MODULE 3

VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF

SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE
Essays in exams and application forms are usually evaluated based on content,
communicative achievement, organization, and language. Communicative achievement
focuses on how appropriate the writing is for the task and whether the writer has used the
appropriate register. Language register is the level of formality with which you
communicate. Different situations and people call for different registers. When writing
essays and letters, you as a candidate, need to think carefully about who the target
reader is for each task and try to write in an appropriate style and tone.

I. MY STARTER

Read the following and reflect on it.

What is language register? The language register (also called linguistic register and
speech register) definition describes the way a person speaks in relation to their
audience. A speaker modifies their language register to signal levels of formality
according to their relationship to their audience and intended purpose of speech. In
English, for example, a speaker might modify their speech to fit a formal language
register by using more complex vocabulary and clear articulation, and by omitting
any slang or informal speech. Any type of spoken or written communication uses a
language register because register is a type of linguistic variation. Linguistic variation
describes the complex ways speakers modify their language use according to social
cues, communication context, and personal expression. Language register,
therefore, can be defined as the type of linguistic variation that indicates level of
formality and speaker-audience relationship.

Conveyance of language register involves complex, nuanced linguistic variation that

differs from language to language and within dialects of the same language. A higher
register sounds more official, formal, and standard; a lower register sounds informal,
casual, and often uses regional or dialectal phrasing that is not standard. Language
register can be gauged on a scale from the most formal (or highest register) to the
least formal (or lowest register). Language register is a sociolinguistic construct.
Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics that examines language as a social tool.
Because language register is deeply enmeshed in social norms, it is a component
of sociolinguistic communication. This lesson only discusses English (primarily
Standard American English), so the examples used here do not necessarily apply
to other languages.
 II. EXPLORE MORE

There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use that is
determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use language and
vocabulary reserve for a boyfriend or girlfriend when speaking in the classroom. Thus the
appropriate language register depends upon the audience (who), the topic (what), purpose
(why) and location (where).

You must control the use of language registers in order to enjoy success in every aspect
and situation you encounter.

1. Static Register

This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is “frozen” in time and

content. e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble to the US
Constitution, the Alma Mater, a bibliographic reference, laws .

2. Formal Register

This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in nature. This use of language
usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal and formal. A common
format for this register are speeches. e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions,
speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements.

3. Consultative Register

This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure

of communications. It is formal and societal expectations accompany the users of this
speech. It is professional discourse. e.g. when strangers meet, communications between
a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher &
student, counselor & client,

4. Casual Register

This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms
are normal. This is “group” language. One must be member to engage in this register. e.g.
buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to friends.

5. Intimate Register

This communications is private. It is reserved for close family members or intimate people.
e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children.

Rule of Language Use:

One can usually transition from one language register to an adjacent one without
encountering repercussions. However, skipping one or more levels is usually considered
inappropriate and even offensive.

III. WHAT’S MORE?

Let us check your knowledge on language registers. Read carefully the statements in the
first column and check the column of your answer.

STATEMENTS Agree Disagree

1. Frozen register is printed language that does not change
and is found in published works, historical, and religious
documents.

2. Formal register uses complete sentences standard for work,

business, and academe. It uses technical vocabulary
3. Informal register is a two-way participation of speech
standard for work, business, and academe. Examples are
speaking to a supervisor, colleague, and assistant in a formal
setting.

4. Intimate register is communication between loved ones.

Intonation is more important that wording in grammar.

5. Casual register is language used in conversation with

friends. It is a two-way communication characterized by slang,
ellipsis, and non-verbal modes. Interruptions are very common.

In this lesson, you will learn the importance of culturally appropriate, sensitive, and bias-
free language when communicating with people from different cultures and discourse
communities, as well as the different registers of spoken and written language.

LET’S GET STARTED!

