AC Circuits

Sinusoidal Waves
Fundamentals of a Sinusoidal Wave
Sinusoidal wave – an alternating wave whose magnitude is proportional to the trigonometric
sine function
Fundamentals of a Sinusoidal Wave
y = instantaneous value
Am = amplitude or maximum value
w = angular velocity of the wave, radian/sec (rps)
w = 2πf
f = frequency, in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
t = time, in seconds (s)
Instantaneous value – magnitude of an
alternating quantity at any instant of time or
angle.
Frequency (f) – number of cycles that occur in
one second. Unit of frequency is Hertz or
cycles/sec
Examples:
A sinusoidal current has a maximum value of 20 A. Solve its instantaneous value at 45º.
Examples:
A 25-Hz sinusoidal emf has a maximum value of 100 V. Solve the instantaneous value of the emf,
5 ms after the wave passes through zero in a positive direction.
Fundamentals of a Sinusoidal Wave
Period (T) – time taken in seconds for the wave to complete one cycle.

1
𝑇=
𝑓
Example:
An alternating current is given by 𝑖 = 10 sin 314𝑡. How long will it take to generate two cycles
of current?
Fundamentals of a Sinusoidal Wave
Wavelength (λ) – length (in meter) of the alternating wave for one complete cycle.

𝑉
𝜆=
𝑓

V = velocity of travelling wave, in meter/s (m/s)

λ = wavelength, in meter (m)
f = frequency, in Hertz (Hz)
Example:
A radio broadcasting station operates on a wavelength of 15 m. What is its operating frequency
of the station?
Average and RMS Values of Alternating
Waves
Average Value – is equal to the arithmetical average or mean of all the values of an alternating
quantity taken over one half of the cycle only. The average for the entire cycle is zero.

𝑇
2 2
𝐴𝑉𝐸 = න 𝑦𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
Average and RMS Values of Alternating
Waves
RMS (root-mean square) value – is defined as the square root of the average of the squares of
the given quantity taken over a complete period.

1 𝑇 2
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = න 𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
Average and RMS Values of Alternating
Waves
Form factor – ratio of rms value to the average value of an alternating quantity. The form factor
is a measure of the “peakness” of the waveform. The peakier the wave, the greater is its form
factor.
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Peak factor – ratio of maximum value to the rms value of an alternating quantity. The peak
factor is of much greater importance because it indicates the maximum voltage being applied to
a device.
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Example:
Solve the RMS value of the sinusoidal voltage, e = 100 sin 377t.
Popular Types of Alternating Waves
(Derived Formulas)
Sinusoidal wave
AVE = 0.636Am
RMS = 0.707Am
Form factor = 1.11
Peak factor = 1.414
Popular Types of Alternating Waves
(Derived Formulas)
Half-wave rectified sinusoidal wave
AVE = 0.318Am
RMS = 0.5Am
Form factor = 1.57
Peak factor = 2.0
Popular Types of Alternating Waves
(Derived Formulas)
Full-wave rectified sinusoidal wave
AVE = 0.636Am
RMS = 0.707Am
Form factor = 1.11
Peak factor = 1.414
Popular Types of Alternating Waves
(Derived Formulas)
Triangular wave
AVE = 0.5Am
RMS = 0.577Am
Form factor = 1.154
Peak factor = 1.732
Popular Types of Alternating Waves
(Derived Formulas)
Rectangular wave
AVE = Am
RMS = Am
Form factor = 1.0
Peak factor = 1.0
Example:
The average value of a sinusoidal wave current is 100 A. Its rms value is ______.
Vector or Phasor Representations of an
Alternating Wave
Fundamental sine wave:
Vector or Phasor Representations of an
Alternating Wave
Leading sine wave:
Vector or Phasor Representations of an
Alternating Wave
Lagging sine wave:
Examples:
The equations of the currents in two parallel connected electric devices are 𝑖1 =
𝜋 𝜋
11.3 sin 377𝑡 + and 𝑖2 = 8.5 sin 377𝑡 − . What is the rms value of the resultant current?
4 4
Examples:
The current in a given conductor is represented by the geometric sum of two currents whose
equations are 𝑖1 = 25 sin 377𝑡 and 𝑖2 = 15 cos 377𝑡. What is the rms value of the current in the
conductor?
AC Circuits Containing Resistance Only
When an AC voltage is applied across pure resistance, it draws a current that is in-phase with the
AC voltage.

