Beyond Dualism: Expanded Understandings of Religion and Global Justice

Author(s): Erin K. Wilson

Source: International Studies Quarterly , September 2010, Vol. 54, No. 3 (September
2010), pp. 733-754
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The International Studies Association

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International Studies Quarterly (2010) 54, 733-754

Beyond Dualism: Expanded Understandings

of Religion and Global Justice1
Erin K. Wilson

RMIT University

The world's religions have strong traditions of contributing to theories

and practices around justice. Recent debates on global justice within
International Relations (IR), however, have largely overlooked possible
contributions from religion. This article explores why religion is
neglected, despite its potential for constructive involvement in the pur-
suit of global justice. I argue that dominant macro-level conceptions of
both global justice and religion within IR have been limited by dualism.
Combining Kristeva's (1986) reading of Bakhtinian dialogism and
Prokhovnik's (2003) relational thought, I propose expanded under-
standings of both religion and global justice that move beyond dualism.
These expanded understandings open up creative ways for IR scholars
and practitioners to engage in processes aimed at overcoming global
inequalities and injustices.

The world's religions have strong traditions of contributing to theories an

tices around justice. Yet literature on the emerging concept of global just
International Relations (IR) has largely overlooked religion. Jewish, Chris
Islamic, and Buddhist (amongst other) ethical traditions all have strong em
sis on notions of justice (Volf 2000; Reilly 2003:119; Cahill 2006:74-75; Sach
2006:46-48; Von Brück 2006:66). Jewish and Christian traditions in pa
have had an influential role in the historical development of dominant se
theories and practices of justice in Western societies and in international
(Maclntyre 1988; Boyle 1992; Cartwright 1992; Cahill 2006:75).
Recent debates on global justice, however, have predominantly ne
potential contributions from religion. Global justice debates within IR fo
legal, moral, and theoretical arguments for addressing global injustices su
poverty, hunger, and mass human rights abuses (Erskine 2002; Nag
Caney 2006; Patomäki 2006; Kokaz 2007). The idea of global justice has eme
primarily from within cosmopolitan moral theory (O'Neill 2000). Cosmop
ism has strong connections with liberalism, particularly through the wri
Immanuel Kant (Mapel and Nardin 1992). Liberalism holds that relig
source of division and intolerance and consequently must be excluded fro
public sphere (Dombrowski 2001:4; Cudd 2002:125 note 19). Liberal sch
point to the Wars of Religion and the violence and chaos engendered in E
around the time of the emergence of the modern state as evidence for re
role in promoting division and intolerance and the subsequent n

1 I am grateful to Roland Bleiker, Toni Erskine, James Mcllwraith, Anne McNevin, Heikki Patomäki, t
mous reviewers, and the editors of ISQ for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this article. All erro
my own.

doi: 10.HH/j.1468-2478.2010.00607.x
© 2010 International Studies Association

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734 Beyond Dualism

religion's exclusion and privatization (Thom

this liberal heritage, global justice scholars m
from religion on the principles on which th
tial contemporary contributions of religion t
bal justice in IR are frequently not considered
This article explores why religion is in gen
global justice, despite possibilities for numer
analysis of religion's neglect highlights a
standings of both global justice and religion.
conceptions of these two notions have been
lizing models of thinking that go beyond the
dialogism (Kristeva 1986) and relational thou
sibilities for innovative, creative approaches t
The article is divided into six sections. The f
space for collaboration across religion and IR i
justice. I employ arguments from within both
theology that support the inclusion of religion
I then examine the problem of dualism itse
theoretical overview of dualism and its effect
liberal politics. Drawing on insights from fe
suggest that dualism has been an essentia
modernity projects and a critical tool in mai
domination and subordination. In Western an
tionships are situated within the overarchin
realms. The limitations imposed by dualism
standings of key socio-political concepts, suc
result of dualistic thinking, the potential
issues in the public realm, such as global justi
This discussion leads into an exploration of
understandings of global justice in IR. I sugg
approaches to and the content of global justi
has led to the privileging of theory over
whether individuals should be the principl
than communities and universal principles o
than values particular to context and commun
In the fourth section, I posit that dualism u
of religion within IR. Religion is seen as ins
and is consequently excluded from public de
concerned with global justice. Religion's idea
ments are rarely incorporated in IR analysis.
The fifth section of the paper explores how
move beyond the limitations of dualism. I sug
ing of dialogism as outlined by Kristeva (1
of relational thought. Relational dialogism o
dualism and its effects on current approa
Finally, I outline the benefits of utilizing re
global justice and religion for overcoming in
from contemporary global politics.

Definitions and Caveats

Owing to its relatively recent emergence, global justice is a highly contested sub-
ject in IR theory and practice (Nagel 2005:113). For the purposes of this article,

2 I use "experience" to encompass emotional, psychological, relational, and spiritual aspects of global justice.

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 Erin K. Wilson 735

I define global justice as pertain

economic, political, socio-cultur
bal North and the global Sout
focusing primarily on issues of
rights abuses, and, increasingly
ronment as well as unequal exp
tal change. I also understand g
justice and reconciliation, divers
sustainability, and planetary ci
Throughout my argument, I p
a pursuit. Conceptualizing globa
rather than assigning it a fixed
standing of global justice is
approach, which does not seek
ments all the while exploring p
ing global justice as a process
transformation and for shif
increased.

