AUTOMATION AND LOCALIZATION OF A ROBOTIC CAR

Michelle M. Santos 1, Elias José R. Freitas, Matheus N. W. Vinti, Paulo Iscold, Leonardo A. B. Torres,
Guilherme A. S. Pereira

Grupo de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento de Veículos Autônomos – PDVA,

Escola de Engenharia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais,
Belo Horizonte, MG, 31270-010 Brazil.
1
michelle@cpdee.ufmg.br

Abstract: The development of a vehicular robotic platform
equipped with in-house-built drive-by-wire system is
presented. Different sensor fusion algorithms and sensors
configurations, used to estimate the vehicle trajectory, were
tested. It is shown that the best configuration was achieved
with acceleration, steering wheel angle, and GPS
measurements.
Keywords: Localization, Autonomous Vehicle, Robotics.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the Mobile Robots field, several research groups have
been focused on the development of autonomous vehicles.
Following these efforts, the Research and Development of
Autonomous Vehicles Group (PDVA), from UFMG, works
in a project which aims to develop a robotic platform based
on a standard automobile. Besides achieving the final goal
of having an autonomous vehicle, several sub products, such
as driver assistant systems and safety equipments, may be
generated during the project development.
This article presents the current development of the
platform, by presenting all the developed hardware,
including driving, braking, and acceleration mechatronic
systems, and shows a combination of Kalman Filter-like
techniques and different models to robot pose estimation.
The development of a car which contains automated
functions may contributes in many applications such as
safety, by, for example, the design of systems able to detect
danger situations and warn the driver; comfort, by
facilitating the driving or by informing the localization of
the vehicle in a map to the driver; or accessibility, by
helping people who have special needs. The car endowed
with instrumentation and control systems may also be used
as an educational environment for teaching robotics and
control.
Research and development of autonomous vehicles is
rising in many universities through the world. Some
initiatives, like the DARPA Grand Challenge, aim to
increase the advances in this area. This competition was
created in 2003 with the objective to show that computer
controlled vehicles can cover a significant distance without
human intervention. The three DARPA Grand Challenges
organized until now have provided several advances on the
robotics science.
One of the cars that participated of the 2007 DARPA
Grand Chalenge, which was an urban race, was the Stanford
University vehicle, named Junior [1]. Junior was developed
from a Passat Weagon 2006 and was equipped with a Global
Positioning System (GPS), an Inertial Navigation System
(INS), and steering encoders. It still had a group of laser
range finders capable of identifying landmarks on the
racecourse, increasing the precision of localization. The
sensor fusion algorithm used in the vehicle localization was
the UKF (Unscented Kalman Filter), which provides
information to the path planning system and to the control
system. The results on the challenges show the success of
the vehicle. Junior was the second place in the 2007
competition, and its “older brother”, Stanley won the first
place in the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge, which was a
off-road competition.
The localization task is one of the most important steps
in the autonomous vehicle development. It consists in
obtaining precise information about position and orientation
of the vehicle from noisy information provided by different
sensors, which can be redundant or complementary. To
combine the information provided by the sensors, some
techniques may be used. The most common ones are
recursive estimators, such as the Kalman Filter, the
Information Filter, or the Particle Filter and their variations
[2].
A very common set of sensors used in external
environments localization is composed by a GPS and an
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU). Along with [1], the works
developed by Caron et al and Zhou et al present examples of
systems with such a set of sensors [3] [4].
Another way to increase the precision in localization is
the use of computer vision to find and identify landmarks on
the environment. By using a camera attached to the vehicle
it is possible to know, for example, the relative pose
between the vehicle and the landmark, and, thus, assuming a
know landmark, the vehicle location. This technique was
used, for example, in [5].
The work of Roumeliotis and Bekey [6] describes a
implementation that combine the information of relative
sensors, like potentiometers that measure the wheels angle,
gyrometers and encoders with the information of a global
sensor which provides the vehicle orientation based on the
Sun position. The sensor fusion was made through the
Extended Kalman Filter algorithm (EKF) on a sequential
way, supplying the location system with information based
on the encoders when the robot does not see the Sun.

