities (dependent variables).
A multivariate analysis of variance would assess whether there are significant differences in
these outcome measures across the treatment groups (Alexopoulos, 2010).
Example 3: Consider a marketing research study analyzing the impact of various

advertising strategies (independent variables) on consumer perceptions of brand image,
purchase intention, and product satisfaction (dependent variables). A multivariate analysis of
variance would determine if there are significant differences in these dependent variables
across the advertising strategies (Alexopoulos, 2010).
Own example: Let's say a researcher wants to investigate the effects of different
training programs (independent variables) on employee performance measures such as
productivity, job satisfaction, and teamwork skills (dependent variables). The researcher can
use multivariate analysis of variance to examine if there are significant differences in these
dependent variables across the training programs, considering their interrelationships
(Alexopoulos, 2010).
List of websites:
https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/4316510
37. FACTORIAL DESIGNS

Definition 1: A factorial design is an experiment that involves manipulating two or
more independent variables to examine their individual and combined effects on the
dependent variable(s) (Cherry, 2023).
Definition 2: In factorial designs, researchers study the effects of two or more

independent variables, known as factors, on the dependent variable(s). This design allows
for the examination of main effects (effects of individual factors) and interaction effects
(combined effects of factors) (Nordstokke & Colp, 2014).
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Definition 3: Factorial designs are highly efficient experimental designs that allow
researchers to investigate the effects of multiple independent variables simultaneously.
These designs provide insights into the main effects and interaction effects of the variables
on the dependent variable(s) (Baker et al., 2017).
Example 1: Suppose a research study aims to investigate the effects of two factors,
such as temperature and humidity, on plant growth. A factorial design would involve
manipulating these two factors at different levels (e.g., high temperature/low humidity, low
temperature/high humidity) to observe their individual and combined effects on plant growth
(Cherry, 2023).
Example 2: In a psychology experiment, researchers may be interested in examining

the effects of two factors, such as stress level (high vs. low) and sleep duration (short vs.
long), on cognitive performance. A factorial design would allow researchers to explore how
these factors interact and influence cognitive performance (Nordstokke & Colp, 2014).
Example 3: Consider a marketing study investigating the effects of price (low vs.
high) and packaging design (simple vs. elaborate) on consumer preferences. A factorial
design would enable researchers to analyze the main effects of price and packaging design,
as well as any potential interaction between these factors (Cherry, 2023).
Own example: Let's say a researcher wants to investigate the effects of two factors,
such as time of day and type of task, on productivity. The researcher could manipulate the
time of day (morning vs. afternoon) and the type of task (simple vs. complex) and observe
their individual and combined effects on productivity. This factorial design would allow the
researcher to analyze the main effects of time of day and type of task, as well as any
potential interaction between these factors (Cherry, 2023)
List of websites:
https://www.explorepsychology.com/factorial-design-definition-examples/
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_982
38. ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE
Definition 1: The analysis of covariance is a technique that merges the analysis of

variance (ANOVA) and linear regression. It analyzes grouped data with a response variable
(dependent variable) and two or more predictor variables (covariates), where at least one
predictor variable is continuous (Philippas, 2014).
Definition 2: The analysis of covariance model assumes a linear relationship between

the response variable and covariate(s). It allows researchers to examine the impact of
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categorical independent variables while statistically adjusting for the influence of continuous
covariates (Philippas, 2014).
Definition 3: Analysis of Covariance is an extension of previous models that

includes both nominal and ordinal independent variables and continuous independent
variables (covariates). It generates prediction equations for different levels of the categorical
variable while accounting for the effects of covariates (Gad & Rousseaux, 2002).
Example 1: Suppose a teacher wants to investigate the impact of different studying

techniques (an independent variable) on exam scores (a dependent variable), while
considering the current grade as a covariate. The teacher can perform an ANCOVA to assess
whether there are significant differences in exam scores among the studying techniques after
accounting for the influence of the current grade (2020).
Example 2: In a medical study, researchers aim to examine the effect of a treatment