Religion is a term that has been, is, and no doubt always will be debated in IR
and the social sciences. In this article, I am attempting to develop a broad alter-
native model of thinking about religion (and global justice), rather than fixed
definitions as such. Scholarship on religion in IR, I argue, has been limited by a
static, dualistic conception of religion as primarily institutional, individual, and
irrational. I expand this understanding to include ideational, communal, and
rational elements of religion. Yet this should not be seen as an alternative defini-
tion. Rather it is one different way of exploring religion's relationship with vari-
ous aspects of IR, including global justice.
My principal aim in this article is to outline epistemological problems in cur-
rent IR approaches to both religion and global justice. My purpose is not to spe-
cifically outline how religion may contribute to the pursuit of global justice.
Religion has already made a substantial contribution to global justice, theoreti-
cally and practically, throughout history and in current world politics. I suggest,
however, that greater potential for contribution from religion to the pursuit of
global justice in IR theory and practice exists. Such potential can only be real-
ized, however, if the influence of dualism on existing understandings of religion
and global justice are addressed.
The growth in interest in both religion and global justice is in some ways
attributable to recent processes of globalization (Hopkins, Lorentzen, Mendieta,
and Batstone 2001:1-2). Globalization is potentially the defining feature of the
contemporary age (Schölte 2005; Steger 2008). It describes growing interactions
and connections across boundaries of time and space (Hopkins et al. 2001:3;
Steger 2008:11). As a result of these increased connections, governments, and
populations around the world have become more aware of gross global inequali-
ties. Processes of globalization have also aided in the creation of global coalitions
advocating for changes to global political and economic structures to address
these injustices (Steger 2008:205-206).
These processes of globalization have also contributed to the development of
an embryonic global identity or imaginary (Steger 2008:10-11). Religion, with
its transcendental focus, transnational quality, and emphasis on morals and val-
ues, has also formed an important part of this emergence of globality and com-
peting expressions of the global imaginary (Poethig 2002). Examples of such
transnational articulations of a global imaginary include rhetoric from terrorist
organizations like Al-Qaeda (Steger 2008:13), the Jubilee Debt Campaign,
which utilized religious principles, rhetoric and values to rally governments
around to world to cancel large sums of Third World Debt (Busby 2007) and

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 736 Beyond Dualism

implicitly religious language employed by pol

sizing common connections through peace
2007). Thus, processes of globalization are a
of religion and global justice and provide im
the discussion that follows.

Why Include Religion in Global Justice

The move to include religion in IR approaches to global justice is perhaps not
an immediately obvious one. The world's religions have been implicated in mass
injustices throughout history (Osiander 2000). As such, there is well-founded
resistance to the idea of including religious sensibilities in theoretical and practi-
cal initiatives in the pursuit of global justice. There is the potential that religion
may lead to prejudices that will hinder efforts toward global justice. Drawing on
arguments within liberalism, global justice theorists within IR may suggest that
the inclusion of religion in global justice activities will lead to discrimination
amongst religious groups toward one another, generating intolerance and
injustice.
It is difficult to determine what global justice theorists and practitioners in IR
may argue on this issue, however, given the small amount of attention that reli-
gion receives within global justice literature. As many authors have recently
noted (Fox 2001; Carlson and Owens 2003; Petito and Hatzopoulos 2003; Shah
2004:121; Hurd 2008), religion is an issue that has been largely overlooked in
IR. This neglect stems primarily from an assumption within the social sciences
that religion would decline in importance, ultimately disappearing from society
altogether (Weber 1946:139, 142-143; Shupe 1990:19; Fox 2001:54-55; Mendieta
2001:46; Elshtain 2003:ix).
But since the end of the Cold War, it has become gradually more obvious
that religion's presence in the social order is not vanishing as predicted. To
the contrary, its salience has grown, evidenced by examples such as the
important role played by the Catholic Church in the development of democ-
racy in Africa (Mitchell 2002) and communist Eastern Europe, especially
Poland (Philpott 2004:38); the controversy in France surrounding the wearing
of religious symbols, in particular the Islamic head scarf (Jones 2003); the ris-
ing political influence of religious lobby groups in Western states, such as
Australia and the United States of America (Parmet 1997:248-9; Wallis
2005:62-63); the growing visibility of religiously-motivated terrorist organiza-
tions such as Al-Qaeda and Jemaah Islamiya; the emergence of religious
nationalist movements in places such as Sri Lanka and India (Juergensmeyer
1993); the continued tensions between Catholics and Protestants in Northern
Ireland (Burleigh 2006); increased tendencies amongst Western politicians to
employ religious language and imagery in the service of a political agenda
(perhaps best illustrated by former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair and former
US President George W. Bush) (Wilson 2007), not to mention a host of other
conflicts and diplomatic incidents as well as more positive effects in areas of
equality and social justice.
There have been important contributions on religion in IR since the early
1990s. These range from discussions of foreign policy (Johnston and Sampson
1994), violence (Juergensmeyer 1993, 2000; Seul 1999; Fox 2002, 2004), conflict
resolution and peacebuilding (Appleby 2000; Abu-Nimer 2001), human rights
(Freeman 2004; An-Na'im 2005), IR theory (Philpott 2001; Carlson and Owens
2003; Petito and Hatzopoulos 2003; Thomas 2005) and democratic state-building
(Philpott 2004; Shah 2004). This research was and continues to be highly signifi-
cant in "bringing religion back in" to IR. Yet two key problems remain. Firstly,
despite this burgeoning literature on religion and IR, much of this work remains