𝐸
𝐼=
𝑅
𝐸2
𝑃= = 𝐼2𝑅
𝑅
Example:
An AC circuit consist of a pure resistance of 10 Ω and is connected across a 230-V, 50-Hz source.
Solve the current and power consumed in watts.
AC Circuits Containing Inductance Only
When an AC voltage is applied across pure inductance, it draws a current that is lagging with the AC
voltage with an angle of 90º.

𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝐸
𝐼=
𝑗𝑋𝐿
𝐸2
𝑄𝐿 = = 𝐼 2 𝑋𝐿
𝑋𝐿

Where: 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝐿 = 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅)
Example:
A pure inductive coil allows a current of 10 A to flow from a 230-V, 50-Hz supply. Find the
inductance of the coil.
AC Circuits Containing Capacitance Only
When an AC voltage is applied across pure capacitance, it draws a current that is leading with the AC voltage with
an angle of 90º.

1
𝑋𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐶
𝐸
𝐼 = −𝑗𝑋
𝐶

𝐸2
𝑄𝐶 = = 𝐼2 𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝑐

Where: 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠

𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑠
𝑄𝐶 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑅)
Example:
A 318 μF capacitor is connected across a 230-V, 50-Hz system. Determine the rms value of the
current.
Complex Powers
True Power (P) – the power which is actually consumed in the
circuit. This power is consumed only in the resistance.
Sometimes called Active Power.
Complex Powers
Reactive Power (Q) – the power consumed in the inductor or
capacitor during a quarter of the cycle is returned to the
source in the next quarter cycle. This circulating power (back
and forth) reacts upon itself. Therefore, the unit reactive volt-
ampere arise.
Complex Powers
Apparent Power (S) - the product of voltage and current, VA
(complex power).
RL Series AC Circuits
When an AC voltage is applied across a series RL circuit, it draws a current that is lagging with
the AC voltage with an acute angle 𝜃.
RL Series AC Circuits
RL Series AC Circuits
Examples:
A 240-V, 60 cycle source is connected to a coil of wire that has a resistance of 7.5 ohms and an
inductance of 0.0477 H. Solve the real power drawn.
Examples:
A resistance R and reactance L in series are connected to a 115-V, 60-Hz voltage supply.
Instruments are used to show that the reactor voltage is 75 V and the total power supplied to the
circuit is 190 W. Find L.
Examples:
It is desired to operate a 100 W, 120 V lamp at its current rating from a 240 V, 50 Hz source by
using an inductor having a resistance of 10 Ω. Find the inductance of the inductor.
Examples:
A passive circuit has an applied voltage, 𝑒 = 150cos(𝑤𝑡 + 10°) V and a resulting current 𝑖 =
5sin(𝑤𝑡 + 40°) A. Determine complex power drawn.
RC Series AC Circuits
When an AC voltage is applied across a series RC circuit, it draws a current that is leading with
the AC voltage with an acute angle 𝜃.
RC Series AC Circuits
Examples:
A series circuit consists of a 66.2-Μf capacitor and a variable resistor. For what value of resistance
will the power taken be 172.8 W if the impressed 60 Hz emf is 120 V?
Examples:
Calculate the capacitance of a condenser to be connected in series with a 100-V, 80-W, lamp to
enable it to be used on a 200-V, 50-Hz supply.
Examples:
Two circuit elements in a series connection have current and voltage equations, i = 4 cos(2000t +
13.2º) and e = 200 sin(2000t + 50º). Identify the two elements.
LC Series AC Circuits
When an AC voltage is applied across a series LC circuit, it draws a current that is either leading
or lagging with the AC voltage with an angle 90º.
LC Series AC Circuits
Examples:
A 5 μF capacitor is connected in series with a variable inductor to a 20-V, 796 cycle source. For
what value of inductance will the current be 2 A lagging?
Examples:
A series circuit consisting of a 0.0795 H inductor and a 177-μF capacitor is connected to a 120- V
variable frequency source. At what frequency will the current be 4 A leading?
RLC Series AC Circuits
When an AC voltage is applied across a series RLC circuit, it draws a current that is either leading
or lagging or in-phase with the AC voltage wave.
RLC Series AC Circuits
RLC Series AC Circuits
Examples:
A series RLC circuit contains R = 25 Ω, L = 0.08 H and a capacitor C. The circuit is connected across
a 200-V, 50-Hz supply. If the current drawn is 4 A leading, solve the value of C.
Examples:
A series RLC circuit has a current which lags the applied voltage by 30º. The inductor voltage is 10
V and the capacitor voltage is 5 V. If the resistance R is 20 Ω and w = 1000 rad/s, find the value of
L.
Parallel AC Circuits
Examples:
Two loads are connected in parallel to a source of emf whose voltage is (110 + j63.5) volts. If the
branch currents are I1 = (8 – j8) and I2 = (7.5 + j10), amps. Calculate the total real power drawn in
watts.
Examples:
Three single-phase loads are connected in parallel across a 1200-V, 60-Hz single-phase supply:
Load A: inductive load, 125 kVA at 0.28 pf; Load B: capacitive load, 10 kW and 40 kVAR; Load C:
resistive load of 15 kW. Solve the total current.
Complex AC Circuits
All principles applied in DC circuits about combinational circuits are the same principles applied
in AC circuits but all mathematical operations (add, subtract, multiply, divide) will follow the
rules in complex number operations.
Examples:
An inductive reactance of 8 Ω is connected in parallel with a capacitive reactance of 18 Ω; this
combination is then connected in series with a variable resistance. For what value of resistance
will the power factor be 0.5?
Conductance, Susceptance and
Admittance
Admittance (Y) – reciprocal of impedance (Z). The old unit mho. The SI unit is called siemens.