(an independent variable) on patient outcomes (a dependent variable), while controlling for
the patients' baseline health status as a covariate. Analysis of covariance can be used to
determine whether any observed differences in patient outcomes between treatment groups
are due to the treatment itself or other factors, after adjusting for baseline health status (Gad
& Rousseaux, 2002).
Example 3: Consider a research study investigating the impact of different teaching

methods (an independent variable) on student achievement (a dependent variable), while
controlling for students' socioeconomic status as a covariate. An analysis of covariance can
help determine whether there are significant differences in student achievement among the
teaching methods while accounting for the influence of socioeconomic status (2020).
Own example: In this study, the independent variable would be the different teaching
methods, such as traditional lecture-based teaching, problem-based learning, or a flipped
classroom approach. The dependent variable would be the students' academic performance,
which could be measured using test scores or grades. The covariate, in this case, would be
the students' prior academic achievement, which could be measured using their previous test
scores or GPA.
List of websites:
https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_82
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/analysis-of-covariance
https://www.statology.org/ancova/
39. Threats to internal/external validity

Definition 1: Threats to internal validity are factors or conditions that may
undermine the ability to draw accurate conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships
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within a study. These threats include confounding variables, selection bias, and history
effects (2023).
Definition 2: Threats to external validity are factors that limit the generalizability of
study findings beyond the specific context or sample used in the research. These threats
include population validity, ecological validity, and temporal validity (Slocum, Joslyn,
Nichols, & Pinkelman, 2022).
Definition 3: Threats to internal validity are sources of error or bias that can lead to
inaccurate conclusions about causal relationships within a study. These threats can include
maturation effects, testing effects, and regression to the mean.
Example 1: Selection bias is a common threat to internal validity. It occurs when

there is a systematic difference between the characteristics of participants in different
groups, which can confound the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables. For instance, if participants in one group are assigned based on convenience
sampling while participants in another group are randomly selected, the results may be
biased and not accurately reflect the true effect of the independent variable (2023).
Example 2: History effects can pose a threat to internal validity. These effects refer to
external events or circumstances that occur during the course of a study and may influence
the outcome variable. For example, if a study is examining the effectiveness of a new
teaching method on student performance, but during the study period there are significant
changes in the curriculum or educational policies, these external factors may confound the
results (2023).
Example 3: A common threat to external validity is the lack of ecological validity.

This occurs when the conditions or settings in which a study is conducted do not accurately
represent real-world situations. For instance, if a study on consumer behavior is conducted
in a controlled laboratory setting rather than in a natural shopping environment, the findings
may not generalize well to real-life purchasing decisions (Slocum, Joslyn, Nichols, &
Pinkelman, 2022).
Own example: A potential threat to both internal and external validity could be
experimenter bias. Experimenter bias occurs when the researcher's expectations or beliefs
about the outcome of the study influence their behavior or interpretation of the results. This
bias can introduce errors in data collection, analysis, and interpretation, compromising both
the internal validity by introducing confounding factors and the external validity by
potentially limiting generalizability (2023).
List of websites
https://stats.libretexts.org/Courses/Kansas_State_University/EDCEP_917%3A_Expe
rimental_Design_(Yang)/01%3A_Introduction_to_Research_Designs/1.03%3A_Threats_to
_Internal_Validity
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40. INTERPRETING R ESEARCH DATA
Definition 1: Data interpretation is the process of reviewing data and arriving at

relevant conclusions using various analytical research methods. It involves categorizing,
manipulating, and summarizing data to answer critical questions (Villegas, 2023).
Definition 2: Interpreting research data refers to the analysis and understanding of

the collected data in order to uncover patterns, relationships, and trends. It involves applying
statistical techniques, qualitative analysis, or other methods to draw meaningful insights
from the data (Kulkarni, 2016).
Definition 3: Qualitative data analysis and interpretation involve a systematic search

for meaning in the collected qualitative data. It is a process of examining the data to identify
themes, patterns, and underlying concepts to develop a comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon being studied (Ngulube, 2015).
Example 1: In a survey-based research study on customer satisfaction, interpreting

the data may involve analyzing response frequencies, calculating descriptive statistics such
as mean or median ratings, and identifying significant differences between customer
segments. This analysis helps researchers understand the level of satisfaction among
different customer groups and identify areas for improvement (Villegas, 2023).
Example 2: In a clinical trial evaluating the effectiveness of a new medication,

interpreting the research data may involve analyzing outcome measures such as symptom
severity scores, treatment response rates, or adverse events. Researchers can compare the
results between the treatment and control groups to determine the medication's efficacy and
safety (Kulkarni, 2016).
Example 3: In a qualitative research study exploring individuals' experiences with a