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 Erin IC. Wilson 737

peripheral, published in lower-tie

practitioners. Secondly, many auth
gion. These publications brought r
to IR scholarship. A tendency re
institutions (Fox 2001), the relig
2007) and to "rationalize" religio
tional, communal and irrational
has mused recently whether scho
looked its fundamental contributi
unwilling to examine religion's ir
This suggests a deeply embedded
spiritual/transcendental aspects, w
to literature on global justice. How
from global justice literature sugg
IR theorists as an element in the
(2003:243) has pointed out, for a t
able, it cannot exclude any grou
ments and experiences of religi
incorporated into global justice
considered just.
Secondly, religion is already imp
in IR. Discussions of global justice
been influenced by religious value
Thomas Aquinas (Maclntyre 1988
Cahill 2006). Further, cosmopolita
bal justice, is part of the liberal
exclude religion, many of the cor
developed directly out of relig
These include, but are not limited to: freedom (Locke [1689] 1965:172-173;
Skinner 1978:11, 14), tolerance (Geuss 2001:74), the rule of law (Luther [1523]
1974: 55-56; Skinner 1978:14; Asch 1997:20), individualism (Skinner 1978:11;
Ingersoll and Matthews 1986:27-28), the public/private divide (Locke [1689]
1965:172-3; Luther [1523] 1974) and liberalism's claims to universality (Saun-
ders 1997:12).
Thirdly, religion encompasses a range of ideas and practices that can be used
as resources in the pursuit of global justice. The majority of religions contain jus-
tifications for placing value upon the human being and their lived experiences.
Jewish, Christian, and Muslim ethical traditions emphasize the sacredness of the
human experience by highlighting the relationship of the human being to God,
either as made in the image of God or as representing God on earth (Johnson,
Jung, and Schweiker 2006:6-10; Lorenzen 2006:204). Buddhism holds that indi-
viduals should refrain from causing unnecessary suffering to other living beings.
"Suffering" encompasses pain (both physical and emotional) and death (Reilly
2003:119). The Hindu notion of ahimsa or harmlessness promotes a similar ethic
(Polinska 2007:89). Further, in the Hindu belief system, all human beings are
divine and it is through ignorance of this divinity that we commit crimes against
one another (Hindu Council of Australia 2009).
These five religious traditions also contain notions of compassion and action
on behalf of the poor and oppressed of society. Buddhism urges its followers to
"liberate all beings" which, as Jones (1989:194) points out, in this present day

3 Philpott (2002:69) points out that between 1980 and 1999, only six articles on religion appeared out of a pos-
sible 1,600 in four leading IR journals {International Organization, International Studies Quarterly, World Politics, and
International Security). A database search of these four journals between 1999 and 2009 yields similar results, listing
only seven articles specifically on religion and/or secularism between 1999 and 2009.

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 738 Beyond Dualism

4 'implies a concern for changing the social c

comfit us." Within modern Hinduism, predom
Gandhi, action on behalf of the poor is expre
4 'insistence on truth" (Madan 2003:59) .4 I
beings His Vicegerents on earth so that they
passion found in the very nature of God H
and Christian scriptures contain numerous ve
and action on behalf of the poor, widows,
responsible stewardship over the earth's resou
ish, Christian, Islamic, Buddhist, and Hindu r
Dean, Schaffner, and Smith 2006:15-16). Thes
a significant contribution to environmental jus
Further, a large number of religious NGOs c
toward achieving global justice. Catholic Relie
International Justice Mission, Muslim Aid, Je
Development Association, Hindu Aid, Sewa Int
vak Sangh (Clarke 2006:839) are all religious a
that work for positive change with some of t
munities throughout the world. These organiz
tures and/or traditions as the motivating ph
they do.
Another example of religious actors contributing to global justice practice is
the Jubilee Debt Campaign. This campaign is based explicitly on the principle of
the year of Jubilee found in the Jewish scriptures and the Christian Old Testa-
ment (Leviticus 25: 9-13). Given this extensive range of theoretical and practical
resources that can be employed in the pursuit of global justice, it seems counter-
productive to exclude religion from discussions of global justice in IR. Yet this
continues to be the case.
I do not wish to suggest that religion should be the central justification for
global justice theory and practice. Such a position would involve moving from
one extreme, the neglect of religion, to another, an overvaluing of religiou
influence in this area. Yet a position somewhere between these two extremes is
needed. Religion has and continues to influence theories and practices of justice
and global justice. Nonetheless, IR scholars rarely acknowledge this connection.
This epistemological "blindness" presents two problems. Firstly, it fails to
acknowledge the potential for implicit religious biases in current approaches to
global justice within IR. Hurd (2008) has identified this in her analysis of th
dominance of secularism in IR scholarship. Hurd (2008:31-44) highlights tha
the two principal forms of secularism in IR, Judeo-Christian secularism and lai
cite, are both indebted to and continue to be influenced by the Judeo-Christian
tradition. Thus, despite the predominant secularism and silence on religion in
global justice literature in IR, there is a strong possibility that religion, in partic
lar the Judeo-Christian tradition, influences approaches to global justice, albeit
through implicit, culturally embedded assumptions.

4 Hinduism is problematic, because it is essentially the religion of caste (Madan 2003:56) and thus prescribes
the oppression of certain groups in a society by others. Gandhi's expression of Hinduism, however, rejected th
idea of caste discrimination, and in particular sought to eradicate the Dalit or "Untouchable" caste (Mada
2003:59). Gandhian Hinduism has also profoundly impacted nonviolent social justice campaigns, most notably th
civil rights movement in the United States in the 1960s. These practices have also influenced global justice cam
paigns, such as the Jubilee 2000 debt relief campaign (Busby 2007). Thus, a strong connection exists between Hin
duism and ideas associated with the pursuit of global justice.
5 See, for example, Proverbs 14:31, Proverbs 21:15, Isaiah 61:8, Hosea 12:6, Amos 5:24, Micah 6:8, Matthe
12:20; and II Corinthians 9:9. All Biblical references and quotations are taken from the Amplified Bible, unless
otherwise indicated.