I. Read the comic strip below and answer the questions that follow:

https://www.thecomicstrips.com/comic-strip/Candorville/2013-12-11/104849

1. What is the stereotype about the characters that you viewed?

 2. Why is the message stereotypical and unfair?
3. How would the image make someone like the character in the comic feel and
why?

LET’S READ!
I. Introduction
Just as important as awareness if existence of World Englishers is that of practicing
cultural sensitivity. To write or speak in culturally sensitive way means to be aware that
cultural similarities and differences between people exist and that these should not be
assigned a positive or negative value via words and descriptions selected in writing.
Academic and professional writings are characterized by a bias-free language.
Students, scholars, professionals, and anyone wishing to maintain harmonious
communicative relations should be careful in using words and phrases that do not
discriminate against particular groups, whether in terms of race, ethnicity, gender,
social class, age, and disability. The essential point is to communicate in such a way
that is respectful of diversity.
Here are some general principles to follow when referring to different groups or
categories.
A. Race and Ethnicity
Racism is a form of discrimination against a person or persons of a different race.
In general, it is best to avoid identifying people by race or ethnic group. Race is an
emotionally charged topic, so it is best to tread carefully with the language used and
to refer to race, Patricia Arinto (2009) asserts in English for the Professions, “only if it
is relevant to what you have to say.” Words that reinforce stereotypes and that imply
all people of a particular race or ethnic group are the same should be avoided. For
example, although the assessment is positive in the sentence “Naturally, the Asian
students won the math contest,” the word “naturally” reinforces the stereotype or
generalization that Asians have superior aptitude in math.
Next, one must be attuned to the current terminology by which racial and ethnic
groups refer to themselves. This may be done by reading national newspapers and
watching television news, which typically are good indicators of current and preferred
usage. According to Kitty Locker and Donna Kienzler (2013), one should “refer to a
group by the term it prefers,” which means some research is required to find out about
acceptable and preferred terms. For example, for a long time, “Native American” has
been considered the politically correct term for the indigenous peoples of the
Americas, over the label “Red Indian.” But today, most Native American people prefer
to be referred to by their specific nation or tribe. In the Philippine context, there have
been shifts in the preferences for terms that Filipinos of Chinese ancestry use to
describe their identity: from Tsino, to Chinoy, to Filipino Chinese.
It is also important to be sensitive to religion when referring to various ethnic
groups. Assumptions should not be made that stereotype a race, nationality, or ethnic
group with a specific religion. For example, not all Arabs are Muslims, not all Indians
are Buddhists, and not all Filipinos are Roman Catholics
B. Gender and Sexual Orientation
Sexism refers to the prejudice and discrimination based on sex or gender. To be
inclusive of all people in general references, one should favor gender neutral words
and phrases over gender-biased words. For example, rather than “man-made”, one
can say “manufactures,” “synthetic,” or “artificial.” Instead of “layman’s terms,” one can
use “ordinary terms.” Neutral terms should also be chosen over words with “man” and
“woman” in job titles or descriptions. For example, it is more appropriate to use
“chairperson” in place of “chairman,” “flight attendant” in place of “stewardess,” and
“labor” instead of “manpower.” One should also avoid sexist terms like “woman lawyer”
and “male nurse” and simply use “lawyer” and “nurse.”
Pronouns may also be gender-biased, for example, when the masculine “he”
pronoun is used as a generic one for both genders. Gender-biased pronouns can be
avoided by (a) dropping pronouns that signify gender and restating the sentence, (b)
changing to plural construction, and (c) replacing masculine or feminine pronouns with
“one” or “you.” Examples of alternative gender-neutral constructions are provided here.
Gender-biased example: Each student should submit his term paper by Monday.

Restatement Each student should submit a term paper by Monday.

Plural Construction Students should submit their term papers by Monday.
Use of “you” You should hand in your term paper by Monday.