particular phenomenon, interpreting the data may involve coding and categorizing interview
transcripts, identifying recurring themes, and conducting thematic analysis. This process
helps researchers gain insights into participants' perspectives and generate rich descriptions
of their experiences (Ngulube, 2015).
Own example: Let's consider a study that examines the relationship between
employee satisfaction (a dependent variable) and job performance (an independent variable).
The research data could include survey responses from employees about their satisfaction
levels and objective performance metrics. Interpreting the data would involve analyzing the
correlation between employee satisfaction and job performance scores to determine if there
is a significant relationship (Ngulube, 2015).
List of websites:
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https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-interpretation/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278961843_Qualitative_Data_Analysis_an
d_Interpretation_Systematic_Search_for_Meaning
41. FORMULATING CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Definition 1: The conclusion is a synthesis of key points that helps the reader
understand the significance of the research findings and their implications. It goes beyond
summarizing the main topics covered and may recommend new areas for future research
(“Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 9. The Conclusion,”
n.d.).
Definition 2: Writing a conclusion provides closure for the reader by reminding them
of the contents and importance of the research paper. It allows the reader to step back from
the specifics and view the bigger picture of the research, highlighting its relevance and
potential impact (“Walden University Writing Center,” n.d.).
Definition 3: The conclusion section in research papers is crucial, as it is often the

last opportunity to leave a good impression on the reader. It should summarize the main
findings and their implications, emphasizing their significance and potential applications
(Mejia, n.d.).
Example 1: In a study investigating the impact of a new teaching method on student

performance, the conclusion may summarize the findings, such as improved test scores and
higher engagement levels among students. The recommendation could be to implement this
teaching method in other classrooms or explore its effectiveness across different educational
settings (“Research Guides: Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: 9. the
Conclusion,” n.d.).
Example 2: In a market research study analyzing consumer preferences for a new

product, the conclusion may highlight the key findings, such as a strong preference for
certain features or a specific target market segment. The recommendation could be to focus
marketing efforts on promoting these preferred features and targeting the identified market
segment (“Walden University Writing Center,” n.d.).
Example 3: In a healthcare study examining the effectiveness of a new treatment

intervention, the conclusion may summarize the results, such as reduced symptoms and
improved patient outcomes. The recommendation could be to consider implementing this
intervention in clinical practice or conducting further research to evaluate its long-term
effects (Mejia, n.d.).
Page | 42
Own example: Let's consider a study on employee satisfaction in a company. The
conclusion may summarize the research findings, such as that high levels of employee
satisfaction are associated with increased productivity and lower turnover rates. The
recommendation could be for the company to prioritize initiatives that enhance employee
satisfaction, such as improving work-life balance or providing professional development
opportunities, to foster a positive work environment (“Walden University Writing Center,”
n.d.).
List of websites:
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/conclusion
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/writingcenter/writingprocess/conclusions
https://www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter/docs/handouts/Conclusion%20Section%20for%2
0Research%20Papers.pdf
42. CRITERIA FOR RESEARCH QUALITY

Definition 1: Research quality refers to the degree to which a research study meets
established standards of rigor, validity, and reliability. Criteria for research quality include
factors such as the study design, sample size, data collection methods, and statistical
analysis (Lindgreen, Di Benedetto, & Brodie, 2021).
Definition 2: Criteria for research quality are guidelines or benchmarks used to

evaluate the quality of research studies. These criteria may vary depending on the research
field or methodology used, but typically include factors such as the clarity of research
questions, the appropriateness of data collection methods, and the rigor of data analysis
(Yadav, 2021).
Definition 3: Research quality criteria are a set of standards that researchers must
meet to ensure that their studies produce valid and reliable results. These criteria may
include factors such as the use of appropriate research designs, the selection of
representative study samples, and the use of rigorous statistical techniques (“Help and
Support: Measuring Research Quality and Impact - Research Guide: Citation Metrics,” n.d.).
Example 1: In a quantitative research study, criteria for research quality may include
the use of a randomized controlled trial design, a large and representative sample size, and
appropriate statistical analysis techniques (Lindgreen, Di Benedetto, & Brodie, 2021).
Example 2: In a qualitative research study, criteria for research quality may include
the use of clear and consistent data collection methods, appropriate sampling techniques,
and rigorous data analysis procedures such as thematic analysis (Yadav, 2021).
Page | 43
Example 3: In a mixed-methods research study, criteria for research quality may
include the integration of both quantitative and qualitative data, appropriate sequencing of
data collection methods, and the use of appropriate statistical techniques to analyze the data
(“Help and Support: Measuring Research Quality and Impact - Research Guide: Citation
Metrics,” n.d.).
Own example: In a mixed-methods research study, criteria for research quality may
include the integration of both quantitative and qualitative data, appropriate sequencing of
data collection methods, and the use of appropriate statistical techniques to analyze the data
(“Help and Support: Measuring Research Quality and Impact—Research Guide: Citation
Metrics,” n.d.).
List of websites:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019850121002121
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40299-021-00619-0
https://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/measure_research/citation
43. WRITING THE R ESEARCH REPORT