6 I acknowledge, however, that these ideas have also been used throughout history to justify human dominance
over non-human species and the exploitation of natural resources.

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 Erin K. Wilson 739

A second epistemological probl

edge and explore the connection
traditions, IR theorists and pract
insights from religion that coul
address global injustice.
These two problems regarding
not, however, the only problem
Exploring religion's continued ex
lights other limitations. I sugg
understandings of and efforts t
exclusion of religion.

The Problem of Dualism

Dualism, or dichotomous thinking, is a dominant tendency in Western thoug

language, and academic traditions. Dichotomous thinking works to separate co
cepts that often exist in symbiotic relationships. While this epistemology prov
scholars with a useful means to make sense of the world, in many cases it als
results in hierarchical privileging of certain characteristics, events, and repres
tations of history being valued over others. Kristeva (1986:49) refers to this
"monological discourse," a discourse in which one object, experience, or p
spective is presented as the only object, experience or perspective. ''Structura
dyads," such as "high and low, birth and agony, food and excrement, praise a
curses, laughter and tears" (Kristeva 1986:49), reason and emotion, man a
woman, mind and body, politics and religion, are not valued equally in monol
ical discourse. Instead, they are established in linguistic and epistemological h
archies. These hierarchies lead to high, birth, food, praise, laughter, rea
man, mind, and politics being openly discussed and valued, while low, ago
excrement, curses, tears, emotion, woman, body and religion are either exclu
or denigrated as "bad" within monological discourse.
Western scholarly thinking has been predisposed to interpret history, socie
and world politics through the use of such "structural dyads" or "bipolar opp
sites" (Bleiker 2001:181). Some IR scholars have noted how these dualistic oppo
sitions have affected understandings of world politics through subordination
certain contrasting elements. Walzer (2004) has highlighted this tendency in
context of liberal politics, specifically with reference to reason and passion. P
sion is separated from and subordinated to reason (Walzer 2004:122). Femi
authors in and outside of IR emphasize how these "conceptual dichotomie
have been used to describe differences between men and women and in m
cases to subordinate women to men (Tickner 1998:431, 2006:387; Prokhovnik
2003). As Gatens (1991:93) has observed, dichotomies are not neutral ways of
dividing up the world, but instead contain "implicit assumptions that assign a
prominence and a dominant value to the term in the position A at the expense
of not-A." Postmodern IR scholars, such as Ashley (1989:261), argue that the use
of these practical oppositions is a central component of the modern discourse, a
discourse that is heavily indebted to liberalism. In viewing the world through
these practical oppositions, one side of each opposition becomes privileged and
the other is subordinated. These relationships of privilege and subordination are
managed in Western society by the public/private divide. Privileged concepts are
situated in the public realm, while subordinate terms are privatized.

Dualism and Global Justice in IR

Within IR, justice has been considered a primarily domestic internal state con-
cern. Building on existing theories of justice going as far back as Aristotle in

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 740 Beyond Dualism

Ancient Greece, IR scholars have focused on th

tice within the polis or state that manages rel
relationships amongst states within the inter
state as the principle unit of international ju
discussions on global justice and is associate
Contractarianism draws largely on the work of R
It assumes that states have the right to determ
which justice will operate within its borde
this argument in The Law of Peoples, Rawls (
tice referred to relationships among states. T
tional justice treats states as the primary ref
2005:113, 120; Patomäki 2006:102).
IR theory has predominantly upheld the R
international level. Dominant theories within IR - realism, liberalism and more
recently constructivism - view states as the primary actors in world politics (Bull
1972; Wendt 1992). Prevailing theories of international justice in IR also pertain
primarily to states, in particular, focusing on just practices in warfare (Best
1995). Questions of international justice within IR are also closely linked with
questions of international order. A perennial debate within IR is whether ques-
tions of justice are more important than questions of order (Bull 1966, 1995;
Vincent 1990; Harris 1993; Patomäki 2006:104). This question has gained
increased saliency in recent times with the growing incidence of military humani-
tarian intervention in world politics (Holzgrefe 2003).
Alongside these discussions, cosmopolitans have advocated the idea of "glo-
bal" justice7 in opposition to "international" justice. The shift in terminology
signals a theoretical move beyond a focus on states and recognition of the practi-
cal consequences of globalization that have led to more interconnections
between individuals and communities not restricted by spatial and territorial
boundaries (O'Neill 2000:115; Schweiker 2004:19; Steger 2005).
Processes of globalization have heightened the sense of interdependence
across the globe and raised questions about justice not confined within state bor-
ders nor limited to political and juridical issues of justice (Schweiker 2004:18).
Human rights discourse has made the rights of individuals at an international
level increasingly important, though there is still much debate over which rights
are important and who holds responsibility for them (Nagel 2005). Systemic
injustices that contribute to poverty are also being more closely scrutinized as a
result of the economic interconnections generated through processes of global-
ization (Kokaz 2007). It is in this context that IR theorists and practitioners have
begun to debate the concept of global justice as a means of addressing global
inequalities.
Many recent scholars on the issue of global justice focus on the legal, moral
and, theoretical arguments that provide justification for the pursuit of global jus-
tice (Caney 2006:121; for example, see Erskine 2002; Mertens 2005; Nagel 2005).
The impact of dualism can be seen within debates between cosmopolitan and
communitarian or political justice theorists (Nagel 2005). Crudely summarized,
cosmopolitans argue that universal standards of justice should apply to individu-
als the world over, while communitarians argue that standards of justice are par-
ticular and apply primarily to communities. This demonstrates the influence of
dualism on approaches to global justice, engendering "either/or" thinking on

7 Even the choice of "global" is fraught with problems. O'Neill (2000:115) prefers "transnational" justice,
which suggests "relations of justice that cross boundaries, that are not confined within any one set of states or insti-
tutions." Yet O'Neill also admits she uses this term with misgivings. "Transnational" still positions nation-states as
central to discussions. "Global" is a far less dear term, yet in many ways this is its strength. "Global" allows for
change and fluidity which I propose as central to processes of global justice and integral to a relational dialogist
understanding of global justice.

