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Atomic structure
Radius of nucleus
 Bohr Model
It is a quantum mechanical model.

Some. Important Formulae

1. Columbic force = kq1q2 / r2

2. Centrifugal force = mv2 / r

3. Angular momentum = mvr

 Bohr Model
n2
R= 0.529 × 10–8 × Z cm

n2
= 0.529 × 10–10 m
Z

The formula is applicable for hydrogen and hydrogen like species

i.e. species containing single electron.
 Bohr Model
Velocity of an electron
 Bohr Model

Energy of an electron :
21.69  10 –19  Z2
– J / atom
n2

Z2
E  –13.6  2 ev / atom
n

on increasing r, total E increases.

P.E. = – 2kE
KE = – E
P.E. = 2E
 Bohr Model

Energy difference between two energy levels

1 1
E n 2 – E n1  –13.6  Z2  2 – 2 
 n 2 n1 
For H:
E2 – E1 = – 3.4 + 13.6 = 10.2 eV
E3 – E2 = – 1.51 + 3.4 = 1.89 eV
E4 – E3 = – 0.85 + 1.51 = 0.66 eV
E5 – E4 = – 0.54 + 0.85 = 0.16 eV

i.e. (E2 – E1) > (E3 – E2) > (E4 – E3) > (E5 – E4)…..
Spectrum
Killer Visualization
 Wavenumber

The Swedish spectroscopist, Johannes Rydberg, noted that all series of lines in
the hydrogen spectrum could be described by the following expression :
 1 1 
v  109,677  2 – 2  cm –1
 n1 n 2 

where n1 = 1, 2………
n2 = n1 + 1, n1 + 2 …………

The value 109677 cm–1 is called the Rydberg Constant for hydrogen.
 Frequency

The frequency (v) associated with the absorption and emission of the photon
can be evaluated by using equations.

 1 1 
v  3.29  1015  2 – 2  Hz
 ni nf 
 Energy

The radiation (energy) is emitted if the electron moves from higher

orbit to lower orbit.The energy gap between the two orbits is given by
equation,

1 1
  –18 J  2 – 2 
 ni nf 
 EM waves

Total amount of energy transmited from one body to another will be some integral
multiple of energy of a quantum.

E= nhv where n is an integer and n = number of quantum

EM waves
Photoelectric effect
 Photoelectric Effect

● According to him ejection of e–s occurs on fall of light it the freq. of light is above
a certain min value called as photoelectric work function.

● Above this minimum value the

● (a) no of e–s produced a intensity of light.
● (b) K.E. is linearly related to its frequency.
Lets Learn
● Formulas of Photoelectric Effect
●
Photoelectric effect
Current in ammeter vs frequency
Current in ammeter vs frequency
de-Broglie’s hypothesis
DERIVATION RELATIONSHIP
Heisenberg uncertainity principle

It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and velocity

of a microscopic particle with absolute accuracy or certainty.

h h
x  m  or x  v 
or 4 4 m

Where, x = uncertainty in position

p = uncertainty in momentum
h = Planck’s constant
m = mass of the particles
v = uncertainty in velocity
 Quantum numbers

THE PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)

THE ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM QUANTUM NUMBER OR
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER (I )
 Azimuthal Quantum numbers

Value of l -------> 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Designation of s p d f g h i
sub-shell -------->
THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (mI)

Sub-shell s p d f g

Value of l 0 1 2 3 4

No. of orbitals (2I + 1) 1 3 5 7 9

THE MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER (mI)
THE SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER (ms)
This quantum number determines the orientation of spin.
The spin quantum number can have only two values which are + ½ and – ½.
 n+l rule

Principle of (n + l) rule:
The subshell with lowest (n + l) value is filled up first.
When two or more subshell have same (n + l) value then the subshell with
lowest value of n is filled up first.
n l (n+l)
1s

2s

2p
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

In quantum mechanical model behaviour of the electron in an atom is

described by an equation known as the Schrodinger wave equation
 2   2   2  8 2 m
    E – V   0
x 2 y 2 z2 h2
where x, y and z are the three space co-ordinates,
m is mass of the electron,
h is the Planck's constant,
E is the total energy and V is the potential energy of the electron,
 (Greek letter psi) is amplitude of the electron wave and is called wave
function,
Radial nodes
Angular nodes
Angular nodes 2p
Angular nodes 3d
THERMODYNAMICS
Entropy
 Carnot cycle

M
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction
 Equilibrium state
Rate of forward reaction = Rate of backward reaction
 Equilibrium constant

C   D 
c d

The concentration ratio =

 A  B 
a b
 Chemical Equation Equilibrium Constant

a A + bB  c C + d D K
cC+dDaA+bB Kc’ = (1/Kc)
na A + nb B  nc C + nd D Kc" = (Kc)n
Equilibrium constant for gaseous reactions
Relationship between Equilibrium constant and extent of reaction

The value of K also gives us an idea about the relative stabilities of

reactants and products. If value of K is large, the products are more stable
whereas if K is small, the reactants are more stable.
 Predicting direction of the reaction

• If Qc > Kc, the net reaction is taking place in backward direction i.e.,
direction of reactants.
• If Qc < Kc, the net reaction is taking place in forward direction i.e., direction
of products.
• If Qc = Kc, the reaction is at equilibrium i.e., no net reaction is taking place.
Le Chatelier's Principle.
If a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change of concentration,
pressure or temperature, the equilibrium shifts in the direction that tends to
undo the effect of the change.
 Effect of change in concentration

Fe3+(aq) + SCN–(aq)  [FeSCN]2+(aq)

(yellow) (colorless) (deep red)
 Effect of change in pressure

N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)

 Effect of change in temperature

A chemical equilibrium involves two opposing reactions, one favouring

the products and the other favoring the reactants. If one of the reactions is
exothermic the other must be endothermic.
Exothermic
N2(g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g) ;
Endothermic H = - 93.6 kJ.
 Stress Direction in which Equilibrium Shifts
Increase in the concentration of one or more Forward direction
reactants
Increase in the concentration of one or more Backward direction
products
Increase in temperature Towards P in endothermic Reaction
Decrease in temperature Towards P in exothermic reaction
Increase of pressure Towards lesser number of gaseous moles

Decrease of pressure Towards large number of gaseous moles

Addition of catalyst No effect

Effect of inert gas addition at constant volume No effect
Effect of inert gas addition at constant pressure
Thermodynamics of Equilibrium
log10K =
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
Salt hydrolysis
 Buffer Solution

Solubility product
 Main 2024

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 TAKING
TEST EXPERIENCE
आप हो तो हम हैं
CHEMICAL KINETICS
CHEMICAL KINETICS
Rate Of Chemical Reaction

For a general reaction carried out at constant volume

aA + bB → cC + dD
Rate Of Chemical Reaction
aA + bB → cC + dD
 Rate Law

For a chemical reaction, aA + bB → Products

where, [A] and [B] molar concentrations of A and B respectively and k is the velocity
constant or rate constant
Different Order Reaction
 Zero Order Reaction

● Concentration of reactant left at any time [A]t

● Concentration of Product at any time

 Zero Order Reaction

3. Completion time of a Zero-Order Reaction

Time required for the reactant concentration to drop zero.

 First Order Reaction

1. Concentration of reactant left at any time

2. Concentration of Product at any time

 First Order Reaction

3. Degree of dissociation

4. Completion time
 nth Order Reaction

1.. Half life (t1/2)

 Temperature Coefficient

The ratio of rate constants of a reaction at two different temperatures

differing by 10 degree is known as Temperature Coefficient
 Arrhenius Equation

k = A e-Ea / RT

A is called frequency or pre-exponential factor an experimentally

determined quantity

Ea is the activation energy, R is the gas constant

T is kelvin Temperature.
Arrhenius Equation
Potential Energy Chart
Arrhenius Equation - Logarithmic form
Variation of rate constant with temperature
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
 Current Efficiency

Charge actually used in process

Current Efficiency = x 100
Theoretical Charge passed by battery

Mass actually produced

Current Efficiency = x 100
Mass produced Theoretical
Conductance (G) Conductivity

● Units is ohm-1 cm-1 or siemen cm-1

Resistivity
● The conductance of a solution of 1 cm length
having 1 cm2 area of cross-section.
Molar Conductivity (ΛM) Equivalent Conductivity (ΛEq)
 Debye Huckel Onsager equation

where, A is a constant. It depends upon the nature of solvent, temperature and

on the type of electrolyte,
 Kohlrausch law of independent migration of ions

At infinite dilution, the molar conductivity of an electrolyte is the sum of the ionic conductivities of
the cations and anions, e.g. for AxBy.
Determine Degree of dissociation

Ionisation Constant of Weak Electrolyte

Determination of solubility of sparingly soluble salt
Representation of a cell ( IUPAC conventions )
 Electrode Potential & EMF

The potential developed between metal electrode and its ions in solution in known
as Electrode Potential.

Electrode Potential value is determined using a reference electrode.

Thermodynamics of Cell
Nernst Equation
Types of electrode Potential
Types of electrode Potential
 Electrode Concentration Cell

Two hydrogen electrodes of different pressures are dipped in the same solution of
electrolyte, e.g.
 Electrolyte Concentration Cell

Electrodes are the same but electrolyte solutions have different concentrations, e.g.
MOLE CONCEPT
Mole Concept
Mole Calculation
Average molecular mass
Relative and Vapour Density
Percentage yield

Actual yield
The percentage yield of product = × 100
Theoretical maximum yield
Percentage Purity
Percentage determination of elements in compounds
Concentration Terms
Concentration Terms
Dilution Formula
Molarity of mixture
Relation between Molarity & Molality
Liquid Solution
Henry law
Raoult’s law of miscible Volatile Liquid
Dalton’s law
Ideal and Non Ideal Solution
Abnormal Molecular Mass & Van’t Hoff Factor (i)
Colligative Property
Colligative Properties
Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure (RLVP)
 Elevation in Boiling Point

Kb is molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant.

Depression in Freezing Point
Osmotic Pressure

(V1 + V2)
 Types of Solution

(a) Isotonic solution : Two solutions having same osmotic pressure are
consider as isotonic solution.

𝝅1 = 𝝅2 (at same temperature)

(b) Hypotonic & Hypertonic solutions :

If two solutions 1 and 2 are such that 𝝅2 > 𝝅1 , then 2 is called

hypertonic solution and 1 is called hypotonic solution.
Redox Reaction
Law of Chemical Equivalence

A + B C + D
Equivalent Weight (E)

The equivalent weight of an oxidising agent or reducing agent is that weight

which accepts or loses one mole electrons in a chemical reaction.
Equivalent Weight (E)
n factor Calculations
n factor Calculations
Normality (N)
Normality (N)
N-factor calculation of O.A and R.A
N-factor calculation of O.A and R.A
 Main 2024

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