Definition 1: A research report is a written document that presents the results,
methodology, analysis, and conclusions of a research study. It provides a comprehensive
overview of the research project and serves as a means of communicating the findings to the
intended audience (Hassan, 2023).
Definition 2: The research report is a formal document that outlines the research
process, including the research question, literature review, methodology, data analysis, and
conclusions. It provides a detailed account of the research study and its outcomes (Kabir,
2016).
Definition 3: Writing the research report involves organizing and presenting the
research findings in a logical and coherent manner. It includes sections such as an
introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion, providing a
complete picture of the research process and its outcomes (Bhat, 2023).
Example 1: In a scientific research report on the effects of a new drug on patient

outcomes, the report would include sections such as an introduction (background
information and research question), methodology (study design and data collection
methods), results (statistical analysis and findings), discussion (interpretation of results), and
conclusion (summary of findings and implications) (Hassan, 2023).
Example 2: In a market research report analyzing consumer preferences for a new

product, the report would include sections such as an executive summary (overview of the
report), an introduction (research objectives and methodology), findings (analysis of
Page | 44
consumer survey data), recommendations (suggestions for marketing strategies based on
findings), and a conclusion (summary of key findings and their implications) (Bhat, 2023).
Example 3: In an academic research report on climate change impacts, the report

would include sections such as an abstract (brief summary of the study), introduction
(background information and research question), literature review (overview of existing
research), methodology (data collection and analysis methods), results (findings from data
analysis), discussion (interpretation of results in relation to existing literature), and
conclusion (summary of key findings and recommendations for future research) (Kabir,
2016).
Own example: let's consider a research report on the impact of social media on
mental health. The report would include sections such as an introduction (background
information and research question), literature review (overview of previous studies on the
topic), methodology (data collection methods and sample selection), results (analysis of
survey data), discussion (interpretation of findings in relation to existing literature), and
conclusion (summary of key findings and recommendations for further study or
interventions) (Kabir, 2016).
List of websites:
https://researchmethod.net/research-report/
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325546150_WRITING_RESEARCH_REP
ORT
https://www.questionpro.com/blog/research-reports/
44. MODES OF RESEARCH DISSEMINATION

Definition 1: Research dissemination refers to the process of sharing research
findings with various stakeholders and wider audiences. It involves planning and
implementing strategies to effectively communicate research outcomes and promote their
uptake and understanding (Ross-Hellauer et al., 2020).
Definition 2: Modes of research dissemination are the different channels or methods

through which research findings are shared and communicated. These modes can include
traditional approaches such as academic publications and conferences, as well as newer
approaches such as social media, policy briefs, and community engagement activities
(“Quick-Start Guide to Dissemination for Practice-Based Research Networks,” n.d.).
Definition 3: Research dissemination involves the intentional and systematic sharing

of research findings with relevant audiences to maximize the impact and application of the
research. It encompasses a range of strategies and approaches tailored to the specific needs
and preferences of different stakeholders (Schillinger, 2010).
Page | 45
Example 1: Researchers often disseminate their work through peer-reviewed journal
articles, which are considered a traditional mode of research dissemination. These articles
undergo rigorous review by experts in the field before publication (Ross-Hellauer et al.,
2020).
Example 2: Conferences and Presentations: Researchers may present their findings at

conferences or scientific meetings, where they can engage with fellow researchers, receive
feedback, and share their work with a broader audience (“Quick-Start Guide to
Dissemination for Practice-Based Research Networks,” n.d.).
Example 3: social media and Online Platforms: With the rise of digital
communication, researchers are increasingly using social media platforms, blogs, and
websites to disseminate their research findings to a wider audience. These platforms allow
for real-time engagement and interaction with both academic and non-academic audiences
(Schillinger, 2010).
Own example: Let's consider a research study on sustainable agriculture practices.

