ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

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 The Endocrine System

• Endocrine system
– Composed of glands and cells that secrete hormones
– Helps coordinate functions between cells
– Critical for maintaining homeostasis
– Helps regulate
• growth and development
• metabolism and water balance
• reproduction and stress responses

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 Overview of the Endocrine System:
Hormones and Endocrine Glands

• Hormones allows cells to communicatee

– Chemical messengers
– Secreted by endocrine glands or tissues into blood
– Travel everywhere blood goes
– Affect only target cells, cells with receptors effectors
– May affect very distant organs or cells

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 Overview of the Endocrine System:
Hormones and Endocrine Glands

• Endocrinology
– Study of endocrine system
– Diagnosis and treatment of its disorders

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 Functions
1. Controls homeostasis
2. Maintains water balance
3. Controls uterine contractions
4. Controls milk production
5. Regulates ions (calcium, sodium, potassium)
6. Regulates metabolism and growth
7. Regulates heart rate and blood pressure
8. Monitors blood glucose levels
9. Aids the immune system
10. Reproductive functions
 Major
Organs of
the
Endocrine
System
(Figure
11.1)

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 Overview of the Endocrine System:
Hormones and Endocrine Glands

• Exocrine versus endocrine glands

– Exocrine glands
• release secretions to tissue by ducts
outisde, saliva,sweat, breastmilk
– Endocrine glands "endo" within and "krino" secrete
• ductless, release into blood
• other organs not usually considered endocrine glands
– e.g., brain and heart, releasing important substances

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Overview of the Endocrine System: Comparison
of the Nervous and Endocrine Systems
• Endocrine System
– Chemical signals only • Nervous System
– Slower to respond and – Chemical and electrical signals
stop – Responds and stops quickly
– Hormones go everywhere – Targets specific organ
– Adapts relatively slowly – Adapts quickly
– Sometimes widespread – Usually local effects
effects

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 Components of Endocrine System
• Endocrine glands:
secrete their product directly into blood stream

• Chemical signal:
molecules that are released from one location,
move to another location, and produce a response

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 Types of Chemical Signals
• Intracellular: inside the cell
produce in one of part a cell and move to
another part of same cell intracellularly binds with receptors

• Intercellular: between
released from one cell and bind to receptors
on another cell interstital=nasa tissue

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 Types of Intercellular Signals
• Autocrine:
- released by cells and a have local effect on
same cell type
- Ex. Eicosanoids (released in response to
inflammation)
• Paracrine:
- released by cells that affect other cell types in
close proximity
- Ex. Somatostatin (inhibits insulin secretion) 11
• Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators:
- secreted by nerve cells
- Ex. Nervous system function
• Pheromones:
- secreted into env’t and modify behavior and
physiology of other individual in same species
- Ex. Women and menstrual cycles
• Hormones and neurohormones: produce by neurons
- secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
- Ex. Epinephrine and insulin
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 Overview of the Endocrine System

What is the classical distinction made

between endocrine and exocrine glands?

Endocrine glands are ductless, and release their

secretions directly into the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands release their products into ducts.

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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone Structure

• Hormone classification
– Classified into three groups based on structure
• Steroid hormones
– Lipids synthesized from cholesterol
– Share structure
• four organic rings with varied side groups
– E.g., testosterone and estradiol

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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone Structure

• Monoamines
– Small molecules
– Synthesized from amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan
– E.g., thyroxine and epinephrine

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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone Structure

• Peptide hormones
– Chains from 3 to more than 200 amino acids
– Considered proteins if > 50 amino acids
– Oxytocin, small peptide hormone
– Insulin, a protein

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The Chemical Classes of Hormones (Figure 11.3)

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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone
Receptors and Effects

• Hormone receptor
– Given hormone
• fits receptor like key fits lock lock and key theory
– Insulin “key”
• fits only insulin receptor “lock”
• does not stimulate other receptor types
– Cell only responds if has proper receptors

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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone
Receptors and Effects
water loving
• Peptide hormones and most monoamines
– Hydrophilic, unable to pass into target cell
– Bind to receptor at cell surface
– Hormone, first messenger
– Receptor associated with membrane enzyme
• respond by producing second messenger inside cell
• often cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

lipophilic=non polar, water fearing

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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone
Receptors and Effects

• Cyclic AMP 1 phosphate

– Made by removing two phosphates from ATP
– Activates or reactivates cytoplasmic enzymes
– Leads to various metabolic effects
• e.g., wake up certain genes, producing new enzymes
• e.g., change permeability of plasma membrane
• e.g., glucagon activating certain metabolic pathways

3P-2P=1P
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 Endocrine Physiology: Hormone
Receptors and Effects
LIPOPHILIC
• Steroid hormones
– Hydrophobic, readily pass into cell
– Bind receptor associated with DNA
– Causes gene to be transcribed
– Specific protein produced
• alters metabolism in various ways

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 Components of Hormones
• Receptor site:
location on a cell where hormone binds (lock)

• Target tissues:
group of cells that respond to specific hormones

• Specificity:
specific hormones bind to specific receptor sites

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 How does this work?
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands
directly into bloodstream

2. Hormones travel to all parts of body

3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on

target tissue

4. Response occurs
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 How do hormones cause change?
• Alter cell activity of target tissues by increasing
or decreasing cell’s normal processes

• Change permeability of cell membrane by

opening or closing ion channels

• Synthesis of proteins

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FASTER RESPONSE
than intracellular
response
 Types of Hormones
• Water soluble:
- includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
- most common
- Ex. Growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin, etc.

• Lipid hormones:
- includes steroids and eicosanoids
- Ex. LH, FSH, androgens
steroids=cholesterol, intraceullar
eicosanoids= membrane bound receptor 29
 Regulation of Hormones
• Blood levels of chemicals:
Ex. Blood glucose levels (insulin)
• Other hormones:
Ex. TSH signals thyroid gland to release thyroid
hormone Thyroid Stimulating Hormone T3 and T4
• Nervous system:
Ex. Epinephrine and fight or flight response
• Negative Feedback:
tells body when homeostasis is reached
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Pituitary Gland
the master gland

• Small gland in brain

• Controlled by
hypothalamus
• Divided into 2 regions:
anterior and posterior
• Secretes at least 6
hormones

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 Figure 10.11
infundibulum-connects the
hypothalamus and pituitary
gland

stimulation of neurons
posterior=nonvascular

anterior=vascular

hormonal control
Anterior Pituitary Gland
• Growth Hormone:
- Target tissues: most
- Functions: stimulates growth of bones,
muscles, and organs
- Abnormalities:
Too much GH causes giantism acromegally
Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism

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• Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):
- Target tissues: thyroid gland

- Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions

iodine is needed
- Abnormalities:
Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges
Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

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t3=triiodothyronine Figure 10.14
t4=thyrovine

Hypothalamus to TRSH RH to anterior

pituitary to TSH to thyroid gland to
thyroid hormones to Target Tissues

all releasing hormone ,sa hypothalamus naproproduce

 reproductive organs
GONADOTROPINS
• LH (Luteinizing) for females: progesterone and estrogen,
- Target tissue: ovaries mga primary hormones

- Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone

production
release of egg
primary male hormone
• LH for males:
- Target tissue: testes
- Function: sperm production and testosterone
primary male hormone
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• FSH (Follicle-Stimulating) for females:
- Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
- Function: follicle maturation and estrogen
secretion
development of egg

• FSH for males:

- Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
- Function: sperm production

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• Prolactin:
- Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
breast
- Functions: milk production

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Posterior Pituitary Gland
• Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): vasopressin
- Target tissues: kidneys
diuresis-increase urine
- Functions: conserve water production
- Abnormalities:
diuretics-pampa ihi
Diabetes insipidus:
anti diuretic- against ihi
- low ADH
- kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute
(watery) urine iihi ng ihi ang pasyente
- can lead to dehydration and thirst
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• Oxytocin:
- Target tissues: uterus

- Functions: increases uterine contractions during

labor
milk ejection

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stimulation of hormones
Thyroid Gland metabolism
• One of largest glands
• Requires iodine to function
• Thyroid hormones: T3 and T4
- Target tissues: most

- Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is

needed for growth

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 Abnormalities of Thyroid Gland
lack thyroid secretion
• Hypothyroidism: • Hyperthyroidism: high
low – Decreased metabolism – Increased metabolism
– Weight gain, reduced – Weight loss, increased
appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness
– Low temp. and pulse – Higher temp. and pulse
– Dry, cold skin – Warm, flushed skin
swelling – Myxedema in adults – Graves’ disease (leads to
exophthalmos
of skin – Cretinism in infants goiter)

bulging of
eyeballs
physical deformities 45
• Calcitonin: parafollicular cells
- Target tissues: bones

- Functions: secreted when blood Ca2+ levels

are high brinebreakdown ng osteoclasts
yung bone tissue kaya narerelease
and calcium sa blood kaya
if the calcium levels are high
tumataas so pinipigilan ang function
ng osteoclasts kaya
osteoclasts-inhibits magdedecrease ang calcium level
through calcitonin
breakdown bone tissue 47
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Parathyroid gland
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH): binds on osteoclasts
- Target tissues: bones and kidneys

- Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels

(more than calcitonin)
If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone
matrix and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break down
bone matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
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go make

find good

make soup

zona glumerulosa

zona fasciculata

zona reticularis
Adrenal Glands
• On kidneys
• 2 regions medulla and cortex

Adrenal Medulla (inner portion):

• Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: symphatetic nervous system
cathecolamines
- Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells

- Functions: released as part of fight or flight

response
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Adrenal Cortex (outer portion):
• Aldosterone:
- Type of mineralocorticoids zona glomerulosa
- Target tissues: kidneys

- Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and

K+ to be secreted, indirectly involved with blood
pressure and blood volume
where salt goes, water follows
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• Cortisol:
- Type of glucocorticoids zona fasciculata

- Target tissues: most

- Functions: increases breakdown of fat and

protein for energy uses
reduces inflammatory and immune
responses
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• Androgens: sex hormones
- Target tissues: most zona reticularis

- Functions:
Males: secondary sexual characteristics
Females: sex drive

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Pancreas
• Organ in abdomen
• Insulin: release when there is increase blood glucose levels
- Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue

- Functions:
- regulates blood glucose levels
- after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is
secreted
- extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

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 islets of langherhans

GA BI DS

delta cells-secretes somatostatin

- Abnormalities:
Diabetes mellitus:
- Causes: too little insulin or faulty
insulin receptors
- Symptoms: exaggerated appetite,
excess urine, dehydration, thirst, fatigue
- Type I: insulin dependent (daily
injections required)
- Type II: insulin independent,
often found in obese people, can be treated
with diet but can turn into type I
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• Glucagon: alpha cells
- Target tissues: liver
release when there is decrease blood glucose levels
- Function:
- regulates blood glucose levels
- between meals glucose levels drop and
glucagon is secreted
- glucagon allows glycogen to be broken
down into glucose

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Testes
• Testosterone: primary hormone for male
- Target tissues: most

- Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive

organ development and function

lipido
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Ovaries
• Estrogen/Progesterone: primary female hormone
- Target tissues: most

- Functions: involved in uterine and mammary

gland development and menstrual
cycle ,pregnancy

thel arche-breast enlargement

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Thymus gland
• Thymosin: development of T-cells, a type of antibodies
- Target tissues: immune system tissues

- Functions: promotes immune system

development and function

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Pineal Body (Gland)
• Melatonin:
Target tissues: hypothalamus

Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and

controls circadian rhythms. Light
affects its function.
sleep wake cycles

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