𝑍 = 𝑅 ± 𝑗𝑋

1
𝑌 = = 𝐺 ± 𝑗𝛽
𝑍

G = conductance, in siemens or mho (S)

B = susceptance, in siemens or mho (S)
Conductance, Susceptance and
Admittance
Note:
+B --- for capacitive susceptance
-B --- for inductive susceptance

𝑅
𝐺= 2
𝑅 + 𝑋2

𝑋
𝛽= 2
𝑅 + 𝑋2
Conductance, Susceptance and
Admittance
Examples:
Find the total conductance and the susceptance of a 5-Ω resistance in series with a 100-Μf
capacitor connected in parallel with a 2.5 mH inductor. Assume w = 2000 rad/s.
Examples:
A two-branch parallel circuit has Z1 = 2 +j4 Ω and Z2 = R. Solve R to result in the overall power
factor to 0.9 lagging.
 Series to Parallel
Conversion and Vise-
Versa
𝑅
𝐺= 2
𝑅 + 𝑋2

𝑋
𝛽=
𝑅2 + 𝑋 2

1
𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
𝐺

1
𝑋𝑒𝑞 =
Note: As a single element only, conductance is the reciprocal of 𝛽
resistance while susceptance is the reciprocal of reactance.
Example:
Determine the values of resistance and reactance, which when connected in parallel with one
another will be equivalent to a circuit consisting of a 10-Ω resistance in series with a 5-Ω inductive
reactance.
Resonance
Resonance is a condition wherein the total current is in-phase with the total voltage. The circuit
power factor is unity. In many circuit applications, it is desired to convert series connected circuit
elements to its equivalent parallel connected circuit elements.
 Series AC Circuit
at Resonance
𝐸𝐿 = 𝐸𝐶

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶

𝑓𝑟 = resonant frequency, in Hertz (Hz)

L = inductance, in Henry (H)
C = capacitance, in Farad (F)
Series AC Circuit
at Resonance
The impedance of the circuit is
minimum and is equal to the
resistance of the circuit.
The current in the circuit is
maximum as it is limited by the
resistance of the circuit alone.
Since the current is maximum, the
power of the circuit will also be
maximum.
Since at series resonance, the
current flowing is maximum, the
voltage drops across L and C are
also maximum.
Q-factor of a Series Resonant Circuit
At series resonance, the pd across L and C builds up to a value many times greater than
the applied voltage. This voltage magnification produced by resonance is termed as Q-
factor of the series resonant circuit.
𝐸𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐶 𝑋𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐸𝑡 𝑅
The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit can also be expressed in terms of L and C,
1 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅 𝐶
Bandwidth a Series
Resonant Circuit
It is a range of frequencies over which the
operation of an electrical device is satisfactory. It
lies between two points on either side of the
resonant frequency where current falls to 70.7%
of its maximum value at resonance.

𝐵𝑊 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
Example:
A series RLC circuit has R = 100 Ω, L = 100 μH and C = 100 pF is connected across a 10-V variable
frequency source. Determine the
(a) resonant frequency
(b) current at resonance condition
(c) voltage across L or C at resonance
(d) Q-factor of the circuit
(e) bandwidth
(f) lower and higher cut-off frequencies
Parallel AC Circuit
at Resonance
𝛽𝐿 = 𝛽𝐶

1 1 𝑅2
𝑓𝑟 = −
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝐿2
If the coil resistance is small (as in
general),
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
Parallel AC Circuit
at Resonance
The total impedance of the circuit
at resonance is,
𝐿
𝑍=
𝐶𝑅
also known as dynamic impedance.
At parallel resonance, the
impedance is maximum since L/C is
very large. Thus, with the
impedance maximum, thus the
current is minimum.
Q-factor of a Parallel Resonant Circuit
At parallel resonance, the circulating current between the two branches is many times
greater than the line current. This current amplification produced by the resonance is
termed as Q-factor of the parallel resonant circuit.
𝐸
𝐼𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶 𝑋𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝜔𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = = = =
𝐼𝑡 𝐼𝑡 𝐸 𝐶𝑅 𝑅
𝐿 𝐿
𝐶𝑅

𝑋𝐿 2𝜋𝑓𝑅 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑅 𝑅
Q-factor of a Parallel Resonant Circuit
If the coil resistance is small (as in general),
1 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅 𝐶

Note: The bandwidth formula for parallel resonant circuit is the same as that of
series resonant circuit.
Example:
A coil of resistance 10 Ω and inductance of 0.2 H is connected in parallel with a 2.5 μF capacitor.
Determine the
(a) resonant frequency
(b) Q-factor of the circuit at resonance
(c) dynamic impedance
General Circuit of a Parallel Resonance

1 𝑅𝐿2 − 𝐿/𝐶
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶 𝑅𝐶2 − 𝐿/𝐶
General Comparison Between Series and
Parallel Resonant Circuits
Power Factor Correction in Single-Phase
Load using a Capacitor
Case I: After correction, the pf is still lagging
Power Factor Correction in Single-Phase
Load using a Capacitor
Case II: After correction, the pf is unity
Power Factor Correction in Single-Phase
Load using a Capacitor
Case III: After correction, the pf is leading
Examples:
A load of 300 kW with a power factor of 0.65 lagging, has the power factor improved to 0.90
lagging by parallel capacitors. How many kVAR must these capacitors furnish?
Examples:
A single-phase motor is taking 20 A from a 400-V, 50 Hz supply, the power factor being 80%
lagging. What value of capacitor connected across the circuit will be necessary to raise the power
factor to unity?
Examples:
A 4500-VA load at a power factor of 0.75 lagging is supplied by a 60 Hz source at effective voltage
of 240 V. Determine the parallel capacitance necessary to improve the power factor to 0.90
leading.