One mode of dissemination could be through community workshops or farmer training
programs, where researchers directly engage with farmers and share their findings on
sustainable farming techniques (Schillinger, 2010).
List of websites:
https://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/wysiwyg/ncepcr/resources/dissemination-
quick-start-guide.pdf
https://accelerate.ucsf.edu/files/CE/edi_introguide.pdf
Page | 46

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T ABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Statistical Literacy in Research .........................................................................................1

Definition 2: Statistical literacy refers to the critical interpretation of a person's

Definition 3: Statistical literacy is a technical term to describe a person's ability to

Example 3: A research study aimed to determine if a new teaching method improved

2. SCOPE AND FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS IN RESEARCH

Definition 1: According to Investopedia, statistics is the practice or science of

Definition 2: The American Statistical Association (ASA) defines statistics as "the

Definition 3: According to the University of Michigan's Institute for Social Research,

Example 1: A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association

3. DATA AND VARIABLES

Definition 2: In statistics, data refers to the collection of information or observations,

Definition 3: Data that is recorded as numbers (and therefore measures quantities)

Example 2: In a survey about consumer preferences, the age of the participants

Example 3: In an experiment testing the impact of temperature on plant growth, the

4. TWO MAJOR AREAS OF STATISTICS: DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL

Definition 1: Descriptive statistics summarize and organize the characteristics of a

Definition 2: Inferential statistics are used to make inferences or predictions about a

Example 1: An example of descriptive statistics is calculating the mean, median, and

Example 2: An example of inferential statistics is conducting hypothesis testing to

5. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODS

Definition 1: Quantitative Research: This research method involves the collection

Definition 3: Mixed Methods Research: This research method combines both

Example 1: Experimental Research: This research method involves manipulating

Example 3: Observational Research: This research method involves observing and

6. TEN BIG STATISTICAL IDEAS IN RESEARCH

Definition 1: Sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or

Definition 2: Hypothesis testing is a statistical method used to make inferences about

Example 1: In a research study on the effectiveness of a new drug, researchers

Example 2: A researcher wants to investigate whether there is a significant

Example 3: A survey is conducted to estimate the average income of a population.

Own example: A researcher wants to investigate the relationship between hours of

7. DEFINING AND CHARACTERIZING STUDY POPULATIONS

Definition 1: Defining and characterizing study populations refers to the process of

Definition 2: Defining and characterizing study populations involves identifying and

Definition 3: Defining and characterizing study populations involves the

Example 1: Age-Specific Population: A study aims to investigate the prevalence of a

Example 2: Geographic Population: A research project focuses on understanding the

Example 3: Disease-Specific Population: A clinical trial aims to evaluate the

8. SAMPLING PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES

Definition 1: Sampling principles and procedures involve selecting a representative

Definition 3: Sampling principles and procedures include techniques such as random

Example 1: In a study on consumer preferences, researchers used simple random

Example 2: In a survey about political opinions, researchers employed stratified

Example 3: In a study on the effects of a new medication, researchers used cluster

9. SAMPLING ERRORS AND SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS

Definition 1: Sampling errors refer to the discrepancies or differences between the

Definition 2: Sampling distributions represent the frequency distribution of a statistic

Example 1: In a survey, the sample mean of participants' ages was found to be

Example 3: The sampling distribution of proportions was used to estimate the

10. SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION FORMULAS

Example 1: In a clinical trial, researchers used a sample size determination formula

Example 3: A researcher planning a comparative study between two groups used a

11. SAMPLING ISSUES: REPRESENTATIVENESS AND SAMPLE SIZE ADEQUACY

Definition 1: Representativeness in sampling refers to the extent to which a sample

Definition 3: Sampling issues related to representativeness and sample size adequacy

Example 1: In a study on public opinion, a random sample of 1,000 participants was

Example 2: A researcher conducted a survey with a small sample size of only 50

Example 3: In a research study on customer satisfaction, a large sample size of 2,000

12. TYPES OF DATA SOURCES AND COLLECTION PROCEDURES

Example 1: A researcher conducts interviews with customers to gather feedback on a

Example 3: A student uses a textbook to find background information on a topic for

13. MEASUREMENT AND DATA COLLECTION ISSUES