1
 AUTOMATION AND LOCALIZATION OF A ROBOTIC CAR
Michele M. Santos , Elias José R. Freitas, Matheus N. W. Vinti, Paulo Iscold, Leonardo A. B. Torres, Guilherme A. S. Pereira

The localization system presented in this work is based Gear Board

on the combination of GPS and IMU, as was done in [1],[3], Accelerator Board
and [4]. We are currently using the Extended Kalman Filter Steering Board
as [4] and [6], which inspired us to use the sequential
version of the filter to deal with the infrequent data from the
GPS sensor.
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 presents a
hardware description of the system formed by the vehicle,
sensors and actuators; Section 3 shows the localization task
based on sensor fusion with different models; and Section 4
presents the conclusion and future works. USB communication

2. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The car used is this work is a 2003/2004 Chevrolet
Astra, endowed with a system with hydraulic steering,
automatic gear, electronic accelerator, and ABS brake
controlled by electronic control units (ECU) and
interconnected by the CAN bus. These characteristics
facilitate the automation of the vehicle, as will be shown
next.
2.1. Actuators
The first stage of the project consists in installing the
devices that allow a computer to act, in real time, changing
the vehicle’s operational conditions.
The development of an in-house-built system was the
choice in this project since it significantly reduces the total
cost comparing with OEM parts designed for this purpose.
Another advantage is the development of an assembly that
fits to the specific needs of the project and that is adapted to
the car’s peculiarities. In order to improve safety and to
facilitate the test, the system was implemented in a way that
the driver may assume the control whenever is needed. Also,
each system is independent from each other so they can be
tested independent. Therefore, besides the the main switch
that disables the whole automatic system and allows the user
to drive manually, individuals switches for each actuator are
available.
The driver’s inputs in a car are received by the steering
wheel, pedals (clutch, brake and accelerator) and gear stick.
In this work, the vehicle’s transmission is automatic, so
there is no clutch pedal. The others commands were treated
individually and different solutions were developed for each
one as shown next.
2.1.1. Electronic Circuits for actuators control
A basic kit for the actuators control circuits was
developed, allowing faster implementations and making it
easy the modification of the circuits. It consists of two
printed circuit boards (PCB). The first one, shown in Figure
1, contains a Microchip PIC18F2455 microcontroller [7],
the basic circuit for the PIC's operation and a connector
which allow the main ports of the PIC available to be used
by an expansion board. In addition it enables the
communication between the computer and device through
an USB port. The second board is a double-sided universal
PCB, used for expansion circuits. Figure 2 shows it attached
to the microcontroller board. The circuit on this board will
be individual for each actuator.
Figure 1: PCB with the PIC18F2550 microcontroller.
Figure 2: Expansion PCB attached to PIC for accelerator control.
2.1.2. Accelerator
The accelerator hardware was designed using the PCB
kit described in the previous section. It simply replaces the
electric signal from the accelerator pedal by a filtered PWM
signal, sending it to the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) of
the vehicle.
The microcontroller receives the acceleration command
via USB communication and generates de PWM signal. A
switch was implemented to select two accelerator modes:
(1) manual mode: pedal signal is sent to the ECU and (2)
automatic mode: the acceleration is sent by the software.
For safety purposes, a watchdog timer was implemented
in the PIC. If any failure in the data transmission occurs
(e.g. shutdown in the host computer), the automatic
accelerator system will be disabled and the PIC will wait for
a new user connection. The manual mode (through pedal)
will be also enabled.
2.1.3. Gear Stick
A Warner Electric linear DC actuator equipped with a
potentiometer was attached to the gear stick to provide the
necessary displacement to change the driving modes
(neutral, park, forward and reverse). The actuator was
previously calibrated using its potentiometer, linking each
driving mode with its the respective position.
The driver circuit for this actuator was projected using
the basic kit of section 2.1.2. A LMD18245 full-bridge
power amplifier [8] was used to incorporate to the system all
the circuit blocks required to drive and control current in a
brushed type DC motor.
A PIC sends to the LMD18245 the direction and a PWM
signal to drive the motor. This information also came to the

2
microcontroller via through USB communication, but now,
the system also has push-buttons to manual control.
To ensure safety, an emergency button was added to the
system, which has priority over the other actions in this
driver. Each time it is pressed, the motor is immediately
locked in its actual position.
2.1.4. Steering
The steering actuation is also made by an electric DC
motor. Some experiments demonstrated that it was
necessary at least a 30Nm of torque to a turn the driving
system. A RE40 motor, from MAXON Motors was selected
to execute the task. The motor has a reduction and an
encoder which provides the control system with position
information. The driver used is an EPOS 24/5, also from
MAXON, which was considered the best choice for this
application. It was attached behind the steering wheel, and
the rotation is transmitted by gears and chain, with a ratio of
3:1. The EPOS allows the motor position, velocity, and
current control. The set points for these variables may come
from a computer through RS-232 serial communication.
2.1.5. Brake
The solution developed to the brake system was to act
directly in the brake pedal. A 12V motor and a gearbox were
used, and the rotational movement was transmitted to the
pedal by a lever. The result was the full capability of
braking, since the lever reached the pedal maximum travel.
The application was designed to accommodate the lever and
the driver’s foot in the same pedal, allowing the driver to
brake the car in emergency situations, which guarantees
safety in test stage.
It was implemented a motor command through PIC and
a power motor driver MD03 from Robot-Electronics [9].
The motor's power is controlled by using PWM signal at a
frequency of 15kHz.
This command allows the motor to turn in both
directions and the force applied to the brake pedal to be
controlled through current sense of MD03. The motor
direction, the PWM signal and the interface user-motor is
made on the PIC, which is also responsible for ensuring
security in emergency and failure situations.
2.1.6. Testing Software
All the microcontroller boards and the steering controller
were connected to a single laptop computer running
Windows Vista. A software was developed for testing
purposes, which enables the user to send commands to
actuators using a joystick. The software was built using
C++. The buttons on the joystick select the actuators and the
movement of the stick determines, for example, the position
of the steering wheel or the acceleration of the car.
If one of the actuators is not ready to receive data or if
one of the emergency buttons is pressed, the software aborts
the data transmission and notifies the user.
Figure 3 shows a picture of all the system as described
on the whole section 2.1.
3
Steering
Laptop computer
Switch Panel
Joystick
Gear Stick
Brake
Figure 3: The whole actuation system
2.2. Sensors
The vehicle perception of the environment is made
possible by several sensors. At this stage of development,
the system uses one absolute sensor, the GPS (Global
Positioning System) and some relative sensors, as described
next.
The GPS receiver is equipment that collects information
from geostationary satellites with known position. The
observer position (x,y,z) can be obtained from, at least, three
satellites. The quality of the measure is directly related with
the number of satellites which the receptor can see. This
number can vary between 0 and 12. So, in environments
where the view is damaged by obstacles, the measurement
of position by a GPS receptor may be impossible. The
receiver used here is the Garmin↧ GPS18. This instrument
outputs information with 1Hz sample rate and its precision
is 15m with 95% confidence interval. The GPS information
includes latitude and longitude, which is converted from
degrees to meters using the UTM coordinate system.
The vehicle used on this work is also equipped with a
IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit). This instrument outputs
linear acceleration, angular rate, gyro angle and magnetic
field by using accelerometers, gyroscopes and
magnetometer as sensors. The model used here is a
Crossbow↧ AHRS400CD.
The measurement of the driving angle is made by an
encoder attached to the actuation system, as mentioned
before. From this measure it is possible to obtain the
steering wheel angle through the path. It is important to
notice that this information is given by the actuation system,
having no necessity of any additional sensor.
In order to relate the encoder reading and the steering
angle, a calibration procedure was made. During this
procedure, the steering angle was measured on the both
front wheels. To obtain an equation which describes this
relation, it was used the mean of the two wheels, according
to the Ackerman model [9], which will be detailed on
section 3.1. Figure 4 shows the result of the calibration.
 AUTOMATION AND LOCALIZATION OF A ROBOTIC CAR
Michele M. Santos , Elias José R. Freitas, Matheus N. W. Vinti, Paulo Iscold, Leonardo A. B. Torres, Guilherme A. S. Pereira

Calibration Curve (Encoder X Steering Angle) x(k) = Ax(k - 1) + Bu(k - 1) + w(k - 1) , (1)
0.3

y(k) = Cx(k) + v(k) , (2)

0.2

where x(k) represents the state vector, u(k) represents the

0.1
inputs of the model, y(k) is the measurement vector, w(k)
Steering Angle (rad)

represents the process noise, and v(k) is the measurement

0
noise.
-0.1 The state transition matrix A may be, for example, given
by:
-0.2
 Px ( k ) Px (k − 1) + V( k − 1) cos(θ( k − 1)) ∆t 
-0.3
 P (k )   P ( k − 1) + V (k − 1)sen (θ(k − 1)) ∆t  , (3)
x (k ) =  y  =  y 
 V( k )   V ( k − 1) + A x (k − 1)∆t 
-0.4    
 θ( k )  θ( k − 1) + ω∆t
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
Encoder Reading 4  
x 10

where Px and Py are the vehicle position relative to a fixed

Fig. 4. Calibration Curve – Encoder Reading X Steering Angle reference frame, θ is the vehicle orientation, and V is the
robot velocity.
3. LOCALIZATION This model is very usefull to represent non-holonomic
The task of autonomous locomotion consists, basically, robots and is mainly suitable for differential driven robots,
in answering two important questions: What is the vehicle that can turn in place. For a car-like robot, an additional
real position (localization problem)? Where does it have to constraint on θ may be added to indicate that this behaviour
go (planning problem)? From the answers to these is impossible. A second model that includes the driving
questions, the control system can send command signals to angle is the Ackerman model [9]. With this model the
the actuation system which behaves in an appropriate way to vehicle is represented by a rectangular body over four
achieve the goal. wheels. The back wheels orientation is fixed in relation to
Therefore, the estimation of the vehicle position over the body and the front wheels are actuated by the driving
time, along with other states that are fundamental to system (Figure 6).
guarantee the control system performance, is one of the
most important steps to the robot autonomous locomotion.
The purpose of this section is to discuss the use of
different sensor fusion algorithms and different
mathematical models in order to fulfill this estimation task
with enough precision and adequate sampling frequency to
supply the control system with updated information.
3.1. Models
This subsection presents some dynamic models to the
movement of a car. These models can be used in a sensor
fusion algorithm for estimating the states of interest. The
models presented here are based on the coordinate system
showed in Figure 5.

Fig. 6. Ackerman Model

The Ackerman model represents the steering angle by a

virtual wheel, which is located midway between the two
front wheels. The virtual wheel angle is given by the mean
of the two front wheel angles. The wheelbase (L) should be
considered on the estimation of the vehicle orientation. The
state transition equation is showed on Eq. 4
Px ( k − 1) + V (k − 1) cos(φ( k − 1)) cos(θ( k − 1))∆t 
 P ( k − 1) + V (k − 1) cos(φ(k − 1))sen(θ(k − 1))∆t 
 y  . (4)
Fig. 5. Coordinate System on the Car x (k ) =  V (k − 1) + A x (k − 1)∆t 
 V 
All the models used in this work are discrete kinematic  θ(k − 1) + tan(φ) ∆t 
models of the form:  L 

4
 The models in Equations (3) and (4) were compared
experimentally on sensor fusion algorithms that used three
different combinations of models and sensors. These
combinations are showed on section 3.2.
3.2. Sensor Fusion Algorithms
One of the main challenges of mobile robots localization
task is to combine the information provided by different
sensors, with different properties, and different sampling
rates. The information fusion can be done by using various
techniques. One of them is the Kalman Filter. The Kalman
Filter (KF) is an optimal recursive algorithm to estimate
unknown states of a dynamic linear system from noisy
measurements (zero mean white noise) and a discrete linear
model of the system [10]. This model must be in form of
Equations (1) and (2), where x is the state vector, u is the
input vector, A, B and C are the model matrices. Variables w
and v are process and measurement noise respectively,
which are random, Gaussian, independent and zero mean
variables whose covariance matrices are Q and R.
From the model, the algorithm aims to minimize the
estimation root-mean-square error. The estimation algorithm
KF is, basically, formed by two steps: Prediction and
Update. On the prediction step, the states are calculated
from a discrete model, which uses an estimate obtained on
the previous timestep (k-1) to estimate the states on the
current timestep (k). The estimate obtained on the prediction
step is called a priori estimate. The update step considers
the a priori estimate, and the measurement vector to obtain a
new estimate, the a posteriori state estimate.
Since in this work we are dealing with a non-linear
model, it is necessary to use an approximation of the KF. As
a first approach we chose to use the Extended Kalman Filter
(EKF) with approximate the model by a linearization around
the current state.
3.3. Experiments
The two models in Section 3.1 were tested with some
combinations of sensors and models. The first combination
uses the kinematic model and the measures from GPS and
IMU. The acceleration in x direction and the angular rate
around z direction provided by the IMU are used as input of
the model. The position in x and y directions provided by
the GPS receiver are used in the update step. The input and
measurement matrices are then:
A ( k ) 
u (k ) =  x  , (5)
 ω(k ) 
PxGPS (k ) . (6)
y( k ) =  
PyGPS ( k ) 
The second configuration tested with the EKF uses
velocity information provided by the GPS receiver. The
model in Equation (3) was used, but the measurement vector
now contains one more data. The measurement vector is
5
presented in Equation (7) and the input equation is the same
of Equation (6).
PxGPS (k )
y(k ) = PyGPS (k )
(7)
 VGPS (k ) 
The third configuration tested involves the driving angle
measurement and the Ackerman model. The state transition
matrix was shown in Equation (4). The measurement vector
contains GPS measurements for position as in Equation (6).
The input vector brings data from IMU acceleration in x
direction and the driving angle, which is converted to the
virtual wheel angle by the calibration function.
3.4. Localization Results
The three configurations were tested offline by
reconstructing the vehicle trajectory, which was performed
as a closed loop in the UFMG Campus. The position (x,y)
was computed in all the configurations mentioned and their
efficiency was compared. To avoid GPS offset errors, the
first GPS measurement was considered to be (0,0).
The tests aim to answer two questions: Can the
algorithms provide to the system good information between
two successive GPS measurements? How long do the
algorithms estimate the vehicle trajectory with an
uncertainty smaller than that associated to the GPS
measurements, in the event of GPS loss?
To evaluate the algorithms performance it was computed
the trace of the covariance matrix associated to the estimated
position. This was compared to the trace of the GPS
measurement noise covariance matrix. The covariance
matrix of the estimated position error, when compared to the
GPS, indicates the degree of confidence in the estimated
position.
For all the configurations ellipses were plotted which
represents the covariance of GPS position measurement
error with a confidence level of 95%. An estimated
trajectory was plotted on Figure 7, to illustrate the general
procedure. If the computed trajectory is inside the ellipses, it
means that this estimation cannot be discarded as false. The
‘+’ points are the GPS measurements and the full line is the
estimated trajectory.
Configuration 1
-120
-140
-160
-180
-200
-220
-240
-260
-400 -350 -300 -250 -200
Fig. 7. Estimation, Ellipse and Measurement of GPS
 AUTOMATION AND LOCALIZATION OF A ROBOTIC CAR
Michele M. Santos , Elias José R. Freitas, Matheus N. W. Vinti, Paulo Iscold, Leonardo A. B. Torres, Guilherme A. S. Pereira

The first configuration produced a covariance matrix

120
trace smaller than the trace of the associated GPS
measurement error covariance matrix while the GPS signal Estimation
was considered to be available. The GPS measurements 100 GPS
were used with an update rate of 1Hz. The result of the first
configuration showed that IMU measurements suffer from 80
significant bias influence. Therefore, bias estimation became
necessary to improve the quality of the estimates. To solve 60
this problem two more pseudo-states, representing the bias
terms, were included on the state vector, as showed in
40
equation 8.
Px (k ) Px (k − 1) + V(k − 1) cos(θ(k − 1))∆t 20

Py (k ) Py (k − 1) + V (k − 1)sen (θ(k − 1))∆t

V (k ) V(k − 1) + A x (k − 1)∆t , (8) 0
x (k ) = = 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

θ( k ) θ(k − 1) + ω∆t
b Ax (k ) b Ax (k − 1) Fig. 9. Trace of covariance matrix associated to the position
estimation using the second configuration.
bω (k ) b ω (k − 1)

A typical result obtained for the trace of the estimation 120

covariance matrix with the first configuration and bias

estimation, considering full availability of GPS signal, is 100 Estimation
GPS
shown in Figure 8.
80
120

60
Estimation
100
GPS

40
80

20
60

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
40

20 Fig. 10. Trace of covariance matrix associated to the position

estimation using the third configuration.

0 The obtained results have shown that:

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

• configuration 1 was able to endure GPS failure for

Fig. 8. Trace of covariance matrix associated to the position estimation using
the first configuration.
The second configuration was made with the same
dynamic model, but increasing the measurement model with
another equation corresponding to GPS velocity
measurement. It was verified that the addition of this data
decreased the covariance matrix trace, as shown in Figure 9.
The Ackerman model used as a third possible
configuration produced the smallest covariance matrix trace
among the configurations analyzed on this work, as shown
in Figure 10.
The second aspect to be evaluated in this work is how
long the algorithm can maintain a small uncertainty, when
compared to the GPS uncertainty, in the event of GPS loss.
To investigate this issue, the GPS measurement data was
suppressed for an arbitrary amount of time, which was
increased until the trace of the estimation error covariance
matrix became greater than the trace of the GPS error
covariance matrix.
less than one second;
• configuration 2 was able to stand GPS failure for
up to 2 seconds;
• and configuration 3 was able to remain with small
uncertainty for up to 13 seconds.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
In this paper it was presented initial results of a research
which aims to develop an autonomous car. The hardware
described here is the first step to design the car actuation and
control systems. In order to close the control system loop in
near future, a localization system has been developed and
some sensor fusion algorithms, based on different sets of
sensors, were tested and evaluated.
The tests have showed that the best configuration in
terms of performance on estimating the position of the
vehicle was the third one. For this configuration, in which
acceleration, vehicle steering angle, and GPS position was

6
used, the algorithm was able to remain producing reliable
estimates, after GPS loss, for a longer period.
The future work include the analysis of the dynamic
model of the vehicle and the addition of other sensors,
mainly velocity sensors, to make the estimation more
independent of GPS measurements and more robust to GPS
loss.
[9] Howie Choset, Kevin M. Lynch, Seth Hutchinson,
George Kantor, Wolfram Burgard, Lydia E. Kavraki,
Sebastian Thrun. “Principles of Robot Motion.” The
MIT Press, 2005.
[10] Luis A. Aguirre. “Introdução à Identificação de
Sistemas.” 3rd. ed., Ed. Campus. Belo Horizonte, 2007.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is supported by FAPEMIG (Fundação de Amparo
a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais). The authors also
thanks CNPq and CAPES for their scholarships.

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