Other gender-related terms may have to do with gender orientation or sexual

orientation. It is important to be sensitive to new attitudes about homosexual,
transsexual, and transgender people. For example, most gay people prefer the term
“gay” to the more clinical “homosexual” as label. “Lesbian” is currently the term
preferred by gay women. Transgender people prefer to be referred to as the gender
they identify as, not their birth gender. Again, as a matter of principle, one should refer
to societal groups in the way that members of these groups prefer to be referred to.
Note also that terminology in this area is developing, and that not everyone agrees.
C. Social Class
Class discrimination or classism is a form of prejudice against a person or people
because of their social class. An example of language with a bias against class is the
American term “white trash,” which is not only a racial slur but a classist one that refers
to white people, usually from the rural Southern United States, coming from a lower
social class inside the white population. The term is negative not just because of the
words that comprise it but also because of its connotation with danger; white trash
people are seen as criminal, unpredictable, and without respect for authority. In the
United States and other cultures, there may also be a kind of classism against those
who are economically privileged. The rich are sometimes referred to by derogatory
terms “preppie” and “yuppie,” both of which connote not just wealth but arrogance.
There are examples from the Philippine culture as well, in the informal terms
“conyo” and “jologs,” both derogatory terms referring to class. The first, used to
describe young people form the upper class who speak an idiosyncratic mix of English
and Tagalog, connotes vanity and consciousness about social status. The second
one, now perhaps replaced by term “jejemon,” as used in reference to an idiosyncratic
spelling or writing style, is used to describe persons who look poor and out of style.
 Classism may also appear even in more formal terminology. Sociologist/activist
Betsy Leondar-Wright, argues in a video interview that classist terms “attributes
favorable traits to the wealthy and powerful” and “those in poverty or near-poverty are
similarly cast in a negative light” (ClassismExposed, 2014). A more sensitive
vocabulary uses terms that more precisely portray the actual circumstances of people
within the class structure. For example, instead of “the owning class,” one can use “the
upper class” or “the privileged class,” and instead of “the underclass,” one can say “the
less privileged” or describe a condition of “chronic poverty.” In the Philippines, “informal
settlers” is now more politically correct term for “squatters.”
D. Age
Ageism is a form of discrimination against other people because of their age, or
assuming that older people are less physically, intellectually, or emotionally able than
other age groups. The capabilities of younger people should also not be
underestimated on the basis of their age. Again, it is important to refer to a person’s
age only when that information is pertinent to what is being discussed. When referring
to a generic group, one should also ask their subjects what wordings they prefer: Do
they wish to be called “older persons” or “senior citizens”? Do they prefer the label
“youths,” “teenagers,” or “young people”?
E. Disabilities
Discrimination in this area often arises because of lack of understanding and
awareness. Therefore, it is important to distinguish some terms that are mistakenly
understood to be synonymous. Various guides on bias-free communication and often-
confused terminology are published by the University of Wisconsin-Madison. It defines
the terms “impairment,” “disability,” and “handicap” as, respectively, (1) a physiological
condition,” (2) “the consequence of an impairment” which “may or may not be
handicapping,” and (3) “the social implication of a disability; a condition or barrier
imposed by society, the environment, or oneself.” Thus, according to these definitions,
a “limp” is an impairment in which a leg or a foot is damaged or stiff. A disability that
may result from arthritis is difficulty in walking, or walking unevenly and haltingly.
People who limp may be handicapped by having to climb stairs in buildings with no
elevators. Other guides from other cultural contexts may provide different definition
and examples; it is essential when writing to do research on these definitions.
Finally, when referring to people with disabilities, the focus should be on the
person, not on the condition (Arinto, 2009). In Patricia Arinto’s English for the
Professions (2009), she advises to avoid hurtful expressions such as “retards” or even
the seemingly neutral description “the mentally retarded” and to use instead “people
with mental retardation.” Similarly, instead of “the blind” and “cancer patients,” one
should instead use “people with visual impairments” and “people being treated for
cancer,” respectively. These examples demonstrate the importance of identity-first
language or the importance of putting the person or people first. Note the differences
in the following sentences:
Disability first: The blind student used a special keyboard during the exam.
 Person first: The student, who is visually impaired, used a special keyboard during
the exam.
Next, Arinto (2009) suggests considering the negative implications of usages such
as “confined to a wheelchair” and “AIDS victim.” For the former, one should instead
write or say “uses a wheelchair” because wheelchairs enable people to escape
confinement, while for the latter, one should use “person with AIDS” as someone who
acquired a disease without being victimized by it. Arinto (2009) also notes that the
word “abnormal” may be replace with “atypical” because people who have disabilities
are atypical but not necessarily abnormal” (Arinto, 2009). These latter examples
demonstrate the importance of not representing people with disabilities as unfortunate,
limited, and helpless victims.