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 Erin IL Wilson 741

key issues, namely whether stan

whether these standards apply to

Universal vs Particular

There is ongoing debate in world politics over whether universal moral values
exist or whether moral values are culturally contingent, with implications for glo-
bal justice theory and practice. The contested nature of universality is summed
up succinctly by Jacques Maritain, a French Catholic theologian involved in the
United Nations Economic, Social and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Com-
mittee on the Theoretical Bases of Human Rights associated with the drafting of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (Glendon 2001:51). When
a visitor to the committee expressed astonishment that so many different cul-
tures and religious traditions could reach universal consensus on a vast number
of ethical issues, Maritain commented 'Tes, we agree on these rights, providing
we are not asked why. With the 'why,' the dispute begins" (Brink 2003:17; empha-
sis in original). The rights included in the UDHR were held to be universal, but
their justification was and continues to be highly particular. It is perhaps the
dilemma over the justification of the rights rather than the rights themselves that
has led to charges of the UDHR being highly Western and a form of Western
imperialism (Glendon 2001:223-233; Schweiker 2004:28).
In global justice literature, the universal/particular debate is seen in compet-
ing cosmopolitan and communitarian views on the issue of rights. Cosmopolitans
hold that there are rights that apply to all individuals regardless of political or
cultural context, that is, universal rights (Erskine 2002:458; Nagel 2005:119).
Communitarians, by contrast, hold that individuals are granted certain rights on
the basis of the political and/or cultural community they belong to, that rights
are particular to cultural, political, and historical context. Communitarians
acknowledge that there may be rights that are common across a range of differ-
ent contexts and communities but the justifications for these rights will be highly
specific (Jung 2006) . Thus, trying to establish a universal standard of rights and
responsibilities applicable in all contexts is highly problematic.

Individuals vs Communities

The debate over universal or particular standards intersects with another

dilemma within global justice literature regarding the suitable referent for global
justice. A central point of disagreement in relation to the UDHR, for instance,
has been that these rights pertain primarily to individuals, whereas African and
Asian voices argue that the community is just as important, if not more so, than
the individual in these political and cultural contexts (Gaete 1999:196-197) .8
Even in mainstream IR literature on global justice, there is significant dis-
agreement between cosmopolitan and communitarian authors over whether the
individual or the community should be the principal focus of global justice.
Another dilemma associated with this issue is how to define community. Typi-
cally, the community is associated with the state in modern IR (Thompson 2003;
Nagel 2005). Yet scholars increasingly recognize that communities in modern
world politics are often transnational and not tied to a specific territory (Erskine
2002). These communities form along different bases of identity from traditional

8 Glendon (2001) has demonstrated that community responsibilities and duties are as influential in the UDHR
as individual political and civil rights, that are more traditionally thought of as "Western." Glendon (2001) also
makes clear that the drafting of the UDHR involved representatives and influences from numerous different coun-
tries, religions, cultures and ethnicities. Her book directly addresses and for the most part refutes the charges of
Western bias that have frequently been leveled against the UDHR.

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742 Beyond Dualism

nation-states and may be religious, ethnic, a

emergence of a global civil society and the n
nity" only add to the debate around who or
for global justice.

Theory vs Experience

These (and other) theoretical questions are

mely complex, given the immense amount
have built up around these issues over time.
aspects of global justice reflects a broader, m
approaches to global justice in IR. It suggests
lic debates about the universal common good
ences that include emotional and spiritual ra
discussions. Recent development literature
experience and of acknowledging and valuing
retical and practical approaches to develo
abstract rational principles (Velasco 1996;
2006).
This emphasis on the voices and experiences
tributing element to development theory an
and practices in the pursuit of global justice
ences of justice and injustice allows those wh
to be heard, to have their desires and aspira
contribute to goals within the pursuit of
"objectively" what justice is and what it look
an experience as well as principles and the
from injustice to say what justice for them w
feel like. This requires expanding the focu
from a preoccupation with theory (the "rati
the experience of justice, including its em
(the "irrational") components. Several dev
World Bank, have recently taken a more col
and included input from poor individuals an
implementation of development programs
ment of individuals and communities in l
replicated in approaches to global justice.

Dualism and Religion

The limiting effects of dualism are not re
within IR. Attitudes to religion within IR sch
ism. Approaches to religion within IR, I ar
mies. These dichotomies relate to how schola
politics and society. Perceptions of religion's
vant scholars consider religion to be in IR
institutional/ideational, individual/communal
The first of these dichotomies relates to re
as a set of ideas. Religion, I propose, is both
or the other. The overall tendency within IR
tional aspects of religion. The institutional e
tangible, and thus, easier to examine, in con
ences, which are more subtle, implicit, and
institutions is more common in the Jude
the West. Other religions, such as Buddhi

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 Erin li. Wilson 743

organized institutional structure

Judaism, and to a lesser extent,
tional element of religion, coupl
the international level public/p
why religion, particularly its ide
lic international debates such as
The second dichotomy revolves
individuals or to communities.
found in global justice. As with
argue that religion's influence o
Up until the end of the Cold Wa
ence of religion functioned prim
(see, for example, Little and Sm
from the public sphere. Only in
consider religion's influence o
1974). Although recent literatur
munal influence, this has been
developing communities. Rarely
gion within the West or within
ing global identity.
The third dichotomy involves r
whelmingly, IR scholarship has v
over from the influence of liber
ally. This liberal influence on I
relevant only to analyses of *
other ''irrational" factors such a
regarded as peripheral to IR. Th
highly contested and variable,
7-8; Wendt 1996:62). Consequen
have also been excluded from m
of the Cold War, greater effort
ethnicity, culture, identity, relig
Hutchison 2008). Yet this liter
within the burgeoning research
nationalism, conflict, and terror
Fox 2004) . This emphasis reinfo
and the need to exclude religion
and intolerance it generates whe
IR scholars have made little effo
public international debates such

Beyond Dualism
Moving beyond the limiting eff
tice and religion requires a mode
excluded aspects of these two i
ments of global justice and the i
religion). Such an alternative mod
nize that these elements do not e

9 The irrational/rational dichotomy is prob

perspective, irrational refers to any concept, b
faith. Rational connotes principles and ideas j
had their origin in religion (Arblaster 1984:79
part of how religion has been understood and

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 744 Beyond Dualism

changes in different contexts. Drawing on in

gism and Prokhovnik (2003) on relational t
dualism that highlights the interconnections
gion and global justice.
The Bakhtinian notion of dialogism high
ideas, emphasizing fluidity and change, rath
40). In Kristeva's analysis, dialogism is both
The text is telling a story, describing a serie
with texts and events that have come before and will come after. Kristeva
(1986:39) refers to this as intertextuality. The aim of dialogism, she arg
not to arrive at a finite point of understanding and definition, but t
"toward harmony, all the while implying an idea of rupture (of oppositi
analogy) as a modality of transformation" (Kristeva 1986:58). This approa
ognizes that ideas are constantly developing and changing. Changes
through interactions with other ideas within and across texts and hi
events. There will be moments of agreement and "harmony" about what
mean and what their implications are for analysis and for broader societ
dialogism highlights that such moments are not conclusive. There is alw
possibility of shifts and changes in ideas and how they interact, how te
municate with each other and with broader society.
Dialogism suggests that religion understood as institutional, individ
irrational and as irrelevant to public issues such as politics and global jus
not a fixed permanent definition, but one that will shift through inter
with other ideas. Thus, dialogism refracts our established understandings
gion and global justice. In Kristeva's articulation, dialogism represents a
tion of constant rupture, with few moments of agreement or fixity. This
is somewhat debilitating. Prokhovnik's (2003) model of relational thinkin
vides one means of moving forward from this point. Understanding con
existing in relationships provides a way for managing these concepts an
them in practice, all the while remembering that the meaning associated
these terms are infinite and open to change. Using the relational t
model, connections amongst ideas are understood in much the same way
tionships amongst people, an ever-present, constant component of societ
always containing possibilities for change and a level of uncertainty.
Dualism endeavors to remove this uncertainty, to establish fixed under
ings of particular ideas. As part of this process, dualism separates concep
in fact exist in close relationship with each other. In separating the publi
from the private, man from woman, reason from emotion, politics from
dualism disguises the relationship between each of these dichotomous pa
that is integral to their definition. "Woman" is central to definitions of
"emotion" is central to definitions of "reason," and so on. The two c
are intimately and interdependent^ connected. In contrast to dualism, Pr
nik (2003:14) highlights that relational thought seeks to emphasize the c
tions that exist within these dichotomous pairings, arguing that th
numerous "intellectual and social benefits" in recognizing the relationsh
are present both within and across existing dualisms. In contrast to d
restrictive "either/or" pattern, relational thought proposes a "bot
approach, assisting transcendence of barriers established across existing d
As an example, dominant dualistic thinking has separated "man"
"woman," placing "man" in the privileged position and "woman" in
ordinated position. In doing so, "man" has become associated with th
nant attributes of other dichotomies and "woman" has become linked with the
subordinated elements. Thus, "man" is positioned in the public sphere and
connected to reason and the mind, while "woman" is positioned in the private
sphere and associated with emotion and the body. In contrast to these stark

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 Erin K. Wilson 745

divisions, relational thought p

"Man" is affiliated with emotio
and the mind, as well as the traditional established associations of "man" with
reason and the mind and "woman" with emotion and the body (Prokhovnik
2003).
Prokhovnik's model translates easily to religion and global justice. Justice has
been situated within the public sphere of domestic state societies and the public
international sphere. Religion has, since the Peace of Westphalia, been a private
state affair, and within states has been a private individual affair (Thomas 2000).
As such, dualistic thinking has separated global justice and religion. Within glo-
bal justice, the rational, theoretical aspects of justice have been separated from
the emotional, spiritual, experiential aspects. Within religion, the institutional,
individual, and irrational elements of religion have been separated from its idea-
tional, communal, and rational elements. Relational thought enables recognition
of relationships amongst these traditionally separated aspects of global justice
and religion.
Combining Kristeva's (1986) interpretation of dialogismi and Prokhovnik's
(2003) model of relational thought develops a framework that acknowledges con-
nections amongst elements in global justice and religion that are not fixed, but
are fluid, shifting and changing as they interact with each other, with other
ideas, other texts, and with people's practical experiences, past, present and
future. This opens up possibilities for developing innovative ways to approach
problems of global injustice in both theory and practice. Thus, relational dia-
logism proposes a "both/and" model of thinking that differs from dualism's
"either/or" pattern. A "both/and" approach opens up ways for addressing
shortcomings in current approaches to global justice and for including religion
within these approaches.

Relational Dialogism, Religion, and Global Justice in a Practical Context

In this final section of the article, I discuss recent global examples to demon-
strate how relational dialogist understandings of religion and global justice can
contribute to overcoming challenges facing global justice theorists and practitio-
ners. I outline examples relating to the three traditional dichotomies within glo-
bal justice: theory and experience, individuals and communities, universal and
particular values.

Theory and Experience

Relational dialogism helps to emphasize the emotional, experiential, and spiri-

tual aspects of global justice that development theorists have been promoting.
Velasco (1996), Nandy (2002), Thomas (2004), and St. Clair (2006) all note that
the experiences of the world's poor are often marginalized in dominant develop-
ment theory and practice. Individuals, workers, families, and communities most
heavily impacted by the inequalities that global justice theory focuses on are fre-
quently objectified, viewed as passive participants in development processes that
take place around them. While some efforts have been made to include perspec-
tives from poor communities (Blackmon 2008), such efforts are frequently toke-
nistic and do not place sufficient emphasis or value upon the lived experiences
and the emotional and spiritual effects of these experiences on the people
within these communities.
McDuie-Ra and Rees (2008) note that international financial institutions
(IFIs), such as the World Bank, generally engage with formalized faith-based
organizations (FBOs). Such formalized FBOs are usually based in Northern
countries or are based in the South but run by staff trained in the North.

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746 Beyond Dualism

This means the FBOs' approach to developm

the approaches of IFIs and less likely to ch
opment strategies. These strategies rely h
objectivity, rather than the less tangible ele
such as emotions, relationships, spiritualit
Clarke (2006) highlights that IFIs are more
for development with FBOs affiliated wit
Church institutions, than to engage with in
atives, particularly those from non-Christia
limited definition of religion focusing on
with religious actors. It also suggests that IF
their approach to development, rather th
with the everyday experiences and emotions
ing to assist. This traditional approach fr
IFIs and local communities over developm
poverty. Examples of such contested pro
World Bank and Asian Development Bank
Mindanao region of the Philippines in the
obson 2007) and World Bank-influenced d
2006).
A relational dialogism approach to global
ing theory and experience. Such a strategy w
institutionalized religious groups. Less-for
reflect more closely the desires of populatio
communities, rather than the perspectives o
would also require a relational dialogist unde
that institutions are only one component of
ation religion's ideational and communal el
gious actors and groups that more closely re
and desires of populations in poor and dev
able to create development projects that com
jects that meet with opposition. The signific
religious groups in the protest actions ag
ject (Holden and Daniel Jacobson 2007) an
(McCormick 2006:331) support this conclusio

Individuals and Communities

Relational dialogism recognizes relationships that exist between individuals

within a community, with individuals and the broader community they belong to
and interconnections between individuals in one community and another com-
munity to which they do not belong or to which they belong involuntarily and
without the ability to impact the values and identity that shape such a commu-
nity. Examples of such situations in current global politics abound, including
small farm holders in the United States, Mexico, and Canada sent out of busi-
ness as a result of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
(McMichael 2004:175-176) and populations in Africa and India who starve as a
result of inflated food prices, controlled by privately owned multinational corpo-
rations or influenced by trade agreements between national governments
(McMichael 2004:203-204). The individuals and communities most affected by
these situations do not belong to the groups that made the agreements to begin
with (the global economic community and global political elite community), yet
must deal with the practical consequences of these decisions on a daily basis.
Dialogism enables recognition that these relationships are not fixed but are con-
stantly in flux, owing to continued interactions amongst ideas, history, events,

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 Erin K. Wilson 747

and experiences. In this way, r

and disenfranchised individuals and communities.
A relational dialogist understanding of global justice highlights previously over-
looked relationships of injustice across individuals and communities at a global
level. It enables recognition of elements within religion that contribute to heal-
ing individuals and communities through the repairing of relationships afte
injustice or harm has occurred, such as the negative impacts of NAFTA. Forgive-
ness and reconciliation, two concepts closely associated with the Judeo-Christian
and Buddhist traditions (Phan 2006), form an important part of peace-building
and community development in communities divided by prolonged violence and
injustice. Practitioners do not for the most part question the need for forgivenes
and reconciliation to take place in the rebuilding process (Chapman and Ball
2001:2), although intense disagreement exists concerning the best way for for-
giveness and reconciliation to occur (Chapman and Ball 2001; Doxtader 2001)
The success of forgiveness and reconciliation as intangible attitudes as well a
practical methods for community rebuilding and healing after injustice has
occurred is perhaps best demonstrated in the example of South Africa. At the
nation-wide, community and individual levels, churches and religious leaders in
South Africa played a substantial role in promoting forgiveness and reconcilia-
tion and thus aiding South Africa to move from apartheid to constitutiona
democracy (Doxtader 2001; Ganiel 2007).
The current situation in Iraq offers another opportunity in which the use of
religious concepts such as forgiveness and reconciliation could promote commu-
nity rebuilding and development toward democracy. There are also several areas
in which employing relational dialogism could contribute to democratic state
building in Iraq. The long histories of oppression within Iraq and conflict across
religious groups suggests that little will be achieved in the way of establishing a
stable democratic community until these past grievances are dealt with (Byman
2003). Current approaches to peace-building efforts in Iraq focus on these divi-
sions and the seemingly intractable historical conflicts that exist across the differ
ent ethnic and religious groups within Iraq (Byman 2003; Katz 2006). Relational
dialogism does not view these identities as fixed, however, but allows for the rec-
ognition of points of connection. Byman (2003:53) notes that there is a lack of
''cross-cutting" identities within Iraq. Individuals tend to identify themselves pri-
marily with one ethnic group and ignore all other potential identities, such as
class, political interests and gender. This situation is a substantial hindrance to
the establishment of democracy in Iraq (Byman 2003:53). A relational dialogist
approach, however, would view this situation as temporary and work to promot
cross-cutting identities along the lines of class, political interests, gender and
other avenues. Relational dialogism would also allow for the recognition of simi-
larities and points of connection across divided religious communities, such as
Sunni and Shi'a Muslims, highlighting areas of agreement, as well as disagree
ment. Even the use of forgiveness and reconciliation could promote greater
understanding and acceptance across the divided communities in Iraq, highlight-
ing shared experiences of oppression and injustice at different points through-
out Iraq's history.
The use of forgiveness and reconciliation in conflict resolution efforts points
to the potential success of employing similar approaches in the pursuit of global
justice, encouraging the seeking and granting of forgiveness amongst individuals
and transnational communities at a global level where injustice has been caused
through historical processes and global economic and political structures (Vol
2000; Schweiker 2004:32). Global justice theorists and activists could explore the
use of principles of forgiveness and reconciliation at a global level to heal rela-
tionships between developing countries and their former colonial powers,
between global North and global South countries, between individuals negatively

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748 Beyond Dualism

affected by the decisions of global political

tionships where significant divisions exist
unjust circumstances.

Universal and Particular

Employing relational dialogist understandings of both global justice and religion

also opens up avenues for reconciling universal and particular moral values,
allowing these elements to co-exist in global justice theory and practice. Religion
offers one means of addressing the problem identified by Jacques Maritain of
answering "why." Religion can translate universal values into particular contexts
by providing culturally and contextually appropriate justifications. The Buddhist
ecology movement in Thailand offers an example of this. Buddhist monks
employ Buddhist beliefs and rituals to promote the national and global goal of
environmental preservation and sustainability within local communities (Darling-
ton 1998). In Burkina Faso, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, international NGOs
are using connections with local religious communities to promote alternative
approaches for addressing the HIV and AIDS pandemic in these countries
(Marshall and Taylor 2006).
Conversely, religion can also translate particularist moral standpoints into prin-
ciples that may be universally accepted (Schweiker 2004:28). Religion is able to
provide this conduit because religion itself is both universal and particular. Reli-
gions, despite being different ethical, historical, and transcendental belief sys-
tems, are not necessarily incommensurable, as many secular global justice
theorists, cosmopolitan and communitarian alike, assume. Religions can in fact
be seen as "resourceful witnesses that attest to shared human experience" (Jung
2006:204). The commonalities across religions suggest what principles may be
appropriately included within a universal conception of global justice. Yet, the
differences between religions are also significant as they provide the resources
for justifying universal principles of global justice in particular cultural contexts.
Busby's (2007) analysis of the Jubilee 2000 campaign on debt relief provides
an example where religion both translates a particular value into a universal con-
text and universal values into particular contexts. The Jubilee debt campaign uti-
lized a specific, particular religious principle from the Judeo-Christian tradition,
the year of Jubilee, to promote a universal global justice agenda for the cancella1
tion of Third World debt. This demonstrates how particular religious values can
be translated into universally acceptable principles. On the other hand, by fram-
ing the issue of debt relief in religious terms, campaigners in the United States
were able to generate significant grassroots support and lobbying action for
international debt relief (Busby 2007:266). The framing of debt relief in reli-
gious terms also assisted in gaining support from significant political "gatekeep-
ers," who could support or veto bills in Congress on the debt relief issue, such
as Senators Jesse Helms and Spencer Bachus (Busby 2007:268).

Conclusion

Global justice literature in IR has predominantly focused on theoretical, lega

and moral arguments in debating the most appropriate models and frameworks
for working toward global justice. However, such an approach demonstrates the
influence of dualism. It excludes the emotional, spiritual and experiential
aspects of global justice, elements traditionally considered to be "irrational,
from the "rational" concerns of legal, theoretical and moral debates. Specifi
cally, such a limited focus excludes the desires of disenfranchised individual
and communities from discussions of global justice, the people whom globa
justice theorists seek to represent. Further, dualism has affected debates within

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 Erin li. Wilson 749

global justice literature, concern

it must be particular to specific c
ate referents for global justice ar
Religion has traditionally been
around global justice owing to lib
and intolerance. Yet, as this artic
premised on a limited understan
ing. Religion has predominantly
irrational, locating it with the ot
most part excluded from global
religion is also influenced by dua
nal and rational elements. Dualist
both global justice and religion,
secular and religious global justice
to repair injustice.
Overcoming the limitations of
moves beyond dualism's "either/
and subordinates another. Pro
instead a "both/and" model of
traditionally separated and sub
also has the capacity to emphasiz
pairs while highlighting the im
ideas and practices. Combining r
pretation of dialogism highlight
stantly shift and change as each
and influenced by other ideas, ev
cit in relational dialogism is an
experiential elements of the fo
integral part of any relationship.
Applying relational dialogism to
understandings of both. Global j
ciples and emotional and spiritua
experiences. Global justice can f
and particular and applying to in
are transnational and not territor
tional political communities, su
tional, ideational, individual, communal, irrational, and rational. Connections
amongst all the elements within and across both global justice and religion are
revealed through the application of relational dialogism. Resources within reli-
gion can then be mobilized to translate universal values to particular contexts
and cultural settings and to encourage the pursuit and experience of justice at
both individual and community levels. Global justice is a complex, multi-faceted
issue requiring inclusive, creative, and long-term approaches in its pursuit. Rela-
tional dialogist understandings of both global justice and religion create oppor-
tunities for exploring and developing creative, innovative approaches, and
resources for overcoming global inequalities and injustice.

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