The importance of knowing when and how to move between registers

A speaker may move from one register to another with ease. For example, it is not
uncommon for Canadian teachers to address one another casually in the staff room,
and then adopt a more consultative register when speaking with a parent or school
board trustee.
If one register is expected and another is presented, the result can be either that
offense is taken (or intended) or a comic response. For example, on the TV show “Big
Bang Theory”, Sheldon’s character often uses the higher consultative register with his
friends, as well as everyone else. He sometimes seems “stuck” in the world of high-
level vocabulary, unable to speak in the lower casual register that his friends use
among themselves. The result is comedic. The audience laughs at his social
awkwardness and inability to understand that he can (and should) adapt his speech to
different contexts.

In contrast to Sheldon’s academic speech, some researchers have found that those living in
poverty are more likely to be “stuck” at the casual register. They are less likely to have developed
the skills at the consultative or formal language registers. Or if they do know how to use the
higher registers, it feels inauthentic to do so, like wearing a suit that does not fit properly. As a
result, those living in poverty may disregard the higher registers or simply refuse to use them in
their speech and writing. This, in turn, may inhibit them from advancing in their work and
ultimately, getting out of poverty. The same may also apply to professionals looking for
advancement or aspiring scholars who wish to publish their work.

For professional and academic writing, the formal or at the very least, the consultative register, is
appropriate.
LET’S REMEMBER
These general guiding principles are helpful, but not always apt. For example, there
are heated debates now among parents of children with autism about whether to use
“person with autism” or “autistic person.” Yet again, it must be emphasized that
research is necessary to become aware of trends and debates in this and other areas.
One may also simply ask the concerned people what their preferred terms are. The
final takeaway is that to be an effective writer, one must not stereotype, demean, or
exclude any member of his or her audience. Such stereotypes and biases are barriers
to communication.
Also, knowing what the various registers are, how to differentiate between them
and when to use which one increases your chances of being accepted by groups and
speakers in a variety of contexts.

LET’S DO THIS!
I. In what ways are these statements not politically correct or insensitive? A for race
and ethnicity, B for gender and sexual orientation, C for social class, D for age, and
E for disability.
___1. The people in this hospital are mentally retarded.
___2. There are too many squatters in this neighborhood.
___3. To generalize that all Filipinos are Catholics is offensive to the Muslims
___4. We need more manpower to finish the building.
___5. Old people are waiting outside.
II. Identify the register in these contexts/ statements. Write A. Frozen, B. Formal, C.
Consultative, D. Casual, or E. Intimate.
___1. Panatang Makabayan
___2. “How you doin’?”
___3. You inquired about the P20 postpaid plan through Globe customer services
___4. Application letters
___5. Job interview
III. Write short dialogue with at least 10 lines from both speakers for any of the
following communicative situations. Make to use the appropriate register and
culturally-appropriate terms.
1. An elementary teacher with a SPED student
2. The president of the Philippines with a fish seller
 3. Two friends eating at a restaurant
4. A doctor with a person with Covid
5. A priest and a transgender

Module 3. VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE