Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization, 5th Edition

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Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization

Fifth Edition
Copyright® 2018 Terry J. Kreeger
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic or mechanical, including recording, photocopying, or by any information storage
and retrieval system, without the written permission of the copyright owner.
Copyright® by Terry J. Kreeger: first edition, 1996; second printing with revisions,
1997; third printing with revisions, 1999; second edition, 2002; third edition, 2007;
fourth edition 2012.
Ordering Information
Orders can be placed on the internet via Amazon.com; search for the number:
0965465209 (print edition), or the book title (both print and ebook). Look for the
2018 Fifth Edition sold by seller TKREEGER3 . Alternatively, contact the authors.
Contact Information
Dr. Terry J. Kreeger
E-mail: tkreeg@gmail.com
Dr. Jon M. Arnemo

E-mail: jmarnemo@online.no
Citation
Kreeger, T. J., and J. M. Arnemo. 2018. Handbook of wildlife chemical
immobilization. Fifth edition. Published by authors. 472 pp.
Digital book(s) (epub and mobi) produced by Booknook.biz .
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Contents
Drug Possession and Use
Legalities of Drug Use
Records
Ordering and Storage
Labeling
Expiration Dates
Human Consumption of Drugged Animals
Drugs Used for Animal Capture

Drug Characteristics
Calculating Drug Doses
Drug Combinations
Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs
Tranquilizers/Sedatives
Phenothiazine Agonists
Butyrophenone Agonists
Benzodiazepine Agonists
Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Agonists
Long-acting Tranquilizers
Immobilants
Cyclohexanes
Opioids
Alfaxalone
Propofol
Inhalation Anesthetics
Antagonists
Opioid
Alpha-2 adrenoceptor
Benzodiazepine
Adjuvants
Equipment Used for Animal Capture

Syringes and Needles
Pole Syringes
Remote Drug Delivery Systems
Blow Pipes
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Dart Guns
Darts
Range Finders
Laser Sights
Dot Sights
Monitoring Equipment
Oxygen
Equipment and Supply Checklist
List of Manufacturers
Animal Capture: Putting It All Together

Capture-related Stress and Mortality
Rules of Animal Capture
Considerations Prior to Animal Immobilization
Preparation
Approach
Administration Sites
Immobilization Signs
Incomplete Immobilization
Handling the Immobilized Animal
Transport of the Immobilized Animal
Recovery from Immobilization
Recovery of Lost Darts
Urban Wildlife Capture
Euthanasia
Animal Medical Treatment

Respiratory Depression/Arrest
Hyperthermia
Hypothermia/Frostbite
Shock
Bloat
Vomiting/Aspiration
Capture Myopathy
Seizures/Convulsions
Wounds
Cardiac Arrest
Dehydration
Analgesics
Veterinary First Aid Kit Checklist
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Human Medical Treatment
Preventative Measures
Rules for Accidental Exposure
Specific Emergency Treatments
Opioids
Cyclohexanes
Neuromuscular Blocking Agents
Human First Aid Checklist
Drug Doses
BAM Quick Reference Chart
References
Glossary
Index
English-Metric Conversion
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Disclaimer
The recommended drugs and doses published in this manual are taken from
published scientific articles and textbooks, institutional and personal records,
and the experience of the authors and their colleagues. Every attempt has been
made by the authors and the reviewers to insure accuracy of those
recommendations. However despite these efforts, errors in the original sources
or in the preparation of this book may have occurred. All users of this manual,
therefore, should empirically evaluate all doses to determine that they are
reasonable prior to use. Animal capture is obviously beyond the control of
anyone other than the person directly responsible for the immobilization. The
vagaries of conditions, weather, age, nutrition, disease, and stress make every
immobilization process unique. Because of this, the authors and publisher
cannot accept responsibility for mishaps should they unfortunately occur. In
addition, the authors and publisher do not endorse specific products,
procedures, or doses reported in this manual. Also, the listing of a drug in this
manual does not indicate approval by the Food and Drug Administration or the
manufacturer for use on wildlife.
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Preface
This is the fifth edition of the Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization . It is
perhaps the largest selling book of its kind, having sold thousands of copies around
the world. If the Handbook is truly a success, a lot of credit must be given Dr.
Ulysses S. Seal who originally had the idea for a comprehensive, but easy-to-use,
book for wildlife biologists faced with the challenge of animal capture.
This handbook is intended to provide wildlife biologists, wildlife and zoo

veterinarians, game ranchers, animal control personnel, and students with a portable
reference for the chemical capture of wild animals. This handbook is designed to
accompany the user into the field and should act as a rapid reference source for those
faced with the challenge of chemically capturing a wild, and often uncooperative,
animal. Its format is intentionally brief, serving to highlight, rather than detail, the
salient aspects of each section. Those desiring a more in-depth discussion should
seek out the relevant literature offered. Despite the emphasis on brevity, it behooves
the novice to be familiar with everything covered in this text.
The Drug Doses section is designed to rapidly locate the species of interest and
select an appropriate immobilizing agent. We have compiled and analyzed drug
doses from published reports or private records and then made a single
recommendation for a given species based on our, and others, experience with the
drug and species. Other drug choices and appropriate references are also included
should you not agree with, or not have available, the recommended drug(s). The
primary recommendation does not necessarily mean that the chosen drug(s) is always
the best choice under all circumstances. Experience with the various drugs will
eventually allow you to make informed choices on your own.
In the Equipment Used for Animal Capture section, we were not reluctant to point
out deficiencies or praise performance. Such praise, however, does not convey
endorsement of the product.
Also included are sections on Animal and Human Medical Treatment . Again, these
are intended to serve as quick reference sources to recognize and treat the most
common emergency conditions encountered in the field, but not as a definitive
treatise on emergency medicine.
Interspersed throughout this book is information that we consider either important to

read or that might be a good idea. The important information will be annotated in the
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margins by the following symbol: . Things that we think are ideas which you
might find useful are annotated with this symbol:
As always, we would appreciate any comments or criticisms of this handbook. This

book was written for you, to make you a better wildlife professional. If it succeeds,
then we have done our jobs.
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T he legalities surrounding the purchase, storage, and dispensation of drugs used
for wildlife immobilization vary from country to country. It is beyond the scope of
this manual to detail each nation, but a general overview of North America and
Europe is presented below.
United States
Conditions for the use of drugs (pharmaceuticals) to sedate or immobilize animals
are established by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA verifies the
safety and efficacy of drugs as well as insures manufacturing quality control. Drug
manufacturers must undergo a lengthy and expensive process of drug testing to
receive FDA approval. Approval by the FDA, when granted, limits the use of the
drug to conditions specified on the label, i.e., the intended species, the dose,
conditions of use, withdrawal times, and the like. Only four drugs have been
specifically approved by the FDA for use on certain wild animals: carfentanil for use
on cervids; xylazine for use on elk and fallow, mule, sika, and white-tailed deer;
yohimbine for use on cervids (deer and elk); and ketamine for use on primates. Any
use of these or other drugs on any species not identified on the label is termed “extra
label” or “off label.”
In addition to being prescription drugs, some of the drugs used for wildlife
immobilization are termed controlled substances. A controlled substance means a
drug that is identified in one of five schedules. Federal legislation governing the
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possession of controlled substances is contained in The Controlled Substances Act
(1970). The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is the U.S. federal agency
charged with enforcing provisions of this act (http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov ).
Special regulations govern the recording and storage of these drugs. The Controlled
Substances Act requires an individual to have a special DEA registration number in
order to possess controlled substances. Application for this number is made through
regional offices of the DEA. If you are unable to determine your regional office,
contact the United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20537 (http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/drugreg/ ). Holders of
professional medical degrees (D.V.M., M.D. etc.) should submit a DEA Form 224 to
apply for a registration number. All others should submit a DEA Form 225. If
approved, the recipient will be issued a DEA Form 223, Controlled Substance
Registration Certificate . Renewal is required every three years. Following is a brief
discussion of the five schedules:
Schedule I – This is reserved for experimental and abused drugs such as heroin,
marijuana, and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Use of Schedule I drugs requires a
separate registration number. Application for Schedule I requires the same forms
listed above, but the application should request registration only for Schedule I
substances. Schedule I drugs are primarily limited to research use.
Schedule II (IIN) – This includes most of the opioids used for animal immobilization,
such as etorphine, fentanyl, sufentanil, and carfentanil and the opioid antagonist,
diprenorphine. Some barbiturates are also in this schedule. Note: carfentanil or
thiafentanil possession requires that the holder's DEA form 223 be specifically
annotated with "Carfentanil " in addition to schedules II and IIN.
Schedule III (IIIN) – This contains several barbiturates, ketamine, and

tiletamine/zolazepam.
Schedule IV – Includes benzodiazepine tranquilizers, such as diazepam and

midazolam, alfaxalone, and butorphanol.
Schedule V – This covers small, limited quantities of narcotic drugs included in

preparations with non-narcotic active medicinal ingredients.
Many biologists have obtained a DEA registration number and have been able to
procure drugs through veterinary product distributors. Technically, however, even
though they are in possession of these drugs, they cannot use them on animals
without veterinary supervision. Biologists who use veterinary prescription drugs
without the involvement of a licensed veterinarian should know that they may be in
violation of federal regulations.
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All drugs currently used for the chemical capture of wildlife are prescription drugs
and must be used by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian . Non-veterinarians
can legally use drugs if a valid veterinarian/client/patient relationship is established.
That is, the biologist becomes the “client” and the wild animal becomes the
“patient.” The biologist consults with the veterinarian on the use of the drug who
determines if the dose and application are appropriate. The veterinarian does not
have to be on site during the immobilization process, but he or she should be
involved in the planning process.
In addition, most states have boards of pharmacy which have registration

requirements for anyone dispensing prescription drugs or are in possession of
controlled substances. State drug possession regulations can be more restrictive than
federal regulations and generally have precedence over such. It is your responsibility
to determine your particular state requirements.
Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act of 1994

The Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act of 1994 ( AMDUCA; passed into
law in 1996) essentially allowed veterinarians to use approved animal and human
drugs extra label under certain conditions. The AMDUCA makes a specific
distinction between food and non-food animals. Therefore, you must consider the
possibility of an animal being harvested and consumed by a human subsequent to
your capturing it with drugs. Following are criteria for extra label drug use in food
and non-food animals. There are other restrictions for certain human drugs and drugs
specifically prohibited for use in food-producing animals, but such drugs are usually
not used for animal capture and will not be discussed here.
Extra label use of animal or human drugs is allowed in non-food animals if the drug
is: 1) approved by the FDA; 2) used by or on the lawful written or oral order of a
licensed veterinarian; and 3) used within the context of a valid
veterinarian/client/patient relationship.
Extra label use of FDA-approved animal or human drugs is allowed in food animals
if there is no approved animal drug labeled for such use or the approved drug is
clinically ineffective for its intended use. Prior to extra label use of immobilizing
drugs in food animals (e.g., deer, elk, bear, sheep, pronghorn, etc.), the veterinarian
must: 1) establish a substantially extended withdrawal time; 2) be able to identify the
treated animals; and 3) assure that assigned time frames for withdrawal are met and
no illegal residues occur.
To Summarize:
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• Wildlife capture drugs can only be used by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian.
• Non-veterinarians can use prescription drugs if they have established a valid
veterinarian-client-patient relationship.
• All capture drugs are prescription drugs, but not all of these are controlled drugs.
• The FDA governs the manufacture and use of drugs; the DEA governs the possession
of controlled drugs.
• Approved drugs can be used "off label" as long as certain requirements are met.
• To possess controlled substances, you must be registered with the DEA as well as
your state board of pharmacy.
Note: currently the FDA does not allow extra label use of thiafentanil. Thiafentanil is
restricted to use on captive, non-food-producing minor species hoofstock.
Canada
An excellent and detailed discussion of drug acquisition (Peacock, 2005) can be
found in the second edition of The Chemical Immobilization of Wildlife , published
by the Canadian Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians
(http://www.cazwv.org/ ).
Europe
In most European countries, immobilizing agents are prescription drugs and must be
used by or on the order of a licensed veterinarian. Some of these agents are also
controlled drugs, i.e. drugs that are capable of being abused for which specific
regulations apply. The classification of drugs varies between countries, e.g. ketamine
and tiletamine are both listed as narcotic substances in Sweden but not in Norway.
Non-veterinarians can legally use immobilizing agents if a valid veterinarian-client-
patient relationship is established; i.e., the veterinarian should insure that the animal
in question is under his or her care. In some countries, however, the veterinarian is
required to be on site during the immobilization process.
Records
Although record requirements differ among countries, an inventory record should be
maintained containing at least the following information:
Purchase Inventory:
Type of drug received (e.g., etorphine, ketamine, etc.)
Amount received
Date received
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From where drug received (i.e., manufacturer or distributor)
Use Inventory:
Amount used
Date used
Species used on
Reason for use
Many users of scheduled immobilizing drugs number each bottle and maintain a
running inventory of the amount of drug used, opening a new bottle only when the
previous bottle is empty. Drug use must be reconciled with drug received. That is, if
you received 50 ml of thiafentanil, you must account for 50 ml used. Reasons for use
include not only administration to animals, but also missed darts, accidental spillage,
and intentional disposal of unused drug. Records in the U.S. must be maintained for
two years and inventories should be taken biannually.
The AMDUCA also has specific record requirements for extra label drug use. The
prescribing veterinarian is ultimately responsible for these records, although the end
user should also maintain the same information. When drugs are used extra label, the
following information should be recorded:
1) Name of drug and active ingredient
2) Condition treated (e.g., capture for translocation)
3) Dose administered
4) Duration of treatment (usually not applicable for capture)
5) Number of animals treated
6) Specific withdrawal time (for food animals)
Records for individual animal captures are valuable for reviewing efficacy of the
drugs and doses, for keeping track of samples, and for determining reasons for
adverse reactions. Record format is as diverse as the individuals designing them. An
example of a drug immobilization record is included in this chapter.
It is usually useful to have several blank spaces for drugs administered and vital
signs so that you can maintain a running record of the drug and medical history.
Below is an example of a record of an animal darted and then given additional drugs.
Note that both ketamine and xylazine are listed as being given at 9:00 a.m. indicating
that they were administered in the same dart. Also note that in the location column,
you can indicate if the injection was IM, IV, or SC, if desired.
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Ordering and Storage
In the U.S., all Schedule II controlled substances must be ordered on a DEA form
222 which is preprinted by the DEA and issued to the holder of the DEA registration
number. This form must be sent to the manufacturer or distributor. However, before
any drug is shipped, the holder must have approved storage facilities for these drugs.
Schedule II controlled substances must be stored in a safe or steel cabinet equivalent
to a U.S. Government Class 5 security container. This usually means a safe weighing
more than 750 lb or a safe that is bolted to the floor with the bolts brazed in such a
manner as to prevent tampering. The local DEA office must then physically inspect
the storage container and send their recommendations for approval to the DEA in
Washington. The DEA will then notify the manufacturer or distributor that the
individual is approved. All other controlled substances must be stored in a secure
place with limited access. Regulations regarding drug storage are contained in 21
CFR 1301.75d. If you have any questions regarding drug storage, contact your local
DEA office or call the DEA Policy Unit in Washington, D.C.
(https://www.dea.gov/contact.shtml ).
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Labeling
All approved drugs are labeled by the manufacturer and such labels should not be
altered. It is a good idea, however, for lyophilized (freeze dried) drugs to indicate on
the label the date on which the drug was reconstituted. Such drugs have a specified
shelf life from the date of reconstitution. If for some reason, drugs are transferred to
an unlabeled container, be sure to indicate on that container the name and the
concentration of the drug as well as its expiration date which appeared on the
original container. Never use drugs from an unlabeled container - if in doubt, throw it
out!
It also may be advisable to write doses with a permanent marker on emergency

drugs, such as doxapram (a respiratory stimulant), so that valuable time is not lost in
looking up the dose.
Expiration Dates
It has long been presumed that a drug expiration date was the date determined by a
drug manufacturer at which the drug retained at least 90% of its potency. This may
not be correct. Although we cannot recommend using drugs after the expiration date,
there is scientific evidence that many drugs remain 100% effective for many years,
even decades , after the expiration date (Cantrell et al., 2012; Diven et al., 2015).
We have conducted controlled and field trials to test the hypothesis that
immobilizing and antagonist drugs remain viable after many years (Kreeger et al.,
1990c; Arnemo, personal observation). We have found that drugs such as
medetomidine, etorphine, naloxone, and naltrexone remain effective for 5-10 years
past their expiration dates. In support of such findings, Diven et al. (2015) suggested
that expiration dates for ketamine be extended by 64 months and naloxone by 77
months.
We understand that one may be loathe to discard a vial of drugs which may have cost
several hundred dollars just because it has reached the expiration date. If you choose
to use drugs past their expiration date, you may do so at some risk of liability.
Animal immobilization is unpredictable and relatively uncontrolled. If an expired
drug was used to immobilize an animal and a person was injured or property
damaged during the immobilization process, you (or your employer) may be held
financially responsible, even though it was highly unlikely that the expired drug had
anything to do with the damage . You may wish to limit the use of any expired drugs
for animals under controlled circumstances, such as captivity.
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Human Consumption of Drugged Animals
A “withdrawal time” is a time established by the FDA that specifies the period of
time that must expire from the date that a drug was administered to when the animal
can safely be consumed by humans. In the U.S., many of the animals chemically
captured are food-producing animals (e.g., deer, bear) and many are captured just
before or during their hunting seasons. Also, many of the animals are captured using
drugs extra label (Craigmill et al., 1997).
The FDA has concerns that drug residues may remain in animal tissues, be
consumed by humans, and result in an adverse reaction. Thus, the AMDUCA
emphasizes the need for establishing withdrawal times for animals that could be
consumed by humans. Unfortunately, there are few scientifically-established tissue
residue studies (which are used to establish withdrawal times) for any of the drugs
used in the U.S. The prescribing veterinarian must therefore use whatever
information is available and apply it in a conservative manner to the extra label
application. For example, tissue residue studies for ketamine may exist for a certain
species of primate. These data may serve as a basis for the withdrawal time for
ketamine used in deer.
Semple et al. (2000) published a pharmacokinetic and tissue residue study of

Telazol® in polar bears. The authors concluded that it was unlikely that a human
consuming polar bear meat from an animal killed more than 24 hours after darting
would experience a pharmacological effect from either tiletamine or zolazepam.
Studies in black bear by Ryan et al. (2009) supported the findings in polar bears.
Although Ryan et al. recommended a conservative 15-day withdrawal time for
Telazol® in black bears, their data indicated that Telazol® was undetectable in muscle
and liver after 3 days. Cook et al. (2016) found that detectable limits of butorphanol-
azaperone-medetomidine (BAM) could not be determined 11 days post injection in
white-tailed deer. Wolfe et al. (2018) found no detectable (≥ 0.1 ppm) residues of
nalbuphine-azaperone-medetomidine (NAM) or the antagonists atipamezole and
tolazoline in liver and muscle of elk three days post-immobilization. Only the
antagonist, naltrexone, was found three days post-immobilization but not thereafter.
Potential food animals should be identified in some manner (ear tag, collar) if there
is a possibility that the animal could be killed during the withdrawal period and
subsequently eaten by a hunter. This identification probably will have to either: 1)
warn the hunter not to consume the meat if harvested before a certain date, or 2)
require the hunter to notify the appropriate wildlife management agency who will
then determine if the animal can be safely eaten.
Europe
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The maximum residue limit (MRL) is the maximum allowed concentration of
residue in a food product obtained from an animal that has received a veterinary
medicine. The European Union (EU) requires by law that foodstuffs such as meat,
milk or eggs must not contain residue levels of veterinary medicines that might
represent a hazard to the health of the consumer. Regulation (EC) 470/2009 lays
down the rules and procedures for the establishment of MRLs. Before a veterinary
medicine intended for food-producing animals is authorized in the EU, the
Committee for Medicinal Products for Veterinary Use (CVMP) evaluates the safety
of its pharmacologically active substances and their residues and recommends
MRLs. The European Medicines Agency has published scientific guidance relevant
to the establishment of MRLs for veterinary medicines
(http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/ ).
Ear tag advising hunter not to eat previously-drugged animal until contacting agency to determine
safety. When contacted, the ag ency will determine if the withdrawal time has been met.
As of July 2017, several of the commonly used drugs for wildlife immobilization
(e.g. medetomidine, tiletamine, etorphine, thiafentanil) are not authorized for use in
food producing animals. For free-ranging wildlife, some countries, such as Sweden
and Norway, have chosen a pragmatic approach to this problem, allowing
unauthorized drugs to be used three months or more prior to opening of the hunting
season of the species in question. For captive wildlife, however, the MRL regulations
still apply.
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O bviously, no perfect capture drug exists; if it did, there would be little need for
this book. However, the characteristics of an ideal injectable anesthetic may serve as
guide to the evaluation of currently available immobilizing drugs for wildlife. These
criteria include both physical and pharmacological properties as well as desirable
properties for an immobilizing agent. Many drugs currently in use have several, but
not all, of these characteristics. These criteria are as follows with no specific priority
implied:
• High therapeutic index (the ratio of the lethal dose in half of the sample to the
effective dose in half of the sample)
• Potent (sufficient dose delivered in small volume)
• Fast-acting, smooth onset of action
• Minimum excitement phase (anesthetic induction is rapid)
• Nonirritating following intravenous or intramuscular administration
• Good muscle relaxation
• Minimal depression of cardiovascular or respiratory systems
• Analgesia at subanesthetic levels
• Retention of reflexes, i.e., swallowing
• Causes minimal fear, pain, or distress
• Capable of being antagonized, preferably dose-dependent antagonism
• Rapid, smooth emergence (short elimination half-life) with minimal side effects
• Rapid degradation to inactive, nontoxic metabolites
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• Highly water-soluble, stable in solution, and long shelf-life
• Produces an amnestic effect (animal has little or no recollection of event)
• Safe for pregnant animals
• Compatible with other drugs in mixtures
• Compatible with dart material (i.e., no chemical reactions with dart)
• Minimum withdrawal time for safe human/animal consumption
• Low toxicity in humans should accidental exposure occur
• Low potential for human abuse
Calculating Drug Doses

Accurate calculation of drug doses is critical to reduce the problems associated with
under- or overdosing. Information required prior to calculating a dose include:
Animal’s Weight
If you lack experience with the average weights by age class of your particular
species (male, female, juvenile), either contact someone who has experience or use
the information included in this manual on the specific species. For people in the
U.S. (as well as Myanmar and Liberia!), train yourself to think of weights in metric
units because this is standard scientific notation and it is the measurement system
used worldwide. Conversion tables of pounds-to-kilograms are presented in the back
of this book. These tables provide a quick conversion of pounds to kilograms without
having to use a calculator.
Concentration of the Drug

Most manufacturers provide concentrations of their products in milligram (mg) of
drug per milliliter (ml) of solvent (mg/ml). Some concentrations are expressed as
percents, i.e., a “10%” solution. A 100% solution means that there is 1 gram (1 g =
1,000 mg) of drug dissolved in 1 ml of solvent. Therefore, a 10% solution means that
there is 100 mg (0.10 x 1,000 mg) of drug in 1 ml of solvent (i.e., 100 mg/ml).
Some drugs are freeze-dried (lyophilized) and you may only have the weight of the
dried preparation. To prepare a solution of known concentration you must calculate
backwards from the desired solution to arrive at the volume of solvent to add to the
powdered drug. That is, if a drug bottle contains 500 mg of drug and you desire a
100 mg/ml solution, you must add 5 ml of solvent to the bottle.
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The actual concentration of this dilution, however, will be less than 100 mg/ml
because the volume of the lyophilized drug is not taken into consideration in the total
solution volume. For example, if the lyophilized drug volume was 0.3 cubic
centimeters (roughly 0.3 ml), then the total volume in the bottle after adding 5 ml of
solvent would be around 5.3 ml (actually somewhat less considering chemical
reactions). Thus the actual concentration is 94.3 mg/ml (500/5.3). Unfortunately, this
error is common in drug formulations and recommended drug doses, although its
continued use does maintain consistency if not accuracy (see Amass and Drew,
2006).
Dose
In this manual, doses are mostly given as mg of drug per kilogram (kg) of animal
body weight (mg/kg). To convert kg to pounds (lb), multiply kg by 2.2 (e.g., 10 kg =
22 lb). Conversely, to convert lb to kg, multiply lb by 0.45 (e.g., 100 lb = 45 kg).
Again, conversion tables of pounds-to-kilograms are presented in the back of this
book. Armed with the above data, you can now calculate how much (usually
expressed in ml or volume) of a given drug to administer.
Calculating Drug Doses and Volumes
Ultimately, you want to know what volume of drug to administer to the animal. The
formula for this is:
Consider immobilizing an animal that weighs 80 kg (176 lb) with Drug “X”. The
recommended dose of Drug X for this animal is 5 mg/kg. Drug X is available in a 100
mg/ml solution. First, calculate the total mg needed for this animal by multiplying the
animal’s weight (80 kg) by the recommended drug dose (5 mg/kg):
mg Drug X needed = 80 kg x 5 mg/kg = 400 mg
Then calculate the volume of drug solution to withdraw from the bottle by dividing the
dose (i.e., 400 mg) by its concentration (100 mg/ml):
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Some Points to Remember in Calculating Drug Doses
Never memorize drug doses.
This is one of the cardinal rules of pharmacology and one we all probably break at
one time or another. However, we also all make a mistake at one time or another. It’s
incredibly easy to mix up doses when you are in a hurry or otherwise pressured.
Also, time has a way of eroding memory, so don’t trust it.
Physically calculate drug doses.

Unless you continually perform mental calculations, take time to use a calculator or
paper and pencil to correctly figure doses and volumes.
Calculate the dose at least twice.

Regardless of the method of calculation, it is always a good idea to double check
your math.
Look at your answer.

After you have calculated the volume twice, does it seem appropriate for the
situation? With drug and animal experience, a drug volume that is miscalculated
should trigger a mental alarm.
Drug Combinations
This book is about wildlife immobilization , as opposed to wildlife anesthesia .
Although this difference may seem academic, it is at least accurate. "Immobilization"
was a term that initially referred to some of the earliest drugs used to capture
animals. These drugs were paralyzing drugs, like nicotine sulfate and
succinylcholine. Such drugs, while rendering the animal immobile, did not render the
animal unconscious. The next drugs used to capture animals were the barbiturates
and the cyclohexanes, both of which were true injectable anesthetics (i.e., they
induced unconsciousness). In the 1960s, the first of the potent opioids (etorphine)
was developed followed by even more potent opioids (carfentanil, thiafentanil). The
opioids, however, appeared to induce a state that was neither paralysis nor anesthesia
(see Opioids). The term "immobilant" seemed to most accurately describe this class
of drugs.
Capture drugs used to be considered as primary and secondary immobilants. The

primary immobilant (e.g., ketamine, etorphine) was sufficient to induce
immobilization on its own. Secondary immobilants were tranquilizers or sedatives
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which, when combined with the primary immobilant, resulted in improved
immobilization. By themselves, tranquilizers or sedatives only induced a state of
calmness. Such calmness may be profound to the point that the animal may appear
unconscious and can be safely handled (e.g., deer given only xylazine). However, if
sufficiently stimulated, a tranquilized/sedated animal can arouse and flee (or attack!).
Today, however, there are drug combinations where there really is no primary
immobilant. Instead a mixture of drugs, none of which are capable on its own to
safely immobilize a wild animal, are employed to induce a state of profound
sedation. These combinations have been developed because of the loss, restrictions,
or regulations of some primary immobilants (e.g., carfentanil, thiafentanil). Some
examples are butorphanol-azaperone-medtomidine (BAM), nalbuphine-azaperone-
medetomidine (NAM), and alfaxalone-azaperone-medetomidine (AAM) .
Advantages of combining drugs include:

• Reduction of doses of all drugs (often reducing total cost of drugs)
• Reduction of total drug volume (thus, smaller darts)
• Reduction of undesirable side effects (convulsions, muscle rigidity, etc.)
• Decreased induction time
• Improved recovery (less stumbling, incoordination)
Disadvantages of combining drugs include:

• Difficulty in assessing individual drug effect
• Increased complexity in calculating initial drug doses
• Confusion of appropriate doses if initial combination was insufficient for
anesthesia
• Prolonged recovery with some combinations
• Potentiation of adverse effects (e.g., respiratory depression)
Following is a discussion of the properties of paralytics, tranquilizers, anesthetics,

opioids, and other drugs used for the chemical capture of animals.

Curare, the South American arrow poison, probably typifies this class of drugs. The
neuromuscular blocking (NMB) drugs are some of the first drugs used for the
chemical immobilization of wildlife and their use in human clinical situations
probably dates back to the 1930’s. There are three classes of NMB drugs, which are
distinguished by their electrophysiological properties: (1) depolarizing, (2)
competitive (or nondepolarizing), and (3) ganglionic.
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Depolarizing NMB drugs act by depolarizing postsynaptic membrane receptors, thus
mimicking acetylcholine, but with a longer period of activity. Immobilization with
depolarizing NMB drugs is characterized by an initial transient rapid firing of the
muscles (muscle fasciculations), which is quickly replaced by general paralysis. The
order of paralysis is sequential, starting from the jaw, tail, and face, followed by legs
and neck, throat, abdomen, intercostal muscles, and diaphragm. Recovery is in the
reverse order.
Competitive NMB drugs occupy postsynaptic cholinergic receptors in skeletal

muscle thus preventing their occupancy by the endogenous neurotransmitter,
acetylcholine, and they result in flaccid paralysis. The effects of competitive NMB
drugs can be antagonized by anticholinesterase drugs which inhibit the enzymatic
action of cholinesterase resulting in increased levels of acetylcholine. Acetylcholine
has a stronger affinity for the receptor than the NMB drug, thus causing diffusion
and diminished rebinding of the NMB drug. Because the antagonist activity of
anticholinesterase drugs does not specifically neutralize the NMB drug, the effect of
the anticholinesterase drugs may be dissipated before complete elimination or
metabolism of the NMB drugs resulting in recycling and renewed paralysis. Also,
overdosing resulting in death is possible when using anticholinesterase drugs.
Ganglionic NMB drugs exhibit their primary effects via autonomic ganglia
stimulation. Nicotine sulfate is the only drug in this class and it was one of the
earliest drugs used for wildlife immobilization. Nicotine is a potent ganglionic and
central nervous system (CNS) stimulant, the actions of which are mediated by
nicotine-specific receptors. Small doses of nicotine cause stimulation of autonomic
ganglia; large doses result in blockade of neurotransmission. Because of its low
therapeutic index, high animal mortality, and high human toxicity, nicotine is no
longer available for animal capture. Nicotine sulfate (Cap-Chur-Sol® ) should never
be used under any circumstances.
Despite their long history of use, NMB drugs are always inferior to modern drugs.
There are two major deficiencies of NMB drugs. One is that NMB drugs have very
low therapeutic indices and dose errors of only 10% can result in either no effect or
death (IWVS, 1992). Overdosing results in diaphragmatic paralysis and death by
asphyxia. Mortality rates as high as 70% have occurred. The second deficiency is
that depolarizing and competitive NMB drugs are virtually devoid of CNS effects
because of their inability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Thus, an animal paralyzed
with NMB drugs is conscious, aware of its surroundings, fully sensory, and, as such,
can feel pain and experience psychogenic stress yet is physically unable to react.
There are some advantages to a few NMB drugs. They are generally very fast-acting
(1–5 min) and the duration of effect lasts only for a short while (15–30 min). Also,
animals that have been given only succinylcholine and that have died or been
24
euthanized using physical means (i.e., not other drugs) can be safely eaten by other
animals or, in some countries, by humans. Although deer have been intentionally
killed with arrows tipped with succinylcholine and then eaten by humans, it must be
remembered that succinylcholine has not been approved by the United States FDA
for use on any animal, let alone animals intended for human consumption.
The NMB drugs should be used judiciously and only under the most unique
circumstances. For example, some airports use high doses of succinylcholine to
rapidly immobilize deer on runways and then euthanize them with captive bolt guns,
as opposed to the dangers and liabilities of using firearms.
Tranquilizers and Sedatives

Tranquilizers and sedatives are used widely in wildlife immobilization as adjuncts to
primary immobilants (opioids, cyclohexanes) or in multiple drug combinations (e.g.,
BAM). Tranquilizers relieve anxiety with minimal sedation; sedatives relieve anxiety
making it easier for the animal to rest or sleep. The differences between tranquilizers
and sedatives are not terribly important for your needs.
Phenothiazine Agonists and Butyrophenone Agonists

Phenothiazines (promazine, acepromazine) are antipsychotic drugs, formally
classified as neuroleptics. They reduce psychomotor agitation, curiosity, and
apparent aggressiveness by blocking dopamine-mediated responses in the central
nervous system (Hall et al., 2001). Azaperone is a butyrophenone which has been
reported to stimulate respiration in pigs and to counteract opioid respiratory
depression in wild animals (Marsboom, 1969). Azaperone is used widely in drug
combinations (BAM, NAM) or as adjuncts to primary immobilants.
Benzodiazepine tranquilizers are used primarily in wildlife immobilization as
anticonvulsant adjuncts to the cyclohexane anesthetics and they are also excellent
muscle relaxants. Specific antagonists are available that could reduce recovery times.

The alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists are potent sedatives and can be completely
antagonized by use of specific antagonists. They are widely used with primary
immobilants and in multiple drug combinations. By themselves, they are capable of
heavily sedating animals, particularly ungulates, to the point of relatively safe
handling. However, animals sedated with alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists might be
aroused with stimulation and are capable of directed attack. Caution should always
be exercised in such animals even though they appear harmless.
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Phenothiazine Agonists
Acepromazine, Promazine
Mechanism of Action: Antagonize the neurotransmitter, dopamine, in the basal
ganglia and limbic portions of the forebrain.
Elimination: Hepatic oxidation and glucuronic acid conjugation with renal
excretion.
Routes of Administration: IM, IV, SC, PO.
Advantages: Smooth anesthetic induction and recovery.
• Potentiates analgesic and anesthetic properties of other drugs.
• Antiemetic (decreases vomiting).
• Protects against adrenaline-induced cardiac fibrillation
• Relatively safe drugs (high therapeutic index).
Disadvantages: Can cause hypotension with reflex tachycardia.
• Can potentiate respiratory and cardiovascular depressant effects of opioids.
• Can cause a precipitous, or even fatal, fall in arterial blood pressure in shocked or
hypovolemic animals.
• Can cause hypothermia due to heat loss through dilated cutaneous vessels.
• Can cause temporary or permanent penile prolapse or priapism in horses.
• Can increase glucose levels, increase prolactin secretion, decrease
adrenocorticotropin and corticoid secretion, and decrease urinary concentrations of
gonadotropins, estrogen, and progesterone.
• Can block ovulation, suppress estrus, and cause infertility.
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Not controlled substances. Acepromazine is more potent than
promazine, but promazine has a markedly reduced duration of effect. Clinical effects
of acepromazine can last from 4–8 hr and up to 48 hr in older animals.
Butyrophenone Agonists
Azaperone
Mechanism of Action: Blocks postsynaptic mesolimbic dopaminergic D1 and D2
receptors in the brain; exhibit strong alpha-2 adrenoceptor blocking and
anticholinergic effect.
excretion.
Routes of Administration: IM, IV, SC.
Advantages: Smooth anesthetic induction and recovery.
• May increase respiration.
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• Minimal cardiovascular and thermoregulatory effects.
• Relatively safe drug (high therapeutic index).
• Short acting.
Disadvantages: Could cause excitement in horses at low doses.
• Causes drop in blood pressure upon administration.
• Inhibits ejaculation (do not use for semen collection procedures).
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Not controlled substance.
Diazepam, Midazolam
Mechanism of Action: Potentiate inhibitory effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA) neurotransmitter.
Elimination: Hepatic oxidation and glucuronide conjugation with excretion in urine
and feces.
Advantages: Good muscle relaxant.
• Anticonvulsant; particularly useful in decreasing cyclohexane-induced
convulsions.
• Safe: minimal respiratory and cardiovascular effects (but see comments).
• Produce retrograde amnesia.
Disadvantages: Diazepam is not rapidly absorbed IM.
• Low potency; generally require large volumes when used in combination with
immobilizing agents.
Antagonists: Flumazenil, sarmazenil.
Comments: Controlled substances (Schedule IV). Diazepam is solubilized in 40%
propylene glycol which may produce hypotension, bradycardia, apnea, and cardiac
arrest if injected too rapidly IV. Midazolam is in an aqueous base and does not cause
these cardiovascular reactions. All the benzodiazepines can potentially stimulate
appetite and be used to "force" animals to eat novel foods or to induce sick animals
to eat (Kreeger et al., 1991; Hall et al., 2001).

Xylazine, Romifidine, Detomidine, Medetomidine, Dexmedetomidine
Mechanism of Action: Act on pre- and postsynaptic alpha-2 adrenoceptor receptors
in central and peripheral nervous system to inhibit release of norepinephrine.
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver and excreted in urine.
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Routes of Administration: IM, IV, SC.
Advantages: Potent sedation.
• Good muscle relaxation.
• Analgesic.
• Can be completely antagonized.
• Compatible with and potentiates other immobilizing agents.
Disadvantages: Respiratory depressants, particularly when used with other drugs
having similar properties.
• Cause hypotension and bradycardia.
• Prolonged effect if not antagonized.
• Can cause ataxia if not antagonized in some species (e.g., pronghorn).
• Cause hyperglycemia and glucosuria (probably not clinically significant).
• Disrupts thermoregulatory capabilities.
• May cause vomiting in canids and felids.
• Decreases gastrointestinal motility, particularly in ruminants.
• Xylazine may cause abortion in late pregnancy, but only if an antagonist is not
given.
Antagonists: Atipamezole, yohimbine, tolazoline, idazoxan, MK-467.
Comments: Not controlled substances. Immobilization or sedation of highly excited
animals using alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists alone will be prolonged, if not
impossible (Jacobsen, 1983). If a sedated animal is aroused, eliminating the
stimulation will usually result in resedation and/or recumbency. Detomidine,
medetomidine, and dexmedetomidine are much more potent than xylazine and more
selective for specific alpha-2 adrenoceptor receptors. Medetomidine is a racemic
mixture composed by equal parts of two optical enantiomers: dexmedetomidine and
levomedetomidine. The pharmacological effects of medetomidine are due almost
exclusively to dexmedetomidine. Thus, the relative potency (mg:mg) between
dexmedetomidine and medetomidine is 2:1. Dexmedetomidine in wildlife does not
appear to offer any significant advantages over medetomidine (Bouts et al., 2010;
2011; Fandos Esteruelas et al., 2017). The difference in potency between the five
alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists is species dependent. In sheep, the equipotent sedative
doses for xylazine, romifidine, detomidine, and medetomidine are 0.15 mg/kg, 0.05
mg/kg, 0.03 mg/kg, and 0.01 mg/kg, respectively (Celly et al., 1997).
Long-acting Tranquilizers
Long-acting tranquilizers (LATs) are used in the transport and holding of wild
animals to calm them and reduce aggression. Readers interested in LATs are referred
to Ebedes, 1991; 1992a; 1993; Ebedes and Burroughs, 1992; Holz, Barnett, 1996,
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and Kock et al., 2006. See the Drug Doses section for LAT doses and comments as
they pertain to individual species.
Long-acting tranquilizers were developed to calm animals subjected to prolonged

translocations, new surroundings such as holding pens and quarantine pens, or
unnatural activities such as game auctions or experimental projects. Long-acting
tranquilizers reduced or eliminated stress, injuries, and mortalities seen when wild
animals were forced into these situations. Long-acting tranquilizers relieve anxiety,
moderate excitement, and reduce motor activity. They should be administered as
soon as possible after capture. Long-acting tranquilizers are formulated so that a
single dose gives a therapeutically effective tissue concentration for at least 7 days,
but they have a delayed onset of action.
Long-acting tranquilizers consist of fatty acid esters of a basic tranquilizer, which

have been dissolved in vegetable or medicinal oils. The prolonged activity derives
from the slow release of the esters as they diffuse from the solvent into the tissue
fluid and are absorbed into the blood. During this process, the basic tranquilizer
molecule is released. The storage depot of the LAT is at the injection site. The
duration of effect appears to be dose dependent, but the dose rate seems to be more
related to the anxiety level or age of the animal than to body mass.
Long-acting tranquilizers are always administered in combination with short- and/or

intermediate-acting tranquilizers. This insures a constant tranquilization of the
animal, because the effect of the short-acting tranquilizer wears off, then the
intermediate tranquilizer takes over, and then its effect is taken over by the LAT.
All animals mixed from different family groups and confined together should be
tranquilized, except for aggressive males, which should be confined on their own.
When family groups are housed together, it is only necessary to tranquilize the
adults, which have a calming effect on the young. It may be necessary to tranquilize
young if they become excited or separated from their mothers. Adult and subadult
males kept together should all be tranquilized. Individuals, even subadults, which are
not tranquilized may become hostile and aggressive and will injure tranquilized
animals. All animals at live auctions should be tranquilized. Very young and old
animals may react unpredictably to tranquilizers. Long-acting tranquilizers are
always given IM and can be added to short-acting tranquilizers in the same syringe,
even if they are incompatible and do not mix well.
Tranquilizers must always be used with discretion. Overdosing must be avoided

because side effects such as deep sedation and extrapyramidal symptoms interfere
with feeding and physiological and defensive activities. These side effects are very
similar to those seen in humans given these drugs and include dyskinesia with
dystonic reactions, such as torticollis, scoliosis, lordosis, opisthotonos, and tardive
29
dyskinesia with uncontrolled movements of the tongue, jaw, and mouth (Zuba and
Oosterhuis, 2007). This has been seen in red hartebeest, blesbok, springbok, zebra,
and buffalo given haloperidol. Catatonia, muscle rigidity, and mental stupor has been
seen in red hartebeest, springbok, tsessebe, blesbok, and elephant with haloperidol
and in roan antelope and defassa waterbuck with zuclopenthixol. Loss of appetite
(anorexia) has been experienced in impala with perphenazine enanthate and kudu
with haloperidol decanoate.
Haloperidol
Mechanism of Action: Blocks postsynaptic mesolimbic dopaminergic D1 and D2
receptors in the brain; exhibit strong alpha-2 adrenoceptor blocking and
anticholinergic effect.
Elimination: Hepatic oxidation, conjugation, and renal excretion.
Routes of Administration: IV, IM.
Advantages: Sedation is significant in 15 minutes after IM injection and lasts up to
18 hours depending on the species.
• IV injection results in immediate tranquilization.
• Excellent in smaller game (up to red hartebeest size) as well as in elephants.
Disadvantages: Extrapyramidal symptoms may occur with overdosing.
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Used alone or in combination with longer acting tranquilizers.
Extrapyramidal symptoms can be treated with 10-20 mg biperidin, dexetimide, 5 mg
diazepam, diphenhydramine, or xylazine.
Zuclopenthixol
Mechanism of Action: Enzymatic reactions release the active component
zuclopenthixol, which results in an unspecific, transient, dose dependant sedation.
Elimination: Mainly via feces with some degree of urinary excretion.
Routes of Administration: IM.
Advantages: Sedation is significant approximately 2 hours after injection, peaks at
approximately 8 hours, and lasts for 2-3 days.
• Single dose injection provides long-term tranquilization.
Disadvantages: Extrapyramidal symptoms may occur with overdosing.
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Give in combination with immediate-acting or shorter-acting
tranquilizers. Extrapyramidal symptoms can be treated with 10-20 mg biperidin,
dexetimide, 5 mg diazepam, or xylazine.
Perphenazine
30
Mechanism of Action: Antagonize the neurotransmitter, dopamine, in the basal
ganglia and limbic portions of the forebrain.
excretion.
Routes of Administration: IM (never IV).
Advantages: Sedation is significant approximately 12 hours after injection, peaks at
approximately 5 days, and lasts for 7-14 days.
• Single dose provides long-term tranquilization
Disadvantages: Extrapyramidal symptoms may occur with overdosing which may
include catatonia, dyskinesia, and anorexia.
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Give in combination with immediate-acting or shorter-acting
tranquilizers. Extrapyramidal symptoms can be treated with 10-20 mg biperidin,
dexetimide, 5 mg diazepam, or xylazine.
Immobilants
General anesthesia is defined as loss of pain perception (analgesia) combined with
loss of consciousness. Only the barbiturates, propofol, and the cyclohexanes induce
anesthesia. The opioids induce a state somewhere between paralysis and anesthesia
and are probably more accurately classified as neuroleptanalgesics.
Cyclohexanes
Also termed dissociative anesthetics, this group of drugs causes a functional and
electrophysiological dissociation between the thalamoneocortical and limbic
systems. They are characterized by producing a cataleptic state (a malleable rigidity
of the limbs) in which the eyes remain open with intact corneal and light reflexes.
When used singly, the cyclohexanes usually cause rough inductions and recoveries,
and convulsions are not uncommon. Because of this, they are usually administered
concurrently with tranquilizers or sedatives.
Ketamine and tiletamine are the two cyclohexanes in use today. Both are cogeners of
phencyclidine. Phencyclidine was widely used as a wildlife anesthetic until taken off
the market due to human abuse. Ketamine is probably one of the most widely used
drugs for wildlife anesthesia because of its efficacy and high therapeutic index. It is
generally used on small- and medium-sized mammals, but can immobilize species
ranging from reptiles to large ungulates.
Tiletamine is unavailable as a single product and it is combined in equal proportions

with the benzodiazepine agonist, zolazepam. When used alone, tiletamine produces
31
convulsive seizures and clonic muscular reactions while zolazepam alone causes
aggressive behavior (in domestic cats). Combining these two drugs (e.g., Telazol® ,
Zoletil® ) results in fewer convulsions, good muscle relaxation, and smoother
recoveries. Tiletamine-zolazepam is currently approved only for use in dogs and
cats, but during its development, it was used on over 200 non-domestic vertebrate
species (Gray et al., 1974; Boever et al., 1977b; Schobert, 1987). The relative
potencies of phencyclidine, tiletamine, and ketamine is approximately 5:2.5:1,
respectively (Beck, 1972). There is no antagonist of the cyclohexanes (Kreeger and
Seal, 1986a).
Cyclohexane Tips
Ketamine-Medetomidine
If you can’t find a drug dose for your species using ketamine and medetomidine, try
an initial dose of 3.0 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine. This dose is
based on the mean of this combination reported in 56 species.
An easy way to “pre-mix” this dose is to start with 200 mg/ml ketamine (available
from veterinary pharmacists) and 20 mg/ml medetomidine (available from Wildlife
Pharmaceuticals). For each 20 ml vial of ketamine, remove 5 ml and replace with 5
ml of medetomidine (for 10 ml ketamine vials, remove and replace 2.5 ml). This
combination will now provide 150 mg ketamine and 5 mg medetomidine per ml. The
standard dose for most mammals would be 1 ml for every 50 kg body weight (i.e.,
the same standard dose as above). For example, a 100 kg deer would get 2 ml of this
mixture (300 mg ketamine plus 10 mg medetomidine total dose).
Use ketamine-medetomidine combinations with extreme care when immobilizing

dangerous species (bears, large cats, etc.) because there have been multiple reports of
sudden "awakening." This usually occurs 30-45 minutes post induction and animals
are capable of directed attack; however if not further stimulated after arousal, they
often revert to the immobilized state. If working with such species, constantly
monitor depth of anesthesia.
Tiletamine-Zolazepam
Tiletamine-zolazepam (i.e., Telazol® , Zoletil® ) is available worldwide in
lyophilized (freeze-dried) form. Zoletil® is produced with 500 mg (250 mg of each
drug) per vial. The manufacturer recommends adding 4.4 ml solvent to the vial
resulting in a concentration of 100 mg/ml. However, Telazol® is produced with 572
mg (286 mg of each drug) per vial. Manufacturer’s instructions call for adding 5 ml
sterile water to the vial resulting in an approximate concentration of 100 mg/ml. This
apparent inconsistency is because when 5 ml of solvent is added, the final volume is
32
actually 5.7 ml due to chemical reactions. Thus, 572 mg in 5.7 ml is approximately
100 mg/ml (Amass and Drew, 2006).
You can increase this concentration by adding less water. Regardless of the amount
of water added, figure the final volume will be approximately 0.6-0.7 ml greater
(e.g., adding 2 ml will result in about 2.6 ml). You need to keep this total volume in
mind because it will affect your calculations. For example when using Telazol® , if
you use just 2 ml (2.6 ml final volume), the actual drug concentration will be about
220 mg/ml (572 mg/2.6 ml). You can add as little as 1 ml solvent (1.6 ml final
volume), but the solvent must be warm and the solution kept warm or the drug will
go back out of solution.
Tiletamine-Zolazepam-Xylazine
You can also increase the effectiveness of this drug by adding sedatives, such as
xylazine or medetomidine, instead of water. Adding 2 ml of 100 mg/ml xylazine, for
instance, will provide 572 mg tiletamine-zolazepam (for Telazol® ) plus 200 mg
xylazine in approximately 2.6 ml solution. One vial of this mixture should
immobilize most medium sized mammals (i.e., ≤ 100 kg); two vials should work on
larger animals (i.e., 100–250 kg). Alternatively, you can add 1 ml of 100 mg/ml
ketamine plus 1 ml of 100 mg/ml xylazine. This is a good combination for
carnivores, such as bears. The same doses would apply (i.e., one vial for ≤ 100 kg
bears).
Ketamine, Tiletamine
Mechanism of Action: Unknown, presumably a complex involving sigma,
cholinergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, and N-methyl-D-aspartic receptors.
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver by N-demethylation via cytochrome P-450
enzymes, conjugated to water-soluble glucuronide derivatives, and excreted in urine.
Routes of Administration: IM, IV, SC, IP, PO.
Advantages: Effective on many species.
• Safe (high therapeutic index).
• Provide peripheral analgesia (visceral pain not abolished).
• Minimal respiratory effects (depressant only at high doses).
• Good cardiovascular support (heart rate and blood pressure increase).
• Synergistic with many tranquilizers and anesthetics.
Disadvantages: Rough inductions and recoveries without tranquilizers.
• Poor muscle relaxation when used without tranquilizers.
• Convulsant, particularly with prolonged administration or high doses (ketamine,
phencyclidine).
33
• Can cause copious salivation.
• Rapid IV administration can cause transient apnea.
• Low pH of solution causes burning, irritation upon injection.
• Produce a variety of hematologic, serum chemical, and endocrine alterations.
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Ketamine is a racemic mixture composed by equal parts of two optical
enantiomers: S-ketamine and R-ketamine. Recovery from racemic ketamine has been
associated with undesirable psychomimetic effects in several species and S-ketamine
may offer an advantage. In gazelles, administration of S-ketamine at 60% that of
racemic ketamine resulted in poorer induction of anesthesia, an analogous degree of
sedation, and a significantly better recovery from anesthesia (Martin-Jurado et al.,
2011). In hares, fewer undesirable side effects were seen during recovery from S-
ketamine at 50% that of racemic ketamine (Gerritsmann et al., 2012). The total
recovery time, however, was not significantly different in the two groups. In both
studies, a fixed dose of medetomidine (antagonized by atipamezole) was part of the
protocol. Ketamine and tiletamine are both controlled substances (Schedule III). The
eyelids normally remain open during cyclohexane anesthesia and the eyes of animals
immobilized outdoors should be protected from drying out and from ultraviolet light.
Palpebral and corneal reflexes usually remain intact under cyclohexane anesthesia
and shouldn’t be used to assess depth of anesthesia. If profound salivation is
problematic, it can usually be controlled with atropine. However, it should be
remembered that both cyclohexanes and atropine increase heart rate; the combination
of these two drugs may produce unacceptably high heart rates. A
tranquilizer/sedative should be used in almost all cases with the cyclohexanes to
reduce or prevent the untoward effects of these drugs. Cyclohexanes are fairly
effective given orally and can be used to spike baits to partially tranquilize animals
or sprayed into the mouth of caged/trapped animals rendering them safer to handle.
Opioids
Opium is a drug obtained from the juice of the poppy, Papaver somniferum , and
contains over 20 alkaloids. Opioid immobilizing agents are generally congeners of
two of these alkaloids, morphine and thebaine. The opioids have been used for
animal immobilization since the 1960s and are the most potent drugs available for
this purpose.
The opioids interact with stereospecific and saturable receptors in the CNS. Several
opioid receptors have been identified (kappa, delta, mu) which bind natural and
synthetic exogenous opioids as well as endogenous opioids (endorphins,
enkephalins, dynorphins). Most opioid drugs appear to act preferentially at mu
receptors. Opioids either selectively inhibit the release of excitatory
34
neurotransmitters (i.e., dopamine) or act at postsynaptic sites. A major advantage in
the use of opioids is the availability of specific antagonists.
Opioids are not true anesthetics in that they induce a state of immobilization
characterized by spontaneous movements and responsiveness to noise, touch, and
other stimulation which indicates that they are not completely unconscious, a
characteristic of general anesthesia. Research utilizing the bispectral index (BIS) has
demonstrated that opioids do not induce anesthesia, nor are they sedatives. The BIS
is a continuous single variable representing a weighted sum of electroencephalogram
subparameters that can be statistically analyzed to evaluate depth of anesthesia. The
BIS value (70.4) in elk given carfentanil-xylazine was significantly higher than the
BIS (47.2) where elk on gas lose consciousness (Kreeger et al., 2010). Thus, opioids
are immobilants that induce a state probably best described as neuroleptanalgesia.
The opioids, however, are potent analgesics and minor painful operations (e.g., ear
tagging, tooth extraction) should be well tolerated by the animal.
The three most common opioids are etorphine, thiafentanil, and carfentanil (no
longer available). Etorphine is an analog of thebaine; thiafentanil and carfentanil are
derivatives of fentanyl. In rats, fentanyl is approximately 292 times more potent;
etorphine 1,000 times more potent (Dobbs, 1968); and carfentanil 10,031 times more
potent in rats (Van Bever et al, 1976) than morphine. In humans, etorphine is 500
times more potent than morphine (Jasinski et al., 1975).
Etorphine
Etorphine was the first of the potent opioids to be used in wildlife immobilization. It
has been in use for almost 50 years. Its popularity diminished somewhat with the
advent of even more potent opioids such as carfentanil and thiafentanil. However
with the recent loss of carfentanil and the severe restrictions on thiafentanil use in the
U.S., etorphine will again probably be the predominant potent opioid. Etorphine has
always been popular in Europe and Africa. Although less potent than carfentanil or
thiafentanil, etorphine was responsible for the only recorded human deaths due to
accidental injection (Summerhays, 1976). The oft-cited lethal dose for humans is as
low as 30 µg, but no primary reference to confirm this has been found. This lethal
dose might be unlikely because human clinical doses of etorphine are often much
higher (Woodward et al., 2012).
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The bispectral index (BIS) has essentially simplified the complex electroencephalogram, allowing
analysis of the depth of anesthesia. Although originally developed for human use, the BIS has been
found to be accurate in animals and could become a powerful tool for evaluating new immobilants.
Carfentanil
Carfentanil is no longer available, but for decades was one of the best immobilants
for wildlife because of its potency and ability to be antagonized. It was often viewed
with trepidation due to its perceived potential toxicity to humans should accidental
exposure occur. Although numerous deaths have resulted from the intentional
administration of illegal carfentanil mixed with other drugs, there have been no
recorded deaths due to carfentanil used in wildlife capture despite over 30 years of
use and tens of thousands of doses given.
Thiafentanil (A-3080)
Thiafentanil is a synthetic opioid available in the United States and South Africa
upon prescription. Its use in the U.S. is highly restricted to minor species hoofstock
not intended for human consumption (i.e., essentially zoo animals). In elk (Cervus
elaphus ), thiafentanil appeared to give rapid induction with a shorter duration of
action than carfentanil which may be beneficial in reducing resedation (Stanley et al.,
1988; Janssen et al., 1991). Thiafentanil has been shown to be superior to carfentanil
for pronghorn capture (Kreeger et al., 2001). In many African species, thiafentanil
has a short induction time (< 2 min) and short duration (approx. 30 min) if used
alone. Resedation (see below) has not been observed in these African species.
Sufentanil
Sufentanil is another fentanyl congener used primarily in human medicine, but it can
be used on wild animals (Kreeger and Seal, 1990; Kreeger et al., 2011; Kreeger and
Kellie, 2012). Sufentanil is 4,521 times more potent than morphine in rats and it has
a safety margin (LD50 /lowest ED50 ) of 25,211 in rats and 50,357 in dogs
36
(Niemegeers et al., 1976; Van Bever et al, 1976; Marsboom, 1985). The human
formulation (50 µg/ml) is too dilute to be of practical use in wildlife because of the
large volumes required. However, sufentanil can be purchased in bulk powder which
can be reconstituted in a variety of concentrations by veterinary compounders by
dissolving in sterile water for injection and titrated to pH 4.0 with hydrochloric acid.
In elk (Cervus elaphus ), the relative potencies of sufentanil : thiafentanil :
carfentanil are 0.1 : 0.25 : 1.0 (Kreeger et al., 2011).
Butorphanol
Butorphanol is a morphinan analogue with a potency 3.5–7 times that of morphine.
Butorphanol has mixed agonist-antagonist properties. Higher doses (> 0.5 mg/kg) of
butorphanol may result in no effect as antagonistic properties tend to dominate. The
antagonist potency is about 1/40 that of naloxone, nonetheless high doses can be
used to antagonize other opioids. Alone, butorphanol provides only “apathetic
sedation.” Butorphanol is enjoying a resurgence of use when combined with
azaperone and medetomidine (BAM). In the U.S.and Canada, it is a Schedule IV
controlled substance. Advantages of BAM include smooth induction and less record
keeping requirements compared to Schedule II controlled substances (e.g.,
etorphine). Disadvantages include prolonged induction time (often > 10 min),
respiratory depression, and sudden and unexpected arousal.
Nalbuphine
Nalbuphine is a semi-synthetic opioid agonist-antagonist ten times more potent than
butorphanol. It is chemically related to the opioid antagonist, naloxone, and the
opioid agonist oxymorphone. It is not a controlled substance in the U.S. Nalbuphine
has been shown to be a viable alternative to the more potent opioids when mixed
with azaperone and/or medetomidine (Wolfe et al., 2014; 2016).
Resedation
A phenomenon seen with the use of opioids for animal immobilization is
“resedation.” After antagonism, the animal appears to again come under the
influence of the opioid agonist. This can occur relatively quickly or several hours to
days after the immobilizing episode. Resedation appears to occur more frequently,
but not exclusively, with carfentanil use (Jessup et al., 1984a; 1985b; Kreeger and
Seal, 1990). Resedation may be due to (1) the more potent agonists being
metabolized slower than the antagonist; (2) the marked lipophilia of opioids resulting
in prolonged release from fat depots; or (3) enterohepatic circulation.
Opioid Toxicity
Extra care and concentration is required when working with this drug class,
partcularly etorphine and thiafentanil. Toxic exposure can be by accidental injection
37
with a syringe or dart, by absorption through the mucous membranes of the mouth,
eyes, or nose, or by direct absorption through broken skin. Opioid immobilizing
agents should never be used while working alone or without having an antagonist
immediately on hand. If you are exposed to these opioids without the availability of
an antagonist, by yourself, or even with someone who is ignorant of CPR
(cardiopulmonary resuscitation), there is a possibility that you will not survive.
Anyone using these agents should read the sections on antagonists and on Human
Medical Treatment for appropriate responses to opioid overdose. Although opioids
are potentially toxic, keep in mind that there have been only two recorded human
deaths (due to injection with etorphine) and no recorded deaths due to carfentanil or
thiafentanil despite over 30 years of use and tens of thousands of doses given.
Opioids induce neuroleptanalgesia, an intense analgesic and amnesic state characterized by

responses to touch and sound, but inability to conduct directed motion. Although this moose appears
"awake" it can safely be approached and handled.
Fentanyl, Sufentanil, Thiafentanil, Etorphine

Mechanism of Action: Interact with stereospecific and saturable opioid receptors in
the CNS.
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver by glucuronic conjugation or by N-
demethylation and excreted in bile or by the kidneys.
Advantages: Potency allows volumes suitable for immobilization of the largest of
animals.
• Rapidly antagonized.
• Analgesic.
• No major cardiovascular effects
38
Disadvantages: Potentially toxic to humans at low doses.
• Major respiratory depressants.
• Can “recycle” after antagonism.
• Can cause prolonged, excitatory state prior to induction.
• Alter thermoregulation.
• Do not interfere with senses of touch, vibration, vision, or hearing (animal
responds to such stimulation).
• Poor muscle relaxation in some species (ungulates, equids).
• Increases salivation.
• May cause vomition, defecation, decreased rumen motility, and bloat.
• May induce temporary endocrine changes.
Antagonists: Diprenorphine (M50-50® ), naloxone, naltrexone, nalmefene.
Comments: Controlled substances (Schedule II). Felids and equids should not be
given opioids without tranquilizers/sedatives to avoid excitation upon induction. In
general (except for moose, Alces spp.), concurrent use of tranquilizers in all species
hastens and smooths induction as well as ameliorates many of the adverse effects of
opioids. However, tranquilizers having adverse effects such as respiratory depression
or thermoregulation alteration may exacerbate these conditions when used with
opioids.
Butorphanol
Mechanism of Action: Partial mu opioid receptor agonist-antagonist; partial kappa
receptor agonist.
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver with 75% excreted by the kidneys.
Routes of Administration: IM, IV.
Advantages: Safe, high therapeutic index.
• Minimal cardiovascular and respiratory effects.
• Can be antagonized.
• Good analgesic.
Disadvantages: Provides only mild sedation when used alone.
• Inductions may be longer than more potent opioids.
Antagonists: Naloxone, naltrexone, nalmefene.
Comments: Controlled substances (Schedule IV). Can be combined with xylazine to
provide profound sedation, but this combination is best limited to immobilization of
calm or restrained animals (Kreeger et al., 1989a). Such immobilized animals also
tend to be more stimulated by sound or touch than other drug combinations.
However, when combined with azaperone and medetomidine (BAM), butorphanol
can be used on free-ranging wildlife (Wolfe et al., 2016; 2017). This combination
does have the advantage of being completely and quickly antagonized with opioid
39
and alpha-2 adrenoceptor (atipamezole) antagonists. In general, immobilization with
BAM results in slow induction, depressed respiration, but excellent muscle
relaxation and recovery.
Nalbuphine
Mechanism of Action: Partial kappa opioid receptor agonist and mu opioid receptor
mixed agonist-antagonist
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver
Routes of Administration: IM.
Advantages: Can be antagonized.
• Good analgesic.
• Not controlled substance
Disadvantages: Inductions may be longer than more potent opioids.
• Respiratory depression.
Antagonists: Naloxone, naltrexone, nalmefene.
Comments: Not controlled substance in the U.S. Nalbuphine has been shown to be a
viable alternative to the more potent opioids when mixed with azaperone and/or
medetomidine (Wolfe et al., 2014; 2016).
Alfaxalone
Alfaxalone is a neuroactive steroid with anesthetic properties. Alfaxalone was
initially marketed combined with another drug. It was removed from the market due
to adverse effects of the solvent. Subsequently, alfaxalone was reintroduced as a
single agent utilizing a different solvent. Although usually administered IV as a
preanesthetic, it can be given IM. Adverse effects when used alone, such as agitation
upon recovery, are ameliorated when mixed with other sedatives. Alfaxalone has
shown promise as an alternative to the potent opioids for wildlife immobilization
when mixed with azaperone and medetomidine (AAM) .
Alfaxalone
Mechanism of Action: Potentiate inhibitory effects of gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA) neurotransmitter.
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver
Routes of Administration: IV, IM
Advantages: Fairly rapid induction.
• Rapidly metabolized.
Disadvantages: Not highly concentrated limiting use on large species.
• Respiratory depression.
40
• Extremely short shelf-life (see Comments).
Antagonists: None.
Comments: Schedule IV controlled substance in the U.S. Alfaxalone combined with
azaperone and medetomidine (AAM) has been effective on captive and free-ranging
deer (Pon et al., 2016; Mathieu et al., 2017). Alfaxalone has an extremely short shelf-
life once the vial seal has been broken. In the U.S., a vial can be kept up to six hours
after its first use. In Australia and New Zealand, a used vial can be kept refrigerated
for up to seven days.
Propofol
Propofol is an injectable anesthetic chemically unrelated to other intravenous
anesthetics. The compound comes as an 1% (10 mg/ml) emulsion in oil. It has a
milky appearance and it is easily contaminated with bacteria and mold unless strict
sterile withdrawal technique is observed. Propofol when given IV in a rapid bolus
(6.6 mg/kg) produces general anesthesia of short duration (Mandelker, 1993).
Following induction, respiration is often depressed, sometimes to the point of apnea,
but this effect lasts only for approximately 30 seconds. Due to its rapid elimination,
recovery from propofol can lead to disorientation and paddling of the limbs. The
addition of diazepam (0.4 mg/kg) is often helpful in providing muscle relaxation and
smoothing recovery. Low doses of acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg) given as a
preanesthetic can lower the propofol dose by one-half (Mandelker, 1993). Propofol
can be used like the barbiturates to induce anesthesia that will be maintained by gas.
Propofol has found some limited use in wild ruminants and camelids (Jalanka and
Teräväinen, 1992), but volumes required can be prodigious. Propofol also might be
effective in certain fish species (Al-Hamdani et al., 2010).
Inhalation Anesthetics
Comprehensive instruction on inhalation (gas) anesthesia is beyond the scope of this
handbook. In-depth coverage of gas anesthesia can be found in Grimm et al. (2015)
and Muir and Hubbel (2013). Unless you are dealing with the simplest of gas
systems, do not attempt to anesthetize animals without hands-on instruction from a
veterinarian or an experienced veterinary technician. In the simplest of terms, gas
anesthesia is the delivery of vaporized drugs that are breathed directly into the lungs,
taken up by the blood, and delivered to the brain resulting in general anesthesia.
Elimination of the drug is mostly by a reversal of this same route.
Inhalation anesthesia sees limited application in field immobilizations. However, it

can be used effectively for small mammals and birds or for maintaining anesthesia in
larger animals initially anesthetized with injectable drugs (Mathews et al., 2002;
Lewis, 2004; Kocer and Powell, 2008; Gorini et al., 2013). Its primary use is in zoos
41
and research facilities. Below we present an overview of inhalation anesthesia to
familiarize you with this technology, but reiterate the need for instruction by
qualified personnel.
Delivering vaporized drug to the brain is, understandably, not a straight forward task.
Unlike directly injecting a drug into the tissue where it is picked up by circulating
blood and delivered to the brain, inhalation anesthetics must first be vaporized, then
delivered to the lungs, then cross the alveoli into the circulation, and finally cross the
blood-brain barrier to interact with appropriate CNS receptors. In most modern
inhalation drug delivery systems, the drug is vaporized by flowing oxygen through it
in a metal vaporizer. This mixture of vaporized drug and oxygen is then delivered to
the patient’s lungs.
The vapor pressure of the drug determines its volatility and, thus, maximum
concentration of the drug in the gaseous mixture. Vapor pressure can be affected by
temperature and flow rate. When the drug/oxygen mixture reaches the lungs, it must
achieve sufficient partial pressure within the alveoli to cross into the blood. This
partial pressure is a function of the inspired concentration of drug, which can be
determined by the vaporizer setting (see below and Table 1). In general, the greater
the ventilation (i.e., breathing) the quicker gas concentration will rise in the alveoli.
Thus, it will take longer to achieve general anesthesia if breathing is slow or shallow
(decreased tidal volume).
The ability of the drug molecule in the gaseous phase to cross the alveoli into the
blood is determined its solubility which is expressed as a partition coefficient (Table
1). The greater the blood-gas partition coefficient, the longer it will take to achieve
induction and recovery and vice versa. Thus drugs such as isoflurane and
sevoflurane, are preferred today because they have low partition coefficients (Table
1), which provide rapid induction and (just as important) rapid recovery from
anesthesia. Keep in mind that any disease state which causes pathologic changes in
the alveoli (e.g., fibrosis, emphysema, exudates) will impair diffusion and slow drug
uptake.
Assuming cardiac output and blood flow are normal, drug uptake by the brain is
relatively rapid because of its rich blood supply. Tissues with poorer blood supply,
such as fat, absorb drug much more slowly. Fat also has a high tissue solubility for
inhalation anesthetics and will have a greater and more prolonged capacity to absorb
anesthetic. This will have little effect on induction, however, because of fat’s low
blood flow. Conversely, once drug crosses into fat tissues, it is diffuses out just as
slowly. Thus, patients with lots of fat stores (e.g., bears) that undergo extended
anesthesia (> 3 hr) will have a prolonged recovery due to the release of the drug back
into the circulation (Muir and Hubbel, 2013).
42
Elimination of inhalation anesthetics is just the opposite of uptake. Once drug is
eliminated from the alveoli (by turning off the vaporizer), arterial blood tension (i.e.,
the partial pressure of gas dissolved in the blood) falls, followed by a fall in tissue
tension. Because of the high blood flow to the brain, anesthetic tension falls rapidly
resulting in the fairly quick anesthetic recovery with agents such as isoflurane and
sevoflurane.
Diethyl Ether
Ether is a versatile anesthetic that can be administered with the simplest of
equipment on small mammals and birds. It is little used today, however, because of
its high inflammability (it forms an explosive mixture with air or oxygen). It is a
potent analgesic and good muscle relaxant, producing gradual suppression of
reflexes. Induction and recovery are relatively slow.
Nitrous Oxide
This is used primarily as an adjunct to other gas anesthetics. By itself, it produces
only mild anesthesia and analgesia. When combined with a more potent gas, nitrous
oxide decreases the amount of gas required for complete anesthesia. Nitrous oxide
does not appear to have deleterious effects on the liver, kidneys, or gastrointestinal
tract. Nitrous oxide should be used with a minimum of 30% oxygen in the total gas
flow to prevent hypoxia.
Enflurane
Enflurane provides a smooth and fairly rapid induction and emergence from
anesthesia. Depth of anesthesia can be adjusted relatively quickly. Enflurane
decreases blood pressure to about the same degree as halothane, but bradycardia and
arrhythmias are lessened. Enflurane provides good muscle relaxation and analgesia,
but depresses respiration as its concentration increases. It is not nephrotoxic, but
hepatic necrosis has been reported associated with repeated administration. The
majority of enflurane is expired, with small amounts being biotransformed.
Tranquilizers should be used to smooth induction and to avoid emergence delirium.
Sevoflurane
Sevoflurane provides more rapid induction, recovery, and change in depth than
isoflurane. It produces good muscle relaxation and analgesia. Sevoflurane causes
respiratory depression like isoflurane, but less myocardial depression. Sevoflurane
rapidly crosses the placenta, causing fetal depression. Sevoflurane causes higher
inorganic fluoride (F- ) concentrations than isoflurane, but this has not resulted in
nephrotoxicity in the few species studied. Sevoflurane also elevates concentrations of
Compound A (pentafluorisopropenyl fluoromethyl ether) which is formed when
sevoflurane interacts with carbon dioxide in rebreathing (closed) systems. These
43
concentrations (30–40 ppm) are significantly lower than concentrations associated
with renal toxicity and death in rats (Gaynor et al., 1997). When using rebreathing
systems, a minimum oxygen flow rate of 2 L/min is recommended. Although the
toxicity of Compound A in almost all nondomestic species is unknown, the use of
nonrebreathing systems may be prudent.
Isoflurane
This is an isomer of enflurane that provides rapid and smooth induction and
emergence from general anesthesia. Anesthetic depth can be changed more rapidly
than with most of the previously-mentioned gases. Blood pressure decreases
progressively with increasing depth of anesthesia as a result of decreased vascular
resistance. However, cardiac output is maintained because of increased heart rate.
Arrhythmias are rare, except perhaps in birds. Isoflurane causes a more profound
respiratory depression than either halothane or enflurane. It is an excellent muscle
relaxant and is neither nephrotoxic nor hepatotoxic. Only a fraction of isoflurane is
metabolized. Isoflurane is an excellent inhalation anesthetic when used with a
calibrated vaporizer and has been used on many wildlife species.
Desflurane
Desflurane is identical in structure to isoflurane, except that fluorine is substituted
for chlorine. Desflurane causes extremely rapid induction and recovery, but it is
pungent, causing irritation, coughing, or breath holding. Desflurane requires a
special, electrically-heated vaporizer and it is more expensive than most other gases.
Delivery Systems
44
For details of different delivery systems, we refer you to Chapter 14 in Muir and
Hubbel (2013). The simplest method to deliver inhalation drugs is an open system.
This can be a jar with ether-soaked cotton balls in which you place a small mammal
until it loses consciousness or a cone with drug-soaked cotton that is placed over the
muzzle of a larger animal. Open systems provide an acceptable means to anesthetize
rodents and other small mammals. Cones can be used to maintain anesthesia in
animals that have been initially anesthetized in a chamber but then removed for
further handling. Open systems waste a lot of anesthetic through uncontrolled
vaporization. This vaporization also exposes the human to potentially toxic fumes.
There is little control of depth of anesthesia with open systems. You must closely
observe the depth of anesthesia (Table 2) and remove the animal for awhile to
breathe ambient air when needed.
Non-rebreathing systems require the input of a pressurized oxygen to vaporize and

deliver the drug to the lungs. The gas must be delivered at relatively high rates (e.g.,
50–150 ml/ kg/min) to both deliver the drug and remove carbon dioxide. Non-re-
breathing systems can be thought of as one-way systems where the anesthetic gas is
delivered by a cone over the muzzle or an endotracheal tube. When the animal
exhales, the expired mixture of gases is “forced” along a route different than the
incoming anesthetic gas. This alternate route can be by a “Y” or “T” tube where
anesthetic goes in one arm of the “Y” or “T” and exhaled gases go out the other arm
(e.g., Ayre’s T piece system). Other systems have a “tube within a tube” (Bain or
Lack system) where the inspired anesthetic gas is delivered to the animal in the outer
tube and exhaled gases are delivered to the exterior by a smaller tube within.
Rebreathing systems are the best systems for delivering inhalation anesthetics. They
are, of course, the most expensive and the most complex. Rebreathing systems use
low gas flow rates to deliver the drug (e.g., 1–5 ml/kg/min) and do not cause abrupt
fluctuations in anesthetic depth. Rebreathing systems start with compressed oxygen
which passes through a flow meter to monitor and adjust oxygen flow rate. The
oxygen then passes through an adjustable vaporizer where the anesthetic is vaporized
and swept along the hose by the oxygen and delivered to the animal’s lungs through
a one-way valve. Expired gases are forced by the one-way valve along another tube
which passes through a carbon dioxide absorbent canister. This canister scavenges
the carbon dioxide from the expired gas mixture. This absorbent changes color
(usually blue) when saturated and then it should be replaced. Regardless of color
change, absorbent should be changed after 6–8 hours of use. This scavenged gas,
which contains oxygen and unabsorbed anesthetic, then continues back through the
vaporizer to be essentially “reused.” Rebreathing systems can employ a secondary
gas, such as nitrous oxide, to increase the efficiency of the anesthetic. Such systems
also employ rebreathing bags and pop-off valves that assist the animal’s breathing
and system pressure, respectively. Precision vaporizers are gas specific; for example,
isoflurane requires an isoflurane vaporizer. Also, rebreathing systems generally
45
cannot be used for small mammals (i.e., < 2–3 kg) because of their small lung
volumes.
Black-footed ferret in portable sevoflurane anesthesia machine.
A hypothetical process for using inhalation anesthetics is as follows: fill the

vaporizer with anesthetic (let’s use isoflurane in this example) and fill the carbon
dioxide canister with fresh absorbent. Confirm correct operation of unidirectional
valves. Check oxygen cylinder pressure; turn on oxygen and check flowmeter
function (repeat for nitrous oxide if so equipped). Make sure all connections are tight
and pop-off valve and scavenging system are working. Bring in the patient only
when these steps have been completed. Attach the system to animal either via a cone
or endotracheal tube. Turn the oxygen on to 3 L/min. Turn the vaporizer to 4% to
induce anesthesia. Monitor the patient and assess depth of anesthesia. When general
anesthesia is achieved, turn the oxygen down to 2 L/min and vaporizer down to 2%.
If the patient starts to arouse, increase the vaporizer percent. If the patient becomes
46
hypoxic (tongue or lips become bluish-gray), increase the oxygen flow. If the patient
becomes too deep, reduce the vaporizer setting or turn off completely. Remember,
the preceding was just a hypothetical example.
Each species will have different settings as will every individual. You must
constantly monitor the patient when using gas anesthesia. Unlike injectable
anesthetics where the patient is usually quite stable a few minutes after induction,
patients on gas anesthesia require continual monitoring. The biggest mistake novices
make with gas anesthesia is to become distracted with other tasks (e.g., blood
sampling, measurements, ultrasound) and ignore the depth of anesthesia. In a very
short period of time, animals can go from an acceptable level of anesthesia (e.g.,
Stage III, Plane 2; Table 2) to medullary paralysis and death. If you are going to use
gas anesthesia, you must have a person dedicated to monitoring the patient.
Table 2. Classical stages of anesthesia as defined for ether anesthesia.
I Stage of Analgesia
- disorientation
- increased heart and respiratory rate
- excessive salivation
- urine and feces may be voided
II Stage of Delirium or Excitement

- delirium, excitement, struggling
- loss of voluntary control
- tachycardia, possible cardiac arrhythmias
- irregular respiration, possible apnea
- dilated pupils
- reflex vomition, defecation, urination
- loss of consciousness
III Stage of Surgical Anesthesia

Plane I
- increased depth and rate of respiration
- reflexes present
- normal pulse and blood pressure
- pupils constricted
47
Plane II
- regular depth and rate of respiration
- loss of reflexes
- normal pulse and blood pressure
- pupils normal; fixed eye movement
Plane III
- increased abdominal respiration as intercostal muscles become
paralyzed
- rapid pulse; blood pressure falls
- pupils slightly dilated
Plane IV
- paralysis of intercostal muscles, abdominal respiration only
- pulse rapid; blood pressure continues to fall; impaired cardiac
function
IV Stage of Medullary Paralysis

- respiratory arrest leading to circulatory collapse
- pulse, blood pressure weak then absent
- eyes fixed and dilated
- death within 1–5 minutes
Antagonists
Some of the more notable pharmacological developments relative to wild animal
immobilization have been specific, long-lasting opioid and alpha-2 adrenoceptor
antagonists. The ability to antagonize anesthesia and return the animal more quickly
to physiological normalcy offers many advantages including:
• Alleviation of problems associated with prolonged recumbency such as nerve and
muscle damage, bloat, and hypothermia.
• Reduced probability of injury or death after recovery due to accident or predation
because there is no residual impairment from the immobilizing drugs such as
sedation or ataxia.
• Decreased probability of rejection or interspecific strife due to quicker return to
parent, herd, pack, etc.
• Decreased personnel and equipment time dedicated to monitoring the recovery
process.
48
In general, opioid and alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists are safe, causing adverse
effects only at higher doses. It should be remembered that antagonists act on the
animal and not on the agonist. Thus, it does not necessarily follow that the more
potent the agonist, the more amount of antagonist needs to be administered.
Increasing the dose of an antagonist usually does not decrease recovery times
(Kreeger et al., 1987a), but higher doses could prolong antagonism by maintaining
serum concentrations at higher levels. When given a choice, one should select an
antagonist that is the most specific for the receptors affected and has the longest
biological life in the animal.
Intravenous injection of antagonists provides the most rapid recovery (1–2 min),
although such quick recoveries may be less smooth compared to other routes of
administration. A slower (app. 5–10 min) recovery occurs with IM injection
(Wallingford et al., 1996). Spraying antagonists intranasally can also achieve
reversals, albeit somewhat slower than IM (Shury et al., 2010). Intranasal
administration is usually achieved by attaching the syringe to a catheter and inserting
the catheter into the nares and extending it to the level of the eye. A common
practice was to give equal doses of the antagonist both IV and IM or SC, or IM and
SC. The IM or SC dose theoretically provides a slower release and thus a longer
period for the antagonist to prevent recycling of the agonist; however, research on
domestic goats does not support this theory (Mutlow et al., 2004). Unless there is a
medical emergency where the animal needs to recover quickly (e.g., choking, apnea,
possibility of drowning etc.), there is probably no reason to administer antagonists
IV. Antagonists given IM provide for a more gradual, controlled recovery and are
simply easier to administer.
Opioid Antagonists
Opioid antagonists have been in use for over 40 years and their use in combination
with potent opioid agonists made them powerful tools for wildlife capture. Today,
they are used extensively to antagonize the effects of such opioid agonists as
fentanyl, etorphine, thiafentanil, and carfentanil. Early antagonists included
nalorphine, levallorphan, pentazocine, nalbuphine, and diprenorphine. Some of these
antagonists (diprenorphine, nalorphine, levallorphan) act antagonistically at the mu
receptor while exhibiting agonistic properties at the two remaining opiate receptor
sites. Thus, at higher doses, they cause agonistic effects such as respiratory
depression. Naloxone, nalmefene, and naltrexone are termed pure antagonists
because they exhibit only antagonistic properties at all three opioid receptors. The
duration of action of naloxone is generally shorter (T1/2 = 30–40 min) than the
agonists and opioid effects may recur as the naloxone wears off (see Resedation ).
Although nalmefene has been used as an opioid antagonist in wildlife (Kreeger et al.,
1987b) and is a superior antagonist relative to naloxone, its use will probably be
limited because of the development of an even better antagonist, naltrexone.
49
Naltrexone
Naltrexone is a synthetic structural analog of thebaine. Naltrexone appears to have an
antagonistic activity 2–9 times greater than that of naloxone (Bryson, 1989). Besides
being more potent, naltrexone has a much longer duration of action than naloxone
and therein lies its advantage for wildlife use. The reason for this is that naltrexone,
like naloxone, undergoes extensive first pass hepatic metabolism, but whereas
naloxone’s metabolites have little or no antagonistic properties, naltrexone’s major
metabolite, 6-β-naltrexol, is also a pure antagonist and contributes to opioid receptor
blockade. The half-lives (T1/2 ) of naltrexone and 6-β-naltrexol are 4 hours and 13
hours, respectively. An example of the significance of this is that 50 mg of
naltrexone will block the pharmacological effects of morphine in humans for up to
24 hours; doubling the dose of naltrexone provides blockade for 48 hours; and
tripling the dose provides blockade for about 72 hours (Bryson, 1989). Thus high
doses of naltrexone have been shown to be the most effective tool in not only
antagonizing the effects of the potent opioid, carfentanil, but also in having the
capability of reducing or preventing recycling or renarcotization (Schmitt and
Dalton, 1987; Haigh, 1991). In general, naltrexone can antagonize etorphine at 10–
20 mg of naltrexone for every 1 mg of etorphine administered; for thiafentanil,
administer 10–30 mg naltrexone for every 1 mg of thiafentanil administered. Pure
opioid antagonists also have advantages over other antagonists such as
diprenorphine, nalorphine, and levallorphan in that they have high therapeutic
indices and they are the antagonists of choice for accidental human exposure.
Nalbuphine
Nalbuphine is a mu opioid receptor antagonist and kappa opioid receptor agonist
(similar to butorphanol) that can be used to only partially antagonize the opioid
effect. Thus, a dose-dependent, graded reversal of opioid anesthesia can be achieved.
This has been found useful in Africa for the capture and transport of large, difficult
animals like the rhinoceros. Rhinos are initially anesthetized with etorphine and their
head and legs secured with ropes. Nalbuphine is then administered at low doses to
achieve partial recovery. The rhino becomes ambulatory but somewhat stupefied and
seemingly unaware of people or circumstances. It can then be guided or “walked” by
the handlers into a transport crate on a truck. The animal is often given no more
antagonist so that it can complete the journey in what is comparable to a tranquilized
state (Kock, 2001).
Diprenorphine, Naloxone, Naltrexone, Nalbuphine

Mechanism of Action: Naltrexone and naloxone primarily act at mu receptors;
diprenorphine and nalbuphine have mixed agonist-antagonist properties at mu and
kappa opioid receptors.
Elimination: Metabolized by the liver and excreted.
50
Routes of Administration: IV, IM, SC.
Advantages: Provide rapid and complete opioid antagonism.
• Naltrexone and naloxone are safe, having high therapeutic indices.
• Can be prepared in high concentrations having long shelf life.
• May be used to attenuate hypotensive shock (not diprenorphine).
Disadvantages: At high doses can cause excitement, incoordination, vomiting, and
respiratory depression.
• May affect endocrine systems temporarily.
Comments: Only diprenorphine is a controlled substance (Schedule II). Naltrexone
is the preferred antagonist for virtually all opioids. Naltrexone and naloxone are the
only antagonists suitable for human opioid overdose since they do not possess any
agonistic properties.
Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Antagonists

Alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists are used to antagonize the effects of xylazine,
detomidine, romifidine, medetomidine, and dexmedetomidine. The 1980s saw an
explosion of scientific reports when yohimbine, a long-known plant alkaloid, and
tolazoline were “rediscovered” as antagonists to xylazine used primarily in the
immobilization of ungulates and carnivores (Jessup et al., 1983; Hsu and Shulaw,
1984; Jacobsen and Kollias, 1984; Kreeger et al., 1986a).
Yohimbine, Tolazoline
Neither yohimbine nor tolazoline are specific adrenergic antagonists. In addition to
adrenergic activity, yohimbine may also have cholinergic, serotonergic, and
dopaminergic receptor activity and tolazoline has histaminergic activity. Because of
this broad activity, these agents may cause undesirable side effects. On the other
hand, tolazoline appears to restore rumen motility faster than yohimbine. For
unknown reasons, tolazoline also appears to be more effective than yohimbine in
some ungulate species. Yohimbine and tolazoline should only be used to antagonize
xylazine and not the more potent alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists.
Atipamezole
Atipamezole is the most potent and selective alpha-2 adrenoceptor agent currently
known. Atipamezole is approximately 100 times more potent and its alpha-2/alpha-1
selectivity ratio is about 200 times higher than yohimbine (Virtanen et al. 1989).
Atipamezole effectively antagonizes the pharmacological effects of all the alpha-2
adrenoceptor agonists (Lamont and Grimm, 2014) and it is the preferred antagonist
for all alpha-2 adrenoceptor sedatives.
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Atipamezole was developed as a specific antagonist to medetomidine and it is
generally administered at a dose of 5 mg per mg of the total dose of medetomidine.
For dexmedetomidine, a dose ratio of 10:1 (mg:mg) is used. Atipamezole can also be
used to antagonize the effects of other alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists: 4-5 mg per mg
of detomidine (Laricchiuta et al., 2008) and 1 mg per 10 mg of xylazine (Jalanka and
Roken, 1990). The same ratios are used also when the apha-2 adrenoceptor agent is
combined with another drug, such as ketamine. The recommended route of
administration for atipamezole is IM.
MK-467
MK-467 is an alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonist that does not cross the blood-brain
barrier, i.e. the agent might be used to antagonize peripheral effects of alpha-2
adrenoceptor agonists. There are several studies in domestic animals indicating that
MK-467 has great potential for preventing cardiovascular, metabolic and other side
effects of alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists, without significantly compromising their
analgesic or sedative effects (Vries et al., 2016). Due to pharmacokinetic interactions
with the agonists, however, MK-467 may shorten the duration of sedation and
attenuate analgesia in some species (Bennet et al., 2016; Honkavaara et al., 2017).
We are not aware of any published studies on MK-467 in wildlife.
Ketamine-Xylazine Combinations with Yohimbine Antagonism

Early on, many investigators claimed that yohimbine could antagonize ketamine-
xylazine anesthesia. However, yohimbine primarily antagonizes only the xylazine
component of this combination. Carnivores immobilized with ketamine-xylazine
appear to have a residual ketamine effect after yohimbine administration (Kreeger
and Seal, 1986b) and yohimbine failed to completely antagonize ketamine-only
immobilization of rhesus monkeys (Lynch and Line, 1985) and gray wolves (Kreeger
and Seal, 1986b).
Because yohimbine does not fully antagonize ketamine, it should not be

administered in animals anesthetized with xylazine-ketamine combinations until at
least 30 minutes have elapsed since the last ketamine injection. This is to allow
further metabolism of the ketamine component of the combination. If yohimbine (or
any adrenergic antagonist) is given when ketamine serum concentrations are still
high, the xylazine component will be antagonized resulting in an anesthetic recovery
from what is essentially pure ketamine. Such recoveries are characterized by
uncontrolled, often violent, body movements and/or severe hyperthermia which can
cause injury or death to the animal (Kreeger et al., 1990a).
Ketamine-Medetomidine Combinations with Atipamezole Antagonism
52
Medetomidine is much more potent than xylazine. This potency greatly reduces the
amount of ketamine required for immobilization, often by 50% or more. Animals
begin to metabolize ketamine almost from the time it is administered. Thus over
time, much less active ketamine is in the animal's system compared to the amount of
ketamine that would be given in a comparable ketamine-xylazine immobilization.
When atipamezole is given to antagonize the medetomidine, there is much less of the
primary immobilant, ketamine, to maintain immobilization. Because of this,
recoveries are usually much faster and more complete compared to ketamine-
xylazine immobilization with yohimbine antagonism.
However, the downside to this better recovery is that, as the ketamine is metabolized,
the animal is increasingly under the influence of medetomidine. Although
medetomidine is a potent sedative, the animal can still overcome its effects if
appropriately stimulated. This can lead to a critical situation if ketamine-
medetomidine is used on dangerous animals, such as bears or the large cats. When
using ketamine-medetomidine on dangerous animals, constantly monitor the depth of
immobilization by checking for ear twitches, jaw tone, and palpebral reflex. Loud
noises can be sufficient stimulation to arouse from what is primarily a medetomidine
immobilization. So talk in a normal voice and make normal sounds as you process
the animal while being observant for signs of awakening (ear, head movement).
Administer more ketamine if more time is needed, otherwise finish processing the
animal quickly. Whispering, as advocated by some, is counterproductive in these
situations because you are producing a low background noise level that can easily be
shattered (truck door slamming, a louder voice than a whisper, etc.) resulting in an
instantly awake and probably quite irritated large carnivore!
Yohimbine, Tolazoline, Atipamezole, MK-467

Mechanism of Action: Displaces adrenergic agonists on pre-synaptic alpha-2
adrenoceptor receptors to allow the release of norepinephrine.
Elimination: Excreted unchanged by the kidneys.
Advantages: Atipamezole antagonizes effects of alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists
xylazine, romifidine, detomidine, medetomidine, and dexmedetomidine.
• Minimal agonist recycling after their use.
Disadvantages: Efficacy of yohimbine and tolazoline is species dependent and
should only be used to antagonize xylazine.
• High doses may cause tachycardia, hypo- or hypertension, anxiety, tremors, or
convulsions.
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Comments: Not controlled substances. Atipamezole is the recommended antagonist
in all species. In most cases, IM administration is preferred for atipamezole to avoid
abrupt recoveries. High doses (> 0.15 mg/kg) of yohimbine in animals given
ketamine may result in an extreme tachycardia and hypotension due to the
synergistic cardioacceleratory properties of both drugs. Tolazoline is also a
histaminergic agonist which could result in tachycardia, defecation, vomiting,
salivation, and edema. Tolazoline appears to provide more consistent antagonism of
xylazine sedation than yohimbine in sheep and other ruminants, but can cause apnea
if injected too rapidly IV (Mortenson and Robison, 2011). Bovids in particular do not
appear to respond reliably to yohimbine (Klein and Klide, 1989). When using drug
combinations consisting of a cyclohexane plus an alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist, do
not administer the alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonist for at least 30 min after the last
dose of the cyclohexane was given. This is to minimize the residual effects of the
cyclohexane which is not affected by the antagonist. Waiting to administer the
antagonist hastens and smooths the recovery process. When cyclohexanes are used,
do not expect the animal to quickly return to normal after the alpha-2 adrenoceptor
antagonist was given because the animal will usually be ataxic for some time (up to
30 min) due to residual effects of the cyclohexane.
Benzodiazepine Antagonists
Flumazenil and sarmazenil are potent and specific benzodiazepine antagonists that
can be used for reversal of the central sedative actions of benzodiazepine agonists
(Walzer and Huber, 2002). Benzodiazepine antagonists may be useful in felids (but
not in canids) anesthetized with tiletamine-zolazepam because the elimination time
of tiletamine in cats is shorter than that of zolazepam (vice versa in dogs). The
disadvantage of both antagonists is that resedation tends to occur because they have a
shorter half-life than most agonists.
Flumazenil, Sarmazenil
Mechanism of Action: Competitive antagonists with minimal activity at
benzodiazepine receptors.
Elimination: Metabolized in the liver and rapidly cleared from plasma.
Advantages: May be used to partially antagonize effects of tiletamine/zolazepam
mixtures.
Disadvantages: Has shorter half-life than many benzodiazepine agonists resulting in
resedation.
Adjuvants
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Adjuvants are substances added to drugs which affect the action of the active
ingredient in a predictable way. They may be added to the immobilizing drug
“cocktail” to decrease undesirable effects or to heighten desirable effects. Adjuvants
should be used conservatively, however, as they are capable of producing
undesirable effects of their own if used incorrectly.
Doxapram is a CNS stimulant with a long history of use in veterinary medicine. Due
to its analeptic effects (CNS stimulation), doxapram has been used as an “arousal”
agent in animals sedated with xylazine. Doxapram, however, has no specific
antagonistic properties and today it is only used as a respiratory stimulant in
anesthetized animals. After IV administration, doxapram effectively increases the
rate and depth of respiration, but the duration of action is short-lived. Although
doxapram is not part of the current evidence-based CPR guidelines (Fletcher et al.,
2012), the drug is still widely used to counteract respiratory depression during
anesthesia, especially in field emergency situations. Ampakines are small molecules
that are currently being investigated as potential treatment for a range of conditions
involving mental disability and disturbances such as Alzheimer's disease. Unlike
doxapram, ampakines can reverse etorphine-induced respiratory depression without
causing arousal and their effect is longer lived (Haw et al., 2016). Ampakines
possibly could be included in the original immobilizing dart to ameliorate the
negative effects of opioids without influencing immobilization.
Hyaluronidase is an enzyme that is sometimes mixed with the immobilizing agent in

order to increase the absorption rate of the drug. It is most often used on large
species, such as elephants and rhinos.
Doxapram
Mechanism of Action: Increased ventilation by a combination of central and
peripheral effects.
Routes of Administration: IV.
Advantages: Stimulates respiration depressed by several anesthetics.
Disadvantages: May cause brief arousal in sedated animals; may reduce cerebral
blood flow, compromising cortical oxygen delivery.
Antagonists: None
Comments: Can stimulate respiration for hypoventilation or apnea caused by several
injectable anesthetics. The duration of action is brief (5–10 min) and doses may have
to be repeated every 15 minutes. Maintenance of respiration should always be done
by physical means (endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation with
supplemental oxygen). Dose at 0.5–2 mg/kg IV.
Hyaluronidase
55
Mechanism of Action: An enzyme that randomly cleaves b-N-acetyl-hexosamine-
[1-4] glycosidic bonds in hyaluronic acid, chondroitin, and chondroitin sulfates.
Elimination: Excreted unchanged in urine.
Routes of Administration: SC, IM.
Advantages: Increases absorption rate of other drugs.
Disadvantages: Higher doses can cause tissue damage.
Antagonists: None.
Formulation: Several formulations; most are lyophilized powders from bovine or
sheep testes. Available in 300–15,000 units/mg.
Comments: Hyaluronidase acts as a spreading agent to promote diffusion. It has
been used to increase drug absorption and thus decrease induction time when used
with succinylcholine and opioids in species such as white-tailed deer, moose, and
elephants (Morton and Kock, 1991; Kock et al., 1993). Must be kept refrigerated
until ready for use. The suggested dose rate is 5,000 IU per 2 ml dart. The dose is a
factor of dart volume and irrespective of the type of drugs used. If the dart is not
used in 6 hours, either replace the hyaluronidase or discard the dart.
Summary of Antagonists
Agonist Antagonist
Opioids:
Fentanyl, etorphine, sufentanil, thiafentanil, carfentanil, Naltrexone, naloxone, diprenorphine,
butorphanol, nalbuphine nalbuphine, nalorphine
Tranquilizers/Sedatives:
Xylazine, detomidine, medetomidine, Yohimbine, tolazoline, idazoxan
dexmedetomidine, romifidine (xylazine only), atipamezole (all)
Diazepam, midazolam, zolazepam Flumazenil, sarmazenil
All other drugs not listed do not have an antagonist.
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57
Photo: Lars Gangås
T his section discusses the equipment for delivering drugs to animals and for
monitoring the effect of those drugs. All of the drug delivery equipment described
herein can effectively be used to immobilize animals – given the appropriate
conditions. That is, there isn’t one type of system that can be used on all animals at
all times. This fact is sometimes difficult to accept, particularly when buying
decisions are limited by fiscal constraints. You possibly can get by with only a 13-
mm (0.50-caliber) dart rifle having variable power settings. The well-equipped
professional, however, will have multiple dart guns (pistol, rifles), pole syringe, and
blow pipe (or powered blow pipe).
Another mistake (in our opinion) commonly made in the selection of equipment is a
reluctance to spend money on it. There are many ways to make your own darts from
syringes, blow pipes from conduit, dart guns from modified shotguns, etc. In all
probability, none of this equipment is as good as what is commercially
manufactured. Manufacturers have spent years and significant amounts of money in
the development of their products. The result of their efforts is good quality
equipment that performs as expected, is fairly rugged and dependable, and is backed
by a knowledgeable service department. This is not an advertisement for the
manufacturers listed in this section; this is experience. We’ve tried all the “cheap”
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ways of making our own equipment and we don’t use any of it anymore.
Professionals use professional equipment.
Syringes and Needles

Hand syringes and needles are the basis for any drug delivery system. Not only are
they used to administer drugs directly to restrained animals, they are also used for
measuring and loading immobilization drugs into other delivery devices such as
darts. Syringes and needles are also required for taking blood samples and
administering antibiotics and other drugs. Most syringes and all needles are sterilized
and disposable, and they are intended to be used once and discarded. Some syringes
are designed for multiple uses, but these are not commonly used.
You can never have enough syringes in your kit, because you will consume them
rapidly. For example, a syringe used to measure or administer an immobilant
shouldn’t be used to administer any antagonist (there could be residual immobilant in
the syringe). Any syringe that is used for an intravenous injection in one animal
should not be used on another animal because it will be contaminated with blood.
Likewise, you should never reuse any needle or syringe when sampling animals
suspected of having any transmissible disease (e.g., CWD, tuberculosis, etc.).
In some cases, however, syringes may be used more than once if they are intended to
be used to withdraw the same drugs needed for filling darts. Such syringes should be
labeled with permanent marker identifying the drug (e.g., "etorphine"). Syringes are
available in an assortment of sizes, but 1 ml, 3 ml, 5–6 ml, and 10–12 ml are the
most commonly used. Larger sizes (≥ 20 ml) are useful for taking blood samples
from large animals when required for multiple assays.
Likewise, you can’t have too many needles on hand. Needles should be used to
withdraw or administer only one type of drug; not be used on more than one animal;
and should not be reused for any reason. The basic philosophy here is to avoid cross-
contamination of either drugs or animal fluids.
Needles sizes are defined by outside diameter and length. In the U.S., diameters are
measured in "gauges" where the smaller the gauge, the larger the outside (and inside)
diameter (e.g., an 18-gauge needle has a larger diameter than a 23-gauge needle).
Meanwhile, almost all of the rest of the world uses the metric system to measure
needles. If needed, a gauge-metric conversion chart for needles can be found here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_gauge_comparison_chart .
Manufacturers: Several worldwide

Specifications: Syringes: 1–60 ml, plastic, sterile, disposable or reusable.
59
• Needles: See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Needle_gauge_comparison_chart for
needle specifications.
Operation: Insert a needle (without syringe) into the space at the top of the drug vial
to equalize air pressure. This may be particularly important when vials have been at
different altitudes. Be careful that a pressurized vial does not eject drug
uncontrollably. Attach syringe to needle or use a new needle.
• Attach a new needle to the syringe by pushing then twisting to assure a secure fit
so that the needle does not remain in the animal after injection. Remove the
protective needle cap by pulling straight away from the syringe (do not pull and
twist, or the needle will come off also). Do not put needle cap in your mouth!
• To avoid developing a vacuum within the vial, withdraw the syringe plunger to a
point equal to the desired drug volume. Insert the needle into the drug bottle and
inject the air from the syringe into the bottle, but do not over-pressurize. This step
may not be necessary when withdrawing small volumes (< 5 ml). Hold the bottle
upside down and withdraw the appropriate drug volume as indicated on the syringe
barrel gradations. Before withdrawing the syringe and needle, turn the bottle
upright. This will avoid fluid contact with the rubber stopper, which may leak after
several punctures. It is not uncommon to get a droplet of drug on the rubber after
withdrawing the needle if the bottle is kept upside down, which could be hazardous
to the handler. After withdrawing the needle from the bottle, carefully expel any air
from syringe to obtain an accurate amount of the drug, but avoid spraying the drug
and perhaps causing accidental human exposure.
• For intramuscular (IM) injections, use a large-bore needle on large (≥ 30 kg)
animals and smaller needles on smaller animals. Inject the drug into the muscle
mass quickly and withdraw. However, if animal restraint permits, first withdraw
the plunger slightly to verify that the needle is not in a vein (blood will appear in
the syringe), and then inject the drug. Be sure to avoid major nerves and bone –
know your animal’s anatomy!
• For intravenous (IV) injections, use smaller needles as appropriate for the size of
the animal. Common veins for IV injection are the cephalic and jugular. Other
veins accessible in larger animals are the femoral, running along the inside of the
thigh, and the saphenous, located along the outside of the hock.
60
Syringes are used for many purposes, such as administering drugs and taking blood samples. Upper
left: withdrawing blood from the cephalic vein of a wolf. Upper right: withdrawing blood from the femoral
vein of a bear. Lower left: intravenous drug administration via the jugular vein in a moose. Lower right:
don't do this (holding needle cap in mouth).
• Compress the vein with your fingers or hand so that blood is blocked from
returning to the heart. Then insert the needle into the turgid vein on the side of the
compression away from the heart.
• For superficial veins, such as the cephalic, insert the syringe at approximately a
10–20º angle to the surface of the animal; for deeper veins, such as the jugular or
proximal femoral veins, increase the angle of penetration. For superficial veins, the
bevel of the needle should be facing up toward the surface of the animal so that the
needle opening does not become occluded by the walls of the vein.
• When the needle slips into the vein, pull back the plunger slightly to withdraw
blood to verify that the needle is in the vein, release the proximal vein, inject the
drug (or withdraw blood for a sample), and then remove the needle.
• Lastly, compress or rub the injection site to hasten coagulation.
Comments: Keep the protective cap on the needle until just before you intend to
inject the drug – syringes with exposed needles just look for a place to inject
themselves! Also when replacing the needle cap, it is good practice to brace both
hands to steady them. This is particularly true when using potent drugs. Poking
61
oneself with a needle is the number one cause of accidental human exposure (Petrini
et al., 1993).
Pole Syringes
Pole syringes are exactly that – a syringe on the end of a pole. These are very useful
tools with broad applications, such as administering drugs to trapped or caged
animals or safely giving additional drugs to animals not completely immobilized, but
approachable. Pole syringes are usually limited to administering < 10 ml of drug
because the animal will usually not hold still long enough to give larger volumes.
Homemade pole syringes can be easily and cheaply constructed, but none seem to
work as well as the manufactured versions.
Manufacturers: Dan-Inject, Distinject, Safe-T-Flex, Tomahawk

Specifications: Syringe volumes range from 2.5–20 ml. The syringe portion can
vary from disposable to heavy-duty reusable syringe barrels. Needles are usually
conventional needles designed for hand syringes. Shafts can be constructed of
aluminum, steel, or composites and they usually are capable of adding extensions to
increase pole length.
Range: 0.5–3 m, depending on shaft length
Operation: It is usually preferable to withdraw drugs with a conventional hand
syringe and then using that syringe to transfer the drug into the pole syringe. Drugs
may also be withdrawn directly from a vial using the pole syringe if care is taken and
accurate drug volumes can be assured.
• Use a large-bore needles on large (> 30 kg) animals and smaller needles on smaller
animals. Inject the contents IM rapidly and firmly and withdraw before the animal
can bite or kick the pole. The muscle masses of the hindquarters are the preferred
sight for injection, but the shoulder muscles of larger animals can also be used.
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Pole syringe used to administer immobilizing drugs into hip of captive wolf being restrained by forked
stick; even wild wolves can be handled in this manner.
Comments: Long pole syringes (> 3 m) are too difficult to aim accurately (your arm
movements are greatly magnified) and are best used on larger animals with their
larger target areas. Try to make the first "stab" count. Many animals quickly learn
what you are trying to do and are very adept at grabbing the pole out of your hand
(e.g., bears in culvert traps, elephants in trucks). To avoid double dosing captive
animals that are moving around, mark them by adding a piece of foam rubber to the
needle on the pole syringe. This foam should be about the same diameter as the
syringe and the same length as the needle. Dip and saturate the foam with gentian
violet. The animal will thus be marked when injected.
Remote Drug Delivery Systems

Most animal immobilizations are done “remotely,” that is, there is no direct contact
between you and the animal. Darts, propelled by a variety of means, are the usual
means of delivering drugs remotely to animals. Systems capable of propelling darts
are termed remote drug delivery systems (RDDS) and they are defined as
“mechanical devices capable of administering a single dose to an unrestrained
animal, usually by means of a ballistic projectile.”
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Remote drug delivery dates to pre-Columbian times when aboriginal natives of
Africa and South America dipped arrows, spears and blow darts in preparations of
muscle-paralyzing drugs derived from plant and animal sources (Bush, 1992).
Modern delivery systems have their genesis in the 1950’s when the first projectile
dart capable of delivering a liquid drug was reported (Crockford et al., 1957). This
dart became the predecessor of darts still used today. Many types of delivery systems
were developed since then, but only a few proved reliable and versatile enough to
survive competition in a limited market. There are both advantages and
disadvantages of RDDS used to administer drugs.
Advantages of RDDS
Specific animals can be targeted.
As opposed to baiting or trapping, animals can be selected and captured based on
sex, size, age, or status.
Drugs can be administered on a body weight basis.

Biologists familiar with a species can often estimate body weights of free-ranging
animals quite accurately. Fairly precise doses can then be administered under field
conditions if necessary for research purposes or efficacy.
A wide range of volumes can be delivered.

Depending on the projectile type and volume, liquid doses ranging from less than 1
ml to as much as 25 ml can be delivered.
Some RDDS can treat, mark, or biopsy individual animals.

Some projectiles can be equipped with marking dyes and others can deliver
electronic identification devices along with the drug. Biopsy darts take a skin and
underlying tissue sample, then fall out. These darts are used for DNA analyses.
Disadvantages of RDDS
The target animal must approached fairly closely.
Under most circumstances, animals must be to within 75 m or less for projectile to
be effective. Many species are secretive and extremely difficult to locate, let alone
approach closely.
Many RDDS can only be used on larger animals.

RDDS using projectiles are not terribly accurate and the preferred target area on
smaller animals may only be a few square centimeters. The shot could either be
misplaced, causing injury or death, or it could miss the animal entirely. Even if
placed correctly, the impact energy or penetration depth could be injurious or lethal
to smaller animals. As a general working rule, only animals weighing > 15 kg (33 lb)
64
should be targeted when powered RDDS (e.g., CO2 or .22-cal. systems) are used. If
possible, use blow pipes for smaller animals.
RDDS are inherently complex.

There are many system variables that can fail or affect successful delivery. A good
rule is: everything that can possibly go wrong with RDDS, eventually will!
Many RDDS are noisy.

Some RDDS may spook other animals after the first shot is fired rendering
subsequent shots at other animals difficult or impossible.
Training and experience are necessary.

RDDS should not be used without some degree of formal instruction by experienced
practitioners of remote delivery techniques, and RDDS should never be used without
fairly intense practice by the user in order to assess the performance of the device
prior to using it on an animal.
Blow Pipes
Blow pipes, or blow guns, are useful devices for delivering small volumes of drugs
at short to medium ranges. They operate by propelling a dart through a pipe or tube
either by rapid expulsion of one’s breath, by compressed air, or by CO2 . Blow pipes
using compressed air or CO2 are usually referred to as powered blow pipes and they
are capable of greater ranges than conventional pipes using lung power.
Conventional (lung-powered) blow pipes consist of one- or two-piece aluminum

tubes measuring up to 2 m. Most propel 10 mm-diameter darts having a maximum
capacity of 3 ml. Their effective range is limited (< 20 m). Blow pipes are quiet and
they usually cause little trauma to the animal because the dart neither strikes the
animal with much velocity nor does the method of dart operation cause injury (see
later); animals as small as 3 kg (6.6 lb) can be safely treated. Blow pipes are used
primarily on captive animals, but they can be used effectively on free-ranging
animals under the right circumstances, such as treed animals or animals approached
closely by vehicle (Brockelman and Kobayashi, 1971; Haigh and Hopf, 1976).
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Adjustable CO2 -powered blow pipes are versatile, low-impact, but relatively expensive devices, which
are useful at ranges of < 25 m. Dart sizes are usually limited to < 3 ml.
Powered blow pipes consist of an aluminum tube connected to a pistol grip

containing a metering device and reservoir. Air is compressed by a foot pump
connected by a hose to the pistol grip. After the desired pressure has been built up in
the reservoir, the hose can be disconnected. When the trigger is pulled, the
compressed air is released, propelling the dart. Similarly, some powered blow pipes
use CO2 cartridges that feed into a reservoir that can be adjusted to either increase or
decrease the amount of pressure. These devices have a wide effective range from 1–
30 m because the dart flight distance is proportional to the pressure built up in the
reservoir. Powered blow pipes propel the same type of lightweight darts (10–11 mm
diameter; 1–3 ml volume) as do conventional blow pipes and they are preferred for
delivering larger volumes at longer distances.
Manufacturers: Dan-Inject, Pneu-Dart, Telinject, TeleDart

Specifications: Dart volumes usually range from 1–3 ml.
Range: Up to 30 m for powered pipes.
Operation: For lung-powered pipes, sight over the end of the pipe at the intended
muscle mass, inhale through nose (don’t swallow the dart!), insure tight seal between
lips and mouthpiece, expel air sharply but not explosively (excessive force causes
dart to bounce off animal).
66
• For powered blow pipes, aim like a pistol. Squeeze the trigger quickly (slow
trigger pull may prevent the air/gas from being released in a burst).
Comments: The longer the blow pipe the greater the potential distance the dart can
be propelled; however, long pipes are unwieldy and more difficult to aim.
• Use of blow pipes to deliver potent drugs should be avoided to prevent accidental
human exposure.
• Blow pipe use in some states and countries, such as Canada and Norway, is
prohibited without a special permit. If in doubt, check it out.
Dart Guns
The most widely used RDDS are dart-shooting guns. Some dart guns have been
constructed by modifying existing shotguns, rifles, pistols, pellet rifles, or pellet
pistols; other guns are almost entirely custom-designed and manufactured for this
purpose. Dart guns propel darts by either the gas generated from a .22 caliber blank
cartridge, compressed CO2 , or compressed atmospheric air. Dart-firing guns are the
most versatile of the RDDS. Effective ranges can be as far as 75 m and possibly up
to 100 m for larger animals having larger target areas. Dart volumes can be as much
as 25 ml, although these larger, heavier darts drop rapidly after leaving the barrel
making long-range, accurate shots difficult.
All darts, of course, begin falling as soon as they leave the barrel, but small darts (1–
2 ml) traveling at higher velocities shoot “flatter” and farther than do large darts.
Guns can be equipped with a variety of sights including adjustable open sights, rifle
scopes, dot sights, lasers, and light-intensifying ("night") scopes. Open sights are
preferred by many professionals, especially those who dart animals from helicopters.
Rifle scopes make aiming easier, unless the animal is at close range where the
magnification of the scope makes it difficult to identify where on the animal you are
aiming. Also, by closing the opposite eye when aiming through a rifle scope, other
animals can easily walk undetected into your shot.
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A lineup of some of the more common dart rifles used today: A. Pneu-Dart Model 178B, a pump-
operated, compressed air rifle; B. Cap-Chur Extra Long-Range Projector, the original .22 cal. dart rifle;
C. Pneu-Dart Model 389, an adjustable, .22 cal.-powered rifle; D. Pneu-Dart Model 193, another
adjustable, .22 cal.-powered rifle; E. Distinject Model 70, an adjustable, CO 2 -powered rifle; F. Dan-
Inject Model IM, a high-quality, adjustable, CO 2 -powered rifle; G. Dan-Inject Model JM Special, the
barrel of which can be removed to convert to a shorter-length "carbine;" H. Pneu-Dart X-Caliber, a
rugged, accurate, adjustable, CO 2 -powered rifle.
Each of the three types of dart gun propulsion systems have advantages and
disadvantages (Table 3). These properties are listed to help first-time users decide on
an appropriate gun. In our opinion, there is no one perfect dart gun for all
circumstances. The final choice of a dart gun is much like the choice of a
conventional firearm; it is a highly personal decision comprising a mix of objective
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analysis and emotional attraction all tempered by fiscal reality! The criteria analyzed
for each system include:
Maximum Effective Range

This is the maximum distance at which the dart can be safely and effectively
delivered. The range of most guns can be decreased from this maximum either
through the use of a built-in metering device which directs little to all of the gas to
the dart; by using different strengths of propellant (e.g., .22 blanks); or by pushing
the dart further down the barrel to reduce its velocity and thus its range. This
criterion does not include dart pistols which have ranges of < 20 m.
Dart Volume
Dart volumes range from 0.5–25 ml, however, not all guns are capable of delivering
this full range of dart sizes.
Availability of Propellant
This category rates the ease of obtaining the propellant from local suppliers.
Temperature Sensitivity
The vapor pressure of some gases (e.g., CO2 ) is temperature dependent. Darts may
travel less far due to decreased vapor pressure when cold. In extremely cold
conditions, some guns may barely function without warming the gas. However, we
have used Dan-Inject CO2 guns successfully in extreme cold conditions (-30 C).
Impact Injury
The impact energy (kinetic energy or KE) of the dart striking the animal is a function
of its mass and velocity (KE = 1/2 MV2 ). It is a common misconception that light
darts always cause less impact, and thus injury, to the animal than heavy darts; light
darts fired at high velocities actually strike the animal harder (Table 4). All darts that
use an explosive charge to inject the drug cause hemorrhage and hematoma (Cattet et
al., 2006). Misplaced shots can break bones or even kill the animal (Thomas and
Marburger, 1964).
Report
Muzzle report can cause problems in darting either captive or free-ranging animals.
For some animals, this noise can be more disturbing then getting struck with a dart.
Disturbed animals are then more difficult to approach for another shot or the entire
group of animals may run away.
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Table 3. Characteristics of powered dart guns.
a
Compressed air in this context refers to rifles that are pumped by hand or foot
to fill a reservoir. The advantage of compressed air systems is that no additional
propellant is required (i.e., CO2 cylinders, .22 blanks), so that you never run out
of power.
b
There are two general types of CO2 cylinders: threaded and unthreaded. Most
sporting goods stores carry the smaller, unthreaded CO2 cylinder, but the larger,
threaded CO2 cylinder may be very difficult, if not impossible, to procure when
working in rural areas. However, most rifles accepting the threaded cylinder
also have adapters for the unthreaded cylinders. Most CO2 cylinder types can
also be found on the internet.
c
.22 blanks come in a variety of strengths. Charge strengths are coded by
different colors, usually brown, green, yellow, red with red being the most
powerful. Darts propelled with either the yellow or red charges are capable of
causing significant injury or death, but all charges can cause injury if fired at
too short of a range or at too small an animal.
d CO2 cartridges generally provide consistent performance except when the
propellant runs low. There is only a subtle drop in performance between the last
acceptable shot and the next shot where the dart drops precipitously due to a
rapid drop in pressure. Experienced shooters often only allow a fixed number
of shots per cartridge before changing cartridges even though some shots
remain. This is usually not a problem with CO2 guns equipped with pressure
gauges. The gauge indicates how much pressure is in the reservoir. If the gauge
needle does not reach the desired level, then there is inadequate pressure to
propel the dart the desired distance.
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e Distance-adjustable CO2 guns are probably the most versatile (and most
expensive) RDDS.
Table 4. Kinetic energy produced by darts traveling at different

velocities.
Weight (lb) Velocity (ft/sec) Kinetic Energy (ft-lb)

0.022 200 13.7
0.033 200 20.6
0.022 300 30.8
Kinetic energy calculated by KE =1/2 MV2 . Non-metric values are reported in order to compare
with other ballistic data. Mass (M) is weight divided by the acceleration of gravity (32 ft/sec/sec
or 9.8 m/sec/sec).
Maintenance
Some guns need to be cleaned frequently in order to remain operable. This is
particularly true of .22-powered RDDS, but the barrels of CO2 devices can be
surprisingly dirty after several shots.
Performance Reliability
Guns are classified regarding consistency of shot-to-shot performance.
Ease of Use
Guns are classified relative to their simplicity of operation or ease of use under field
conditions.
Overall Versatility
The above categories are evaluated to arrive at a subjective opinion on the overall
versatility of the propulsion system.
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An example of a lightweight dart travelling at high velocity. This wolf was killed when a dart penetrated
the thorax and struck the heart.
CO 2 -powered pistols are very useful for short-range (< 25 m) or restricted (e.g., bear dens) situations.
All pistols can be adjusted, to a certain degree, for distance and fire 13 mm (0.50 cal.) darts. Top: Cap-
Chur Short Range Projector (fitted with laser sight). This pistol, and the longer-barrelled Mid Range
Projector, have a two-step adjustment. Pull the knob out to the first click for short ranges (i.e., < 10 m)
and to the second click for longer ranges. The Pneu-Dart X-2 pistol (below) is accurate and can
precisely adjust ranges from 5–15 m, but is bulky and expensive (about 4 times the price of the Cap-
Chur pistols).
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An often overlooked, but still quite useful, dart rifle is the Pneu-Dart model 178B. Propulsion is by air
being compressed via a forearm pump; the more pumps, the further the dart flies. Distance for most 13
mm (0.50 cal.) darts is < 30 m. The rifle is short, lightweight, and totally self-contained. That is, there
are no external propulsion devices (such as CO 2 cylinders or .22 blanks) to lose, forget, or deplete.
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Dan-Inject produces a line of high quality CO 2 -powered dart rifles. All the rifles are fully adjustable for
distance with a knob (circle) that both increases and decreases pressure indicated on a gauge. Rifles
come with 11 mm barrels which fire compressed-air darts, but 13 mm (0.50 cal.) barrels can be
ordered which can fire darts made by other manufacturers. For example, one of the authors (TK)
almost exclusively fires 13 mm Pneu-Darts from Dan-Inject rifles, which he has found to be highly
accurate and consistent.
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Pneu-Dart's response to high-end adjustable CO 2 -powered dart rifles is the X-Caliber. The X-Caliber
incorporates many features new to the field. Darts are loaded from a rear, pivoting breech (above), the
advantage of which is that there is no separate breech plug to be dropped and lost. Power is adjusted
by an acorn-type knob in front of the receiver (below). The location of this knob allows power
adjustment without having to lower the gun and, thus, taking your eyes off the target. Other features
included interchangeable 11- and 13-mm barrels, protective gauge housing, and ability to be powered
by a variety of CO 2 or nitrogen gas tanks.
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Above is the Telinject Vario 3V CO 2 -powered dart rifle. It is a high quality, well-designed rifle. The CO
2 pressure is easily adjustable and pressure gauge easily seen. It has barrels for both 11- and 13-mm
darts. However, the 13-mm barrel does not accept .50 caliber darts common in North America. If you
are lucky enough to also own a Pneu-Dart X-caliber, you can use the Pneu-Dart .50 caliber barrel in
the Telinject. Below is another quality CO 2 dart rifle, the Distinject Model 70, which has been replaced
by the model 72, featuring a folding stock (inset).
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The Cap-Chur Extra Long Range Projector (inset) was the first dart rifle made. It was recently replaced
by the much improved model below. Using .22 blanks to propel 13 mm (0.50 cal.) darts, these rifles are
simple, extremely rugged, and inexpensive. Their biggest drawback is the lack of adjustment, other
than to use different .22 blanks. There are at least 5 different power levels of .22 blanks (above, with
increasing power: gray, brown, green, yellow, red). Always carry extra charge adapters because they
are easy to drop, never to be found (especially in snow!). The new model below has a much improved
charge adapter, capability of mounting a scope, and a ramrod useful for clearing the chamber of an
unfired dart.
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The Pneu-Dart model 389 has a power adjustment knob at the rear (top), making it much easier to see
and to change than previous models. The model 389 has a break open barrel allowing insertion of the
largest darts (middle). The model 389 also incorporates Pneu-Dart's Airflow Control Port (left) which
serves to eliminate the dart "tail kick" to increase accuracy. There are few .22 caliber dart guns that can
use different powered blanks as well as adjust the pressure. Paxarms in New Zealand is another, but it
is not commonly found.
Manufacturers: Dan-Inject, Distinject, Palmer, Pneu-Dart, Telinject, TeleDart.

Specifications: Darts propelled by compressed air, CO2 , or .22 caliber blank
cartridge.
Range: 1–90 m (but see comments), depending on dart size (1–25 ml) and propellant
charge.
Operation: Choose dart and needle sizes based on amount of drug required and size
of animal.
• Follow manufacturer’s directions for loading darts (also see Darts below).
• Check that dart is not bent or deformed by inserting into the end of barrel. The dart
should slide back and forth easily. If the dart sticks, discard it and reload another
dart. Tight-fitting darts tend to leave the barrel at much higher velocities and could
cause injury to the animal.
• Load dart into breech; be sure safety is on (treat these guns like firearms!).
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• Select powder charge (brown, green, yellow, red) and/or adjust variable range
device.
• Aim at large muscle masses.
Comments: Regardless of system used, always practice with the anticipated dart
size at the anticipated ranges. Use darts loaded with water as opposed to empty darts
in order to mimic actual weight and thus flight characteristics. Make a chart of dart
sizes, distances, and pressure settings. Attach this chart to the dart gun; this will save
a lot of guessing in the field.
• The trajectory of most darts is characterized by a rapid drop during the final one
third of the flight path and you should familiarize yourself with this phenomena
prior to field use. Also, despite manufacturer’s claims, the realistic maximum
effective range is around 50 m.
• In .22-caliber guns, “green” charges are the most commonly used; “brown”
charges may be too weak and the “red” charges are potentially too damaging to the
animal regardless of range.
• Do not use blanks with wads in Pneu-Dart® guns because the wads will obstruct
the gas ports. The .22-caliber guns should not be used at ranges < 10 m unless they
are equipped with devices that meter the amount of gas delivered to the dart.
• Darts fired at high velocities can imbed in muscle, break bones, or kill the animal
(Thomas and Marburger, 1964) – a word to the wise.
• Never leave an unused dart inside the gun. Remove the dart and release the gas
pressure or unload the .22 blank. Darts left in the gun not only can be accidently
discharged, but they can corrode the barrel if they leak drugs.
Darts
Darts can be thought of as “flying syringes,” consisting essentially of a needle, body,
plunger, and tailpiece. They differ in the manner in which the plunger is pushed
forward to inject the dart’s contents and in the materials of construction. Darts
discharge their contents either by expanding gas from an explosive powder charge,
compressed air, butane, or chemical reaction (acid-base). The mechanisms which
enable the darts to discharge their contents upon impact range from moderately
simple systems having few parts to complex systems of intricate design and
operation. Dart bodies can be made of aluminum or synthetic polymer
(polypropylene, polycarbonate, etc.).
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Examples of darts with method of discharge in parentheses: A. Dan-Inject (compressed air); B.
Distinject (butane gas); C. Aero Syringe (compressed air); D. Paxarms (compressed air); E. Cap-Chur
(compressed air); F. Cap-Chur (powder); G. Pneu-Dart (powder). Although the compressed air/butane
darts tend to weigh the least, the plastic Pneu-Darts are almost as light .
Dart needles can be as long as 12 cm. Darts using explosive charges can expel their
contents in < 0.001 seconds and thus require large-bore needles to allow the rapid
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expulsion of liquid. Pneu-Dart, however, manufactures explosive charge Slo-Injecttm
darts utilizing side ports and other technology to reduce the drug expulsion speed by
33%. Needles are designed to either expel contents from the standard front opening
(end port) or through a side port with the front opening usually occluded. End-port
needles expel their contents more rapidly than do side-port needles, but large-bore
needles can become plugged with a core of tissue when they penetrate hide and
muscle (Henwood and Keep, 1989). Note: air-compressed darts with very large
needles may not expel all the drug. The volume remaining in the needle may
represent a significant portion (e.g., 20%!) of the calculated dose (Ølberg et al.,
2017).
Needle shafts can either be smooth or be equipped with a variety of barbs or collars
to retain the dart in the animal. Smooth-shafted needles are used to deliver the drug
and then fall out on their own, eliminating the need to capture the animal to remove
the dart. Such darts are commonly used to remotely treat or vaccinate, but not
necessarily to capture, animals. If the dart contents are under high pressure, however,
smooth-shafted needles can “rocket” back out of the animal due to the expulsion of
the liquid and therefore not inject any or all of the substance.
Some needles are equipped with small collars that barely secure the dart in the
animal, but will eventually work its way out of the animal. One company (Pneu-
Dart) manufactures a gelatin collar that is rigid when dry, but dissolves when it
comes into contact with tissue fluids. This dart stays in the animal long enough to
insure complete expulsion of the contents then falls out when the collar dissolves.
To securely retain the dart in the animal, either wire barbs or metal collars are used.
These darts require manual removal from the animal. Barbs probably should be used
when the dart contains opioids because barbed darts will stay in the animal which
will allow recovery of the dart as opposed to it falling out somewhere. Retrieval of
opioid-containing darts is mandatory in Scandinavian countries. Most wildlife
agencies prefer to recover opioid-containing darts, even when discharged. We are not
aware of any published studies that support routine use of antibiotics to “treat” dart
wounds. Dart wounds can be cleaned by clipping the hair and flushing with saline or
a disinfectant and an intra-mammary tube intended for treating mastitis can be used
to apply antibiotics locally into the wound. Indications for prophylactic treatment
with systemic antibiotics include severe dart trauma and surgery to remove the dart.
In Europe, the use of antibiotics in food-producing wildlife would cause a life-long
withdrawal time as there are none approved for wildlife.
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Examples of dart barbs. From left: short soldered wire, collar, long soldered wire, biodegradable,
machined.
Darts have been devised that mark as well as treat the animals that they hit. Darts can
be equipped with dye-filled bladders fixed to the base of the needle which burst upon
impact to mark the treated animal (Bush, 1992). These bladders also serve as
cushions to decrease the impact trauma of the dart. Another dart (Pneu-Dart) utilizes
a two-chambered dart; the forward chamber containing the drug and the aft chamber
containing the dye or paint that marks the animal upon impact. Darts have can also
be equipped with small radio transmitters enabling location of animals that have run
off after being darted with immobilizing drugs (Nielsen, 1982; Lawson and Melton,
1989; Walter et al., 2005). Although range and reliability have improved over the
years, transmitter darts are still far from foolproof. Problems include transmitter
failure, failure to remain attached to the animal, and failure to inject drug (Siegal-
Willot et al., 2009).
There are advantages and disadvantages of each dart injection system. Below, we
discuss some dart characteristics and the relative merits of the different systems.
Injection Speed
Darts which use a powder-based injection system can inject their contents
explosively (e.g., < 0.001 sec) with the exception of the Pneu-Dart Slo-Injecttm darts
which reduce discharge speed by 33%. Compressed air or butane gas injection
systems usually inject their contents in approximately 0.5–2 seconds. If injection
speed is too rapid, the underlying tissue will always be injured (Cattet, et al., 2006).
However, if injection speed is too slow, some animals (e.g., carnivores, primates)
may have time to remove the dart before all the contents have injected.
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Explosive discharge darts can cause substantial tissue damage unless the flow is constricted.
Weight
Lightweight darts may cause less impact when they strike the animal (but see Table
4), however, they may be more subject to wind drift or prop wash from helicopters.
The compressed air or butane gas injection darts are the lightest, but the plastic,
small-volume (≤ 1.5 ml), Pneu-Darts are almost as light.
Volume
Dart volumes of the compressed air or butane gas injection systems range from 1–10
ml whereas explosive-charged darts can hold up to 20 ml (e.g., Cap-Chur® ).
Reliability
Reliability, as applied to darts, is defined as the probability of the dart functioning
correctly by injecting the drug into the animal. Darts which use a powder-based
injection system tend to be fairly reliable these days (this wasn't always the case!).
Compressed air or butane gas injection systems may lose pressure through leakage
before hitting the animal.
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Contents Under Pressure
The contents of some darts are pressurized by compressing air or injecting butane
into them when they are initially loaded. This type of dart is more prone to leaking or
spraying its contents than darts which do not develop any expulsion pressure until
they strike the animal (e.g., powder). When using pre-pressurized darts, be sure that
the needle is firmly attached and the silicone sleeve is exactly centered over the
needle discharge port.
Manufacturers: Dan-Inject, Pneu-Dart, Palmer, TeleDart, Distinject, Telinject

Specifications: Darts expel contents by compressed air or powder charge. Dart
bodies constructed primarily of plastic or aluminum.
Operation: Powder Charge Darts (Cap-Chur ® ) – Check that the aluminum dart
body is not distorted from previous firings by inserting it into the end of the dart gun
barrel and insuring that the entire dart body moves freely back and forth.
• Be sure that the inside of the dart body is clean. Lubricate the plunger with a good
quality, water-resistant lubricant such as silicone. Move the plunger back and forth
within the dart body to lubricate the body walls. Position the plunger with its open
end all the way to the rear of the dart body.
• Insert the powder charge into the plunger base making sure that the movable
striker in the charge faces towards the rear of the dart. The striker end of the
powder charge can be determined by poking it slightly with a pen (or other pointed
object) which causes the striker to move. Be sure that the powder charge matches
the volume of dart body.
• Screw in the tail piece into the dart body which moves the plunger and its charge
forward.
• Load the front of the dart with the desired volume of drug. The drug level should
just reach the bottom of the screw threads at the front of the dart body; if the drug
volume does not reach this point, top off with sterile water.
• Screw in the appropriate-sized needle for the target animal; the larger the animal,
the larger the needle length (but use good sense and knowledge of your animal’s
anatomy for exceptions to this rule).
• Although the vacuum formed by the fluid in the dart body should prevent any drug
from leaking out of the needle (even when held upside down), jarring the dart has
been known to spill drug. If necessary, seal the needle with petroleum jelly.
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Loading Cap-Chur powder darts: A. check that dart body is not distorted by inserting both ends into
gun barrel; B. lubricate plunger; C. move plunger back and forth to lubricate dart body, then position
plunger towards rear; D. insert powder charge into plunger, making sure that the movable striker faces
the rear of the dart (needle is depressing striker, insuring proper position); E. screw in the tail piece; F.
add drugs; G. attach desired needle.
Pneu-Dart ® Darts – These darts are single-use powder-fired darts. They are loaded
through the needle since the darts are of one-piece construction. Despite their
simplicity, Pneu-Darts seem to be the most accurate dart made, especially at longer
distances and regardless of the dart gun manufacturer in which they are used.
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• Withdraw the desired drug volume in a syringe. It is important to load these darts
using a needle that is longer than the dart needle (see picture). This loading needle
must be small enough to fit within the inside diameter of the dart needle; usually a
38–51 mm (1.5–2.0 inch), 1.473-mm (18-gauge) needle works fine for this. If the
loading needle is shorter that the dart needle, drug will be expelled back out of the
dart needle.
• Using the loading syringe, slowly push the drug into the dart body. If the drug
volume is less than the dart volume, top off with sterile water.
Compressed Air Darts (Dan-Inject, Distinject, Telinject, Teledart) – These darts can
be thought of as two syringes joined at their bases. Each half has a plunger; one that
moves readily and another that seals against the syringe walls and is used to deliver
the drug. The half with the freely movable plunger is the rear portion.
• If the plunger in the front chamber is all the way forward, hold the dart upside
down so that the movable plunger in the rear chamber falls forward and inject air
into the front end of the dart using an empty syringe fitted with a coupling device.
The injected air moves the front plunger into the appropriate position for the
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amount of drug being delivered. For example, you can push the plunger to the 2-ml
mark in a 3-ml dart.
• Load the front portion of the dart with the desired drug volume, insuring that the
drug fills the chamber (use sterile water to top off).
• Firmly attach the dart needle so that it doesn't come off under pressure.
• Occlude either the end of the needle or its side port, as appropriate, with the needle
plug supplied.
• Insert the front of the dart into a container, such as a test tube, to contain any
accidental spraying of drug when the dart is being charged.
• Holding the dart with the needle pointing up, insure that the movable plunger falls
to the bottom of the rear chamber.
Loading compressed air darts: A. insure dart is de-pressurized by moving rear plunger forward with a
pin; B. using syringe with coupler, move front chamber plunger back and forth to insure free movement,
then position plunger to desired volume; C. load front chamber with drug; D. firmly attach needle and
place sleeve centered over ejection port; E. compress air into rear chamber using syringe with coupler
while holding dart upright (a test tube can be placed over needle and front chamber to prevent possible
drug exposure in case of leakage); F. when the dart strikes the animal, the sleeve is pushed
downwards, allowing the air pressure to push the plunger forward and inject the drug from the side
ports.
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Cap-Chur Aero Syringe. A unique syringe that develops pressure within the dart only after the gun is
fired.
• Pull back the plunger on an empty 10–20 ml syringe fitted with the coupling
device and attach this syringe to the rear of the dart.
• Compress the syringe’s air into the dart; the movable plunger will seal the rear
opening of the dart as air pressure builds up in the rear chamber.
• When there is firm resistance on the plunger of the syringe loaded with air, quickly
remove the syringe from the dart.
• Attach the dart’s tailpiece.
• Carefully check the needle and plug for any sign of leakage.
• Oftentimes, there is a little air bubble in the front drug chamber which will
compress or disappear when the dart has been properly charged, thus providing a
handy visual cue as to the dart’s readiness.
• Keep the dart stored in a tube until just prior to use.
Compressed Air Darts (Cap-Chur Aero Syringe) – This dart is different than other
darts because it neither uses an explosive charge or pre-compressed air. Rather the
dart is pressurized by the expanding CO2 gas when the gun is fired. It is a one-time
use dart.
• Remove needle cap and inject drug into the dart barrel using a loading needle
longer than the dart needle, such that the end of the loading needle can be seen
inside the dart body.
• Place the needle cap onto the end of the needle, taking care not to puncture cap.
Leave the needle cap in place. When the projector is fired, the dart is pressurized
as it leaves the barrel of the projector.
• When the dart hits the animal, the needle cap is punctured and pushed down the
needle shaft.
Comments: Some dart needles discharge from the end and others from the side port.
End-port needles discharge rapidly but they must strike the animal almost
perpendicularly in order to stick. This is due to the end being capped by a silicone
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plug, which acts as a “bumper” should the dart strike at an angle. Side-port needles
slide the silicone plug up the shaft to cover the opening, thus exposing the sharp
needle tip and increasing the probability of the dart penetrating, even when striking
at an angle. Side-port units inject their contents more slowly than end-port needles.
• Use sterilized dart needles (store in alcohol or commercial solution or autoclave
and securely wrap).
• Darts which employ a powder charge to expel dart contents do so very rapidly
often resulting in underlying tissue damage (with the possible exception of the
Pneu-Dart Slo-Injecttm dart).
• When darting large African species such as elephant and rhino where large dart
needles are required, flush injection site with diluted povidone-iodine (10%) or
chlorhexidine diacetate (0.05%) solution. Antibiotic “teat tubes” used to treat
mastitis in dairy cows can be useful for treating dart wounds since they are
equipped with a rounded, plastic “needle” that can be safely inserted into the dart
hole.
• When loading multiple darts, use a test tube rack or wooden block with drilled
holes to support the darts.
• Be careful when removing darts not only from the animal, but also from the
ground, trees, etc. Pressure may still remain inside the dart causing drug to be
sprayed uncontrollably when removed (we all know this from personal
experience!).
• Place used darts in safe containers, such as cigar tubes, sharps containers, or the
plastic packages in which they were sent from the manufacturer.
• Clean reusable darts by submersing them in cold water while disassembling them,
which dilutes any residual drugs; be sure to wear gloves when doing this.
• Despite many opinions and unsubstantiated claims, there does not appear to be any
difference in induction times among the different dart type injection methods
(Kreeger, 2002) whereas needle length may affect induction times (Bergvall et al.,
2015).
• Do not reuse darts or dart needles that have been used on animals possibly infected
with chronic wasting disease (CWD). Although there currently is no evidence that
contaminated darts could transmit the CWD prion, it probably would be prudent
not to reuse them.
Range Finders
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Range finders that utilize the principle of reflected laser beams to accurately measure
distance are essential items of equipment when using dart guns. Inaccurate range
estimation is probably the single major cause of missed shots. Range finders are
accurate to within ± 1 m. We never use dart guns now without the concurrent use of a
range finder. The combination of a laser range finder and a highly-adjustable CO2
dart gun dramatically reduces missed shots. We highly recommend calibrating dart
guns with known ranges and different dart sizes before the capture event. That is, set
up a target range with measured distances of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 m (or farther).
Fire the darts (filled with water) that you most commonly use (e.g., 1, 2, 3 ml) at
each range. Write down the power settings for each dart size and each range where
the dart is accurately and consistently hitting the target. Prepare a chart from this
information and attach it to your dart gun. In the field, all you have to do is quickly
get a range from the range finder, look at the chart, and set your gun for the
appropriate distance. There are rifle scopes that have built-in range finders. They are
bulky, expensive and may be too powerful for most dart ranges.
All adjustable dart guns should be calibrated for various dart sizes and ranges. Make a chart of these
data and attach it to the rifle.
A word of advice; once you go through all the trouble of calibrating the dart gun to
distance and settings, believe these data when in the field! It seems to be human
nature to rely more on one's own estimation of distance and dart trajectory than real
data. For example, the range finder says the animal is 30 m away; your calibration
chart for a 2-ml dart indicates that the gun should be set at 5 bars on the gauge; you
look at the animal; you think that maybe it is really 32 m away; you increase the
power setting to 5.5 bars; and the dart flies over the top of the animal! Also, be aware
that drastic changes in altitude will affect the dart's point of impact. A gun sighted in
at 2,000 m will shoot low at sea level (0 m) and high at 4,000 m.
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Laser Sights
There are variety of laser sights manufactured for firearms that can be adapted to dart
guns. Once sighted in, all you have to do is place the beam of the laser on the desired
target and pull the trigger; you don't even have to aim. Unfortunately, most laser
sights are only effective in low light or dark conditions with the exception of 532 nm
green lasers which can usually be seen in daylight. Laser sights can be very useful
for darting bears or wolves in dens or culvert traps when attached to a dart pistol.
Dot Sights
Dot sights are electronic pointing devices that project a dot or circle on a glass
viewing lens, but do not magnify the target and no beam is projected onto the target.
They are designed to be used with both eyes open with the dot becoming part of the
field of vision and superimposed on the desired target. They are quite effective for
short ranges, helicopter darting, or at night, but may not work as well as telescopic
sights for longer ranges. Inexpensive dot sights can hardly be seen on very bright
days, especially with snow cover; military grade dot sights are usable under all
conditions, but are quite expensive. There are several manufacturers and styles.
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Monitoring Equipment
Thermometer
Many immobilizing agents disrupt an animal’s thermoregulatory capability.
Additionally, the physical exertion of being chased or restrained prior to
immobilization often results in elevated body temperatures. Either hyper- or
hypothermia can kill an animal. Thus, monitoring rectal temperatures is important.
The glass mercury thermometer is basic equipment, although readings are slow to
develop and they are prone to breakage. Inexpensive, electronic thermometers sold in
human drug stores are rapid and accurate, but batteries have a habit of expiring at the
most inopportune moments. They are generally not moisture resistant. They also
have a tendency to disappear in the field, so have several on hand. Some types have a
long, flexible temperature probe (pictured) which allows greater probe insertion for
large animals, which is essential to obtain accurate temperatures, or protection of the
electronics box by placing it away from the animal. Use disposable protective
sleeves on any thermometer.
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Pulse Oximeter
Pulse oximeters are electronic devices that measure the percent oxygen saturation of
hemoglobin in the blood (SpO2 ). They provide information on the respiratory
function of the animal which can be useful because many immobilizing drugs
depress respiration. Many oximeters can be used in the field. Oximeters use a clip
that can be attached to the tongue or other thin, non-pigmented tissue or a rectal
probe to measure SpO2 . The SpO2 is determined by passing two wavelengths of
light, one red and one infrared, through body tissue to a photodetector. The oximeter
processes these signals, separating the time invariant parameters (tissue thickness,
skin color, light intensity, and venous blood) from the time variant parameters
(arterial blood and SpO2 ). Because oxygen-saturated blood predictably absorbs less
red light than oxygen-depleted blood, oxygen saturation (as well as the pulse) can be
calculated.
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Upper left: pulse oximeter measuring oxygen saturation on a European lynx. The upper reading (86) is
the percent oxygen saturation and the lower reading (84) is the pulse. Upper right: pulse oximeter
probes can be placed on any unpigmented area of the skin, such as tongue or vulva. Below left: vital
signs monitors can simultaneously measure electrocardiogram, oxygen saturation, blood pressure, and
rectal temperature. Below right: blood pressure cuffs are usually placed on the front limbs. The Cardell
monitor pictured is touted as having the capability of measuring blood pressures of kittens!
In veterinary medicine, hypoxemia is defined when the SpO2 falls below 95%(West
et al., 2014) and supplemental oxygen should be given in order to insure adequate
oxygenation of tissue (particularly of the central nervous system). It is not
uncommon for animals anesthetized with potent narcotics or alpha-2 adrenoceptor
agonists to have SpO2 values that fall markedly below 95%. Absolute SpO2 values
are not as important as the trend of SpO2 values. That is, if the SpO2 steadily
decreases, it can be presumed that the animal is in some sort of respiratory crisis.
Such downward trends have been used to detect severely compromised respiration
due to pneumothorax in a wolf, bloat in an elk, and isoflurane overdose in a black-
footed ferret.
Vital Signs Monitor
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In unusual situations or when immobilizing particularly critical animals, monitoring
cardiac function may be required. Additionally, such information may be useful
when evaluating a new drug. Portable, rechargeable, vital signs monitors have been
successfully adapted for use on a variety of birds and mammals. Some of these units
can simultaneously display electrocardiogram (ECG), oxygen saturation,
systolic/diastolic/mean arterial blood pressure, as well as temperature.
Oxygen
If at all possible, have a source of supplemental oxygen available. Respiratory
depression or arrest is the most common medical emergency encountered with
chemical immobilization. There have been numerous publications in recent years on
the value of supplementary oxygen (Fahlman et al., 2012; 2014b; Lian et al., 2017).
A variety of oxygen tanks and delivery systems are available from human medical
supply stores. Oxygen tanks carried aboard helicopters must be approved for aircraft.
Although more expensive, oxygen concentrators can address this problem as well as
when oxygen tanks are not available (Fahlman et al., 2012). However, concentrators
may not work well at low ambient temperatures. See Respiratory Depression or
Arrest in the Animal Medical Treatment chapter for details.
Oxygen concentrator used on European brown bear.
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Equipment and Supply Checklist
Dart guns
.22 charges (brown, green, yellow, red)
CO2 propellant
Extra batteries for electronic sights, range finder
Re-usable Powder Charge Darts
Dart bodies (1, 2, 3, 5, 7 ml)
Dart charges (1–3, 4–10 ml; keep dry)
Dart needles
Dart plungers
Dart tailpieces
Silicone lubricant (for dart plungers)
Rod for pushing plunger through dart to lube
Extra .22 adapters for Cap-Chur® guns
Disposable Darts (1, 2, 3, 5 ml)
Loading needle (must be longer than dart needle)
Compressed Air Darts
Darts (2, 3, 5 ml)
Dart needles
Dart needle sleeves or caps
Tailpieces
Coupler
20 ml syringe
Plunger rod (for discharging reservoir)
Pole Syringe
Extra syringe barrels, parts
Petroleum Jelly
Marking pen, pencil
Needles (16–25 ga)
Syringes (1, 3, 5–6, 10–12, 20 ml)
Blood collection tubes (with and without anticoagulant)
Multi-tool (knife blade, screwdrivers, etc.)
Pliers
Cigar tubes (or other device to safely store loaded darts until used)
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Sterile water (for topping off darts)
Scalpel blades (for removing barbed darts)
Flashlight (plus extra bulb and batteries)
Range finder
Gun cleaning materials
Shotgun cleaning rod (also use to remove stuck or unused darts)
Solvent
Swabs
Oxygen tank or concentrator
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List of Manufacturers
To save space and for simplicity, only internet addresses are listed. Many
manufacturers have distributors throughout the world; their main web sites
should list contact information for each.
Dan-Inject
www.dan-inject.com
(Dart guns, darts, blow pipes, pole syringes)
Distinject (Genia)
www.distinject.com
(Dart guns, darts, blow pipes)
Letco Medical
www.letcomedical.com
(Sufentanil)
Paxarms
www.paxarms.com
(Dart guns, darts, pole syringes)
Palmer Chemical & Equipment Co., Inc.

www.palmercap-chur.com
(Dart guns, darts)
Pneu Dart, Inc.

www.pneudart.com
TeleDart
http://teledart.com/en/
Telinject USA, Inc.

http://www.telinject.de/en/
Wildlife Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
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www.wildpharm.com
(Capture drugs)
ZooPharm
www.wildpharm.com
(Capture drugs)
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A t this point, you should be familiar with the drugs and the equipment used to
capture animals. This chapter now puts all this information together.
Capture-related Stress and Mortality

Stress
There are those people who “obsess about stress” regarding the capture and handling
of wildlife. This is probably because they view stress entirely in a pejorative content.
This is unfortunate because this position ignores eustress (i.e., good stress), which
can result in increased motivation and productivity that can be important for survival.
Any discussion of stress should include a definition of stress, but “there has been no
definition of stress that everyone accepts (American Institute of Stress).” There are
many factors which influence any definition of stress. There is physical stress
(running, fighting, struggling) and psychological stress (fear, panic, unease). For
example, we know from implanted heart rate transmitters in deer and foxes that heart
rates increased dramatically when they heard a wolf howl or saw a human, yet these
animals remained absolutely motionless (Kreeger et al., 1989b). We presume this
was due to psychological stress only because there was no physical component.
Presumably, animal capture always has components of both. One should also
differentiate between acute versus chronic stress. Acute stress activates the
sympathetic nervous system and adrenalin secretion in the “fight or flight” response.
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Acute stress is of short duration (i.e., minutes) and usually does not result in
measurable pathology. Chronic stress is of much longer duration (hours, days, or
even years) and often causes pathology measured by immunosuppression, infertility,
and loss of fitness. Thus for the purposes of most animal captures, we will define
stress as the internal physiological and biochemical changes that alter homeostasis
when an animal is subjected to physical and psychological perturbations.
Every method of animal capture causes acute stress; chronic stress probably only
occurs if an animal is held in captivity or transported for long periods. There is no
way to avoid stressing your target animal. Even under the subtlest circumstances,
such as an unsuspecting animal darted over bait, there is an immediate response to
being hit by the dart. This is especially true when the animal becomes aware that
there was a human at the other end of the dart! The physical and psychological stress
associated with net gunning, drop netting, drive netting, or corral trapping goes
without further elaboration. There have been few studies comparing stress responses
associated with different capture techniques. The most comprehensive field studies
were probably conducted by Kock et al. (1987a; 1987b; 1987c) on bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis ). These studies suffered from at least two major problems: (1)
there were an unknown number of uncontrolled variables and (2) there are no
satisfactory immobilizing drugs for this species, which influenced the measured
responses. Nonetheless, these studies demonstrated that the sheep were stressed
regardless of the capture method used.
Highly controlled, comparative studies of capture stress in wildlife are extremely

rare. Variables such as age, sex, food, location, time of year, and duration of stress
have to be limited as much as possible. Valid controls, where the animal is subjected
to no physical or psychological stressors, are critical; one has to know what is
normal in order to determine abnormal. Also, studies need to be conducted where the
target animal is completely unaware of human presence so as not to impose a layer
of psychological stress over the other stressors (Kreeger et al., 1990b; White et al.,
1990). Valid comparisons can only be made under these circumstances and all
"capture studies” should be analyzed with this in mind.
Given the above, we submit that there is no way to eliminate stress from any form of
animal capture. But we do believe that capturing the animal quickly and efficiently
and releasing it as soon as possible can at least minimize stress. This can be
accomplished by: (1) using the right amount of drug (i.e., don’t underdose); (2) using
the most potent drug available (remember: one dart, one capture); (3) processing the
animal quickly (i.e., be organized; don’t waste time); and (4) using drugs capable of
being antagonized, if at all possible, so that the animal can return to normalcy
quickly.
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Mortality
Chemical immobilization is a potentially life-threatening undertaking. Although

death directly due to the drug(s) is actually quite rare, death due to the process of
chemical immobilization is not uncommon. Animals can die during induction by
drowning, falling from heights, wandering into the path of vehicles, or suffocating
(e.g., neck bent or draped over an object). Upon recovery, animals can succumb to
the effects of hyper- or hypothermia, capture myopathy, or predation. Most of these
causes of mortality can be avoided through training, experience, careful preparation,
good planning, and patience (e.g., don’t dart animals under bad circumstances). As
the person doing the immobilization, the responsibility for the life of the animal is
ultimately on you. If you immobilize enough animals, it will only be a matter of time
before one dies under your care. If you cannot afford to have an animal die because
of politics, publicity, philosophy, or economics, then don’t immobilize the animal !
Given that mortalities can occur, one may ask if chemical immobilization is more or
less risky to the animal than other capture methods. Granted we are probably a tad
biased, but we believe that chemical immobilization, when properly used, poses no
more, and usually less, of a threat to animals than other capture methods. There are
few comparative studies of capture mortality rates. One such review compared
mortality rates in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus ) captured with drive
nets, box traps, Clover traps, rocket nets, net guns, and chemical immobilization. The
authors essentially rejected the use of chemical immobilization over physical capture
methods because of the “high mortality” associated with drugs. We take extreme
exception to this disingenuous analysis because the authors included mortality rates
(13.6–33.3%) resulting from the use of nicotine and succinylcholine delivered by
crossbows and longbows, all of which are no longer used in common practice today.
Had the authors limited their analysis to modern drugs and delivery methods,
mortality rates would have been ≤ 2% (Peterson et al., 2003).
Just as with stress, all capture methods can cause mortality. No one method is
consistently superior to any other. An objective analysis of the literature shows that
mortality rates are fairly comparable across all capture methods, given all the
differences in methods, species, locations, and time periods considered. This latter
factor makes comparisons difficult because authors included any mortality occurring
from 14 up to 30 days post-capture (Webb et al., 2008).
Despite differences in post-capture time frames, we have good chemical

immobilization mortality rates using large data sets on a variety of species. Arnemo
et al. (2006) determined that the capture-related mortality rates in Scandinavia were:
moose (Alces alces ; 0.7%; n = 2,816), brown bears (Ursus arctos ; 0.5%; n = 2,114;
Arnemo and Evans, unpubl. data), wolverines (Gulo gulo ; 2.8%; n = 461), Eurasian
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lynx (Lynx lynx ; 3.9%; n = 380), and gray wolves (Canis lupus ; 3.4%; n = 89).
Beckmen and Crawford (2011) found that chemical immobilization of 1,754
ungulates and large carnivores in Alaska had an overall mortality rate of 1.25%.
Historically, an overall capture rate of < 5% was considered “acceptable”

(Valkenburg and Tobey, 2001). However today with the use of modern drugs and
improved delivery devices, we believe that an overall mortality rate of ≤ 2% is
desirable and achievable. This rate obviously applies only when a sufficient number
of animals have been captured (e.g., ≥ 100). Also, a standardized post-capture time
frame of 14 days should be adequate to encompass any mortality that may be
attributable to the capture event. This mortality rate can be achieved by: (1) using an
experienced professional capture team; (2) developing and following a capture
protocol specific to each species; and (3) requiring that a mortality assessment be
undertaken after any capture-related death. This assessment should re-evaluate the
capture protocol, including how changes in anesthetics and methodological
approaches could have prevented the mortality (DelGiudice et al., 2005; Arnemo et
al., 2006).
Rules of Animal Capture

The following “rules” have been developed through years of experience and they
should always be recalled prior to any capture operation.
Most of the effort involved in the handling and treatment of a wild animal will be attributed
to the capture process.
Until you get some experience under your belt, you won’t believe how much time it
takes to locate, get close to, dart, and finally capture a wild animal. Thus, allow
plenty of time to both capture the animal and monitor its recovery. To accomplish
this, most captures should be conducted in the early morning so that you will have
ample daylight for the operation.
Always plan ahead and be prepared for any contingency.

Whatever can go wrong, probably will (particularly when someone important is
watching!). Most cases of animal loss can be attributed to human error, so think
twice and act once. Before you set out to capture an animal, take a few minutes and
mentally walk through the process. Try to imagine for each step what equipment is
required and what can go wrong. Then make sure you have the appropriate supplies,
drugs, etc. to respond to each event that you visualized.
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When in doubt, dose high!
This rule may cause a great deal of angst for some readers, but in our experience,
more "wrecks" have occurred when an animal was underdosed than when it was
overdosed. Your job is to capture the animal. An underdosed animal can injure itself
or die from residual drug effects or infection if it escapes altogether. Most capture
drugs have high therapeutic indices and high doses rarely cause life-threatening
sequelae. Any medical complications that arise from overdosing can be addressed
when you get your hands on the animal. If you are trying to capture a highly stressed
animal, increase your dose by 20–25%. If you are not sure about an animal's weight,
estimate it on the heavier side. Remember, the goal of remote capture is: one dart,
one animal down!
A captured animal becomes a valuable animal - both intrinsically and economically.

The loss of any animal is regrettable; the loss of an endangered species is tragic.
Also, a great deal of personnel and equipment costs are usually invested in an
immobilization; thus, care and treatment of the animal should not be trivialized.
Keep records.
Good records are essential references for future captures, research, and analyzing
disasters(!). Refer to the sample record presented in the first chapter.
Considerations Prior to Animal Capture

The species, purpose, and circumstances of the capture must be considered prior to
undertaking the drugging of any animal. Reasons for drugging animals include
capture, translocation, sampling, marking, instrumentation, treatment, and removal
from a trap. One should ascertain if the capture is really necessary and whether the
risk of killing the animal justifies the planned gains . If committed to the capture,
there are factors to consider prior to, during, and after the process.
Species
Drug choice, drug doses, and animal response change between species and may vary
within species. Adhering to an inflexible drugging protocol can easily end in disaster.
Know the species in terms of body weight range, basic feeding habits, seasonal
reproductive and condition cycles, habitat, and response to available drugs.
Free-ranging Versus Captive

Free-ranging animals usually require higher doses than do captive animals. Free-
ranging individuals are usually highly excited and stressed in a capture situation
(e.g., chased by a helicopter or trapped in a snare), while captive animals tend to be
more docile and used to human activity and handling. Effective doses for free-
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ranging animals can be twice that for captive individuals of the same species. The
doses listed in the Drug Doses chapter are mostly intended for free-ranging animals.
These doses can be reduced for captive animals, if desired, but the free-ranging doses
can still be used safely and effectively on captive animals.
Injection Method
The method of drug administration will influence the dose required to induce
immobilization. Hand injection with syringes almost always results in faster
inductions using less drug than injections by darts. In reindeer, for example, the
effective doses for medetomidine and ketamine were 50% higher using darts
compared to hand injection (Ryeng et al., 2001a, b). The doses listed in the Drug
Doses chapter are mostly based on effective remote injections via darts. However,
these same doses can still be safely and effectively administered by hand-held
syringes (the animal may simply be down for a longer time).
Age
Young (not neonates) animals require more and older animals usually require less
drug per unit body weight than do prime-age adult animals. Neonates usually require
lower doses. There is higher risk of complications developing with older animals.
Weight
Most current drug dose literature is based on milligram of drug per kilogram of body
weight. Weight estimates accurate to ±20% are easy to make with experience and
doses based on such estimates should be safe. More accurate estimates (±10%) are
necessary when using drugs that have low therapeutic indices. Keeping records of
animal weight estimates coupled with actual weights after the animal is captured are
useful reference sources. Animal weights may change with seasons or conditions
(e.g., winter, drought).
Season
Season may have an effect on drug performance. There is anecdotal evidence that
deer in rut may require more drugs; conversely, it is thought that rutting caribou (and
presumably, reindeer) are extremely sensitive to xylazine.
Physical Condition
A sick, exhausted, or malnourished animal will usually require less drug than a
healthy, well-fed animal. Such compromised animals are high-risk candidates for
anesthesia and frequently die after capture despite everything being done correctly.
Pregnancy
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Animals in late stage pregnancy may require more drugs for immobilization, but may
experience more respiratory distress once immobilized because the large uterus may
impinge on the diaphragm. Although anesthetics may depress fetal respiration, there
has been no evidence that immobilization during pregnancy results in fetal loss
(DelGiudice et al., 1986). We have immobilized wolves with ketamine and xylazine
throughout pregnancy, up to and including the day of whelping, with no loss of pups
(Kreeger, unpubl. data).
Psychological Condition
As the excitement level of the animal increases, the chances of a successful capture
decrease. The calmer the animal, the safer and smoother will be the procedure. An
excited animal usually will require a higher drug dose. Failure to consider this
phenomenon usually results in underdosing, which leads to even more excitement,
increased chances of injury, trauma, hyperthermia, and capture myopathy. When in
doubt, dose high !
Weather
Adverse weather conditions, ambient temperature, and relative humidity must be
considered when immobilizing an animal. During extremes of temperature,
equipment or facilities should always be available to prevent and treat hypo- or
hyperthermia. For example, having a tanker truck available to hose down desert
sheep. The physiological effects of the chosen drug on an animal’s thermoregulation
should be understood so that its response may be anticipated.
Hazards
The physical environment must be considered both before and after the capture. A
drugged animal cannot choose where it finally becomes anesthetized. Water
(including water bowls ) presents a constant drowning hazard. Animals that are
chased may actually seek water because of hyperthermia. Falls from rocks, ledges,
and steep slopes can injure a semiconscious or ataxic animal. If predation or
intraspecific aggression is possible, the animal should be protected or monitored
until it recovers.
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Water is a constant drowning hazard. Even small bodies of water (or water bowls) can drown a large
animal.
Drugs
Proper selection of the capture drug is critical. The best drug available that will
provide the desired result should be selected. Compared to all other factors, drug
costs are the least significant. If you can’t afford the proper drug, then the capture
probably can’t be justified. Remember that immobilization does not always imply a
surgical plane of anesthesia. Use of painful or stressful manipulations to an
immobilized, but sensory aware, animal is inhumane and unjustified.
Preparation
Have everything that you need with you.
Before you begin the capture procedure, be sure that you have all drugs and
equipment that you may need. These include additional capture drugs and darts
should boosters be required (or if you miss with the first dart!), antagonists for both
animals and humans (in case of accident), monitoring equipment such as stethoscope
and thermometer, blindfolds and hobbles, antibiotics, etc. Fishing tackle boxes
usually make good receptacles for all this and they come in a variety of sizes and
shapes to suit almost all tastes. Vests with multiple pockets, such as a fly fishing or
photographer’s vest, can be used to carry most items and they free the hands to carry
such things as dart guns and pole syringes.
Prepare dart(s) beforehand.

Have one or more darts loaded before you begin your approach. You will usually
expend more darts than you would think possible; darts miss, bounce out, fail to
discharge, and generally exist to frustrate your life. For example, during the
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Yellowstone wolf reintroduction, an average of 5.5 darts was expended for each wolf
captured! A good rule of thumb for the number of darts you need to prepare
beforehand for helicopter captures is 1.5 darts/ungulate and 5 darts/carnivore. Be
sure that all loaded darts are safely stored so as to prevent accidental injection;
plastic test tubes or cigar holders make good holding devices. If you are working in
freezing weather, be sure to keep the extra darts warm. It is generally best to load
darts under controlled conditions, such as inside a heated building where you can lay
everything out and reduce the chance for drug or volume error. Unless absolutely
necessary, do not load darts in a moving vehicle or helicopter. When loading multiple
darts, do one step at a time for all darts to avoid mix-ups.
Check darts and gun before using.

Always inspect your dart gun prior to use to insure that it is unloaded and the barrel
clean and clear. If you are using any form of electronic sights, be sure that they are
working (and always carry spare batteries!). Before loading or using reusable darts,
place both ends of the dart body into the gun barrel to be sure that they have not
distorted. Aluminum darts can distort from previous firings and plastic darts
containing most any liquid can bend from being stored for long periods (i.e., weeks).
If both ends of the dart do not fit smoothly into the barrel, do not use it. For CO2
guns, carry extra gas cylinders and "O" rings.
Don’t load gun until ready to approach the animal.

Until you are actually in a position to approach and dart an animal, it is generally
unnecessary to load your dart gun. Remember dart guns are exactly that – guns! At
close ranges, dart guns can be lethal and they should always be treated like their
bullet-firing counterparts. Keep the safety on or the gun uncocked until just before
you shoot. Also never load a dart gun in a helicopter until you are in position to dart
the animal. Before loading, point the barrel outside of the aircraft and keep it there.
We’ll leave it up to your imagination as to what an accidentally-discharged dart can
do inside the cockpit.
Approach
Approach captive animals quietly and calmly.
Even if you are working with captive animals that are restrained in a chute or a
trapped wild animal, you should approach it quietly and calmly. Do not make rapid
or exaggerated movements that will panic the animal. Captive animals will often
pace or run back and forth if they see you approach too closely which makes
accurate shot placement difficult. If your approach cannot be hidden, don’t “focus”
too much on your intended target. Animals seem to know when you are interested
specifically in them and they become increasingly nervous. If captive animals are
used to a routine such as feeding or cleaning, try to mimic that activity.
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Use devices to approach free-ranging animals.
Approaching a free-ranging or captive animal close enough so that you can get a
suitable shot with a dart gun can be frustrating. Free-ranging animals, if shot from
the ground, are best shot from a blind overlooking a feeding station or some other
device that draws the animal into range. If this is not available, be prepared to use all
of your hunting skills when on foot, such as wearing camouflage clothing, watching
wind direction and scent, and no noise. Wild animals can often be approached quite
closely with a vehicle, but you must remain inside the vehicle even when taking a
shot. Darting from horseback has proven to be very successful, especially on ranches
where horses are used for work or patrols and wildlife are used to them. If using a
vehicle or helicopter to pursue and dart animals, try to limit the length of the chase.
Many ungulates have evolved for quick bursts of running only and are
physiologically ill-equipped for long-distance pursuits. Such species, if run too hard,
will survive the immobilization process only to die several hours or even weeks later
due to capture myopathy, hyperthermia, or stress-related diseases.
Using devices to approach animals for darting: left: feed ground elk approached by horse-drawn feed
wagon; right: Indian rhino approached by elephant.
Helicopters are often used to dart animals under a variety of conditions. Animals as
small as wolverines can be darted from the air (if you are a good shot!). Usually shot
distances are short (< 10 m), but if the animal is standing still, longer shots can be
taken. For example, animals may run into trees and stop, thinking that they are safe
from pursuit. With the helicopter hovering straight above, a long shot can be taken
straight down through the trees. Darting equipment is mostly a matter of personal
preference as most dart gun and dart types can be used from helicopters. In general,
the target animal is spotted from some distance before it is aware of your intentions.
The dart gun remains unloaded until the decision is made to pursue the animal. Once
the gun is loaded and the shooter is in position (usually outside of the helicopter with
safety harness attached), the approach is made. Although it is not always possible,
try to limit the chase to less than two minutes. This may sound short, but many
chases actually last less than 30 seconds. Once the animal is darted, notify the pilot
and then pull the ship as far from the animal as possible while still maintaining
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visual contact. When the animal is down, either notify a ground crew of its location
(GPS coordinates) or land as close as possible. If you are leaving the ship to process
the animal, have everything that you need with you, usually in a backpack. If you are
in deep snow country, don't leave the ship without snowshoes (if you forget them, it
will take you forever to get to the animal and you will be exhausted when you do!).
Needless to say, helicopter darting is extremely dangerous. A good discussion on
helicopter safety can be reviewed in Kock and Burroughs (2012).
Darting from a helicopter requires an experienced pilot, training in safety and survival, and proper
equipment such as helmet, fire-resistant flight suit, and windproof outer garments. Choice of type of
dart gun, sights, etc. is up to the shooter as most will work satisfactorily. Shot distances usually are not
far; often less than 10 m.
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Few free-ranging wild animals will allow humans to approach them on the ground. The exceptions are
animals used to human activity or vehicle traffic. Even if the animal is used to humans, it usually will
not allow an approach any closer than about 35 m.
Estimate distance and wind.

Many dart guns can be adjusted to deliver more or less propellant to the dart.
Additionally, .22-cal.-powered dart guns can use different power loads for different
ranges. If possible, estimate the probable shooting distance that you expect to
encounter and adjust the metering device and use the power load appropriate for the
distance and dart weight. However, be prepared to adjust these factors at the last
moment; if in doubt, it is better not to shoot. Overpowered darts can cause severe
wounds or death; underpowered darts can miss altogether (thus spooking the animal)
or strike the lower legs resulting in injury or poor drug absorption and prolonged
induction times. We have found that laser range finders are virtually indispensable
for determining distances. They are particularly effective when combined with
finely-adjustable CO2 dart rifles. Also be sure to consider wind speed, particularly
with crosswinds, when using lightweight darts or shooting at long distances (> 25
m). Increasing your power settings can help ameliorate wind drift, but this step
should not be taken when darting small or thin-skinned animals. The change in wind
conditions experienced at the outer edge of the downdraft caused by helicopter rotors
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can change the angle of flight of lightweight darts; heavier darts tend to overcome
this deflection.
Adjust for altitude.

A dart gun that is sighted in at one altitude may perform quite differently at another.
For example, a gun sighted in at an altitude of 2,000 m will shoot high at 4,000 m
and low at sea level (0 m).
Administration Sites
Intramuscular Injection
Immobilizing drugs are almost always administered intramuscularly (IM). The usual
injection sites are the large muscle masses of the proximal hindlimb and forelimb,
with the former being the most commonly used. Hindlimb injections preferably
should be placed towards the rear so as to avoid the femur; forelimb shots should be
placed towards the front. Although anatomically small, a surprising number of darts
strike the spine of the scapula. Also, the posterior portion of the scapula is not well
muscled and long-needled darts (> 3 cm) can lodge in the bone, even in a large
ungulate. Darts striking the bone are painful, can cause fractures, and may not inject
the drug due to blockage of the dart needle.
Misplaced darts using an explosive charge that hit bone will most likely not inject any drug into the
animal, explode loudly scaring the animal and others, and usually cannot be extricated without the use
of pliers. The same kind of malfunction can occur if the drug in the needle freezes. When the dart's
charge explodes, the resulting pressure will result in the dart coming apart.
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Above: intramuscular injection sites in a bighorn sheep. The preferred area is the large muscle mass of
the hindquarters. In many ungulates, the region where the light hair meets the dark hair of the rump is
a good aiming point. Below: bears should be injected in their shoulders or lower rear legs because of
their large subcutaneous fat deposits which absorb drugs poorly. Note that both polar bears were
darted in the shoulders. Bear photo by Mike Lockhart.
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Areas of large fat deposits should be avoided as absorption from these sites is slow
and unpredictable. For example, bears should be injected in the lower regions of the
hindlimbs or shoulder to avoid the fat deposits around the rump. For helicopter
darting, the hindlimb muscles or the back muscles running along the rear one-third of
the animal are suitable sights. No "leading" of the animal is necessary if the
helicopter is matching the animal's speed; otherwise, lead the animal if it is running
faster than the helicopter, or slightly behind the desired target site if the helicopter is
overtaking the animal.
Intravascular Injection
Intravascular (IV) administration is usually reserved for antagonists. Intravenous
administration of anesthetics should be done with caution, because the onset of
action is often quite rapid and, in some cases, respiratory depression or arrest can
occur. Any drug containing propylene glycol (i.e., diazepam) should be given slowly
IV, because a bolus can cause cardiac arrest. Intravenous administration of
antagonists could result in very rapid recovery; be sure that you have a cleared
escape route in mind and that all hobbles and blindfolds have been removed. For
example, elk heavily sedated with medetomidine recover quickly and are fully
sensate after antagonism with atipamezole. If you are too close to this animal upon
recovery, it may strike out at you rather than running away. Similarly, IV antagonism
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of thiafentanil with naltrexone can result in the animal standing in as little as 20
seconds (J. Raath, unpubl. data).
Intranasal Administration
Spraying drugs into the nose, particularly the alpha-2 adrenoceptor sedatives, has
been shown to have a significant calming effect on physically-restrained animals,
such as those caught with net-guns or Clover traps. Using a syringe fitted with a
feeding tube of appropriate size for the species (e.g., 15 cm for elk, caribou), insert
the tube into the nostril and inject, but be prepared for violent sneezing which may
spray the drug back into your face! Have some air in the syringe to fully expel the
drug when using a long feeding tube. You probably will have to add 3–5 ml sterile
saline to increase volume when administering a small dose (e.g., 1 ml). Intranasal
drugs are easier to administer to an awake, struggling animal than IV administration
and onset (60–90 sec) is much faster than IM injection. Published doses include 2
mg/kg xylazine for elk (Cattet et al., 2004) and 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine for
woodland caribou (Oakley et al., 2004). Effects of these drugs can be rapidly
antagonized with appropriate antagonists.
Oral Administration
Oral administration is not often used in wildlife capture primarily because of the
difficulty in predicting the dose that the animal receives. Also, drugs taken orally
have variable absorption rates, resulting in prolonged and erratic induction and
recovery times. Drugs can be placed in tabs that are attached to traps so that when a
captured animal chews on the trap, it ingests the drug (e.g., diazepam for foxes and
coyotes). Drugs can also be placed in food baits, but it is particularly difficult to
predict the administered dose with this method (Ratcliffe, 1962; Montgomery and
Hawkins, 1967). Gray wolves have been heavily sedated by placing concentrated
tiletamine-zolazepam into bait (Kreeger et al., unpubl. data). Midazolam in bait has
been used to sedate nervous free-ranging lions prior to darting (J. Raath, unpubl.
data). If other methods of administering drugs fail, one can spray drug into the mouth
of the animal (West et al., 2014).
Immobilization Signs
Although some drugs do not cause true anesthesia (loss of consciousness and
analgesia), many of the commonly used drugs or drug combinations do. The classic
stages of anesthesia were initially defined for rats given ether (Table 2) and they are
applicable to the more modern agents only in the broadest terms. However, it is
important to remember that Stage II of anesthesia (Delirium or Excitement) is often
applicable to many modern drugs, particularly the opioids. During this stage, the
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animal loses voluntary control and may stumble or fall, particularly if the animal was
underdosed . It is critical that the immobilizing dose be sufficient to minimize the
duration of Stage II in order to drive the animal quickly through Stage II and into
Stage III (Surgical Anesthesia) which is the desired stage. The ideal level of
anesthesia is Stage III, Plane II. If the animal is severely overdosed , it will progress
through the planes of Stage III with increasing physiologic impairment until it finally
enters Stage IV (Medullary Paralysis) where death is imminent unless counteractive
measures are taken (antagonist, CPR).
Table 5. Sequential signs of chemical immobilization of animals given an

injectable anesthetic. Not all signs are applicable to all species or all
drugs.
- Slight behavioral changes

- Licking
- Lowering of eyelids
- Standing (not moving or not keeping up with herd)
- Moving away from other animals
- Lowered head, standing
- Increased salivation
- Abnormal behavior
- Aimless walking
- Agitated walking and running
- Straddle-legged stance
- Down but able to rise on own
- Down but able to rise if stimulated
- Down but unable to rise—head up
- Down but unable to rise—head down
- Lateral recumbency
- Spontaneous movements present
- Loss of ear twitch reflex (touch inside of ear, ear twitches)
- Loss of jaw tone (resistance to having jaws opened)
- Loss of pedal reflex (pinch toe, limb withdraws)
- Loss of swallowing reflex (pull tongue, release, animal swallows)
- Loss of palpebral reflex (touch eyelashes, animal blinks)
- Loss of corneal reflex (touch cornea, animal blinks)
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Immobilization of an elk: A. straddle-legged stance; B. slight behavioral changes (elk not moving); C.
animal starts to become unsteady; D. lowering of hindquarters, head starts to tilt upwards; E. down, but
probably able to get up if approached - wait 1-2 minutes before approaching; F. animal should be
placed on sternum when possible.
Familiarity with the signs of anesthesia is essential – not knowing the depth of
anesthesia can be lethal for both the animal and you! You can assess drug effect
through changes in behavior (Table 5), but to determine such effects, it is critical to
be familiar with the target species. Know what is normal and look for the abnormal.
Once the animal is down, you need to assess the depth of anesthesia. Always
exercise caution when checking a downed animal. Approach the animal slowly and
quietly; approach dangerous animals from the rear and be sure that you have an
escape route. Initially observe for spontaneous, non -repetitive movements and, if
present, you can usually assume that the animal is not fully immobilized. Repetitive,
stereotypical movements are often seen with opioid agents. Such animals are
effectively immobilized, but can still deliver a crippling kick under these conditions!
If the animal appears unconscious, check for ear twitch (touch inside of ear, ear
twitches), pedal reflex (pinch toe, limb withdraws), swallowing reflex (pull tongue,
release, animal swallows), jaw tone (spread jaws, feel for resistance), palpebral
reflex (touch eyelashes, animal blinks), and corneal reflex (touch cornea, animal
blinks). If the animal has lost the ear twitch, it is probably at an appropriate stage of
anesthesia for most field procedures. The cyclohexanes often do not abolish the
blinking reflexes, even when the animal is quite anesthetized.
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Approach potentially dangerous animals from the rear and prod to insure animal is down. Observe for
spontaneous, non-repetitive movements indicating a light plane of immobilization.
Assessing the depth of anesthesia: Left: checking palpebral reflex on brown bear by touching eyelid. If
the animal blinks, it is in a light plane of anesthesia. Right: using jaw tone in a lynx. If the animal resists
having its jaws open, it is in a light plane of anesthesia.
Incomplete Immobilization
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If the animal has been hit with the dart and either the animal is showing no signs of
the drugs or is not fully immobilized, you should assess the situation carefully by
determining:
Did the animal receive all the drugs administered.

For example, there may have been a partial dart-hit where all of the drug may not
have gone into the animal. If your dart hit the animal, but bounced out almost
immediately and the animal shows some signs of drug effect, chances are good that it
only received a portion of the drug. If you are using carfentanil or thiafentanil and
even though the dart bounced out upon impact, many of these animals will still
become immobilized although they probably did not receive the full dose.
The animal’s psychological state.

Was the animal was highly excited during the drugging episode? Highly excited
animals can absorb a frightening amount of some drugs (particularly xylazine or
ketamine/xylazine) before they finally can be approached. When dealing with
highly-excited animals, such as deer, you may have to increase the suggested dose by
as much as 50% . Only experience will help you deal with these situations. Although
down, the animal still might be conscious – exercise caution!
The pharmacology of the drug and its therapeutic index.

Virtually all modern drugs in use today have wide safety margins where double,
triple, or even more doses result in little or no complications (other than taking a
long time to wake up!). The message here is, once again, do not be afraid to use
more drug(s).
What the animal is "telling" you.

Remember the signs of immobilization (Table 5). Is the animal showing any of these
signs? That is, what is it "telling" you regarding its response to the first dart? In
general, we are talking about administering booster doses via a dart because the
animal is either not down or goes down but continues to get up and run away.
What to do if the animal received some drug

If at all possible, get the time when the first hit the animal. A stopwatch works very
well for this. Allow 10-15 minutes to elapse after the first dart before giving booster
doses. Exceptions to this "rule" are if you are using drug combinations containing an
opioid agonist-antagonist (e.g., BAM, NAM) or dealing with "fatty" species such as
bears. In these cases, you could extend the period to 20 minutes. However in almost
all cases, the animal will be showing signs within the first 10 minutes. If the animal
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is showing signs of receiving some of the drug, administer 50% of the original dose.
If you used a combination of a primary immobilant (e.g., etorphine, ketamine, etc.)
plus a tranquilizer (e.g., xylazine, medetomidine), you probably only need to booster
with a half dose of the immobilant and no more tranquilizer. However, it is still
perfectly safe to administer half of the tranquilizer as well. For example, you used
500 mg ketamine and 100 mg of xylazine to immobilize a deer. The dart bounced out
almost immediately and 10 minutes later the deer was stumbling about or even lying
down, but it would get up or walk away when you tried to approach it. A safe and
effective booster dose in this case would be 250 mg ketamine and no more xylazine
(but xylazine could still be given).
When an animal is showing some drug effect, but is not down, try to minimize
further chasing or stress. If an animal gets up when approached, retreat immediately
and continue observing. Watch the time and prepare another dart. Oftentimes, a
partially drugged animal will go down again after getting up, offering another
opportunity for darting. Do not approach the animal too closely (< 25 m) or it will
get up again. The more times it gets up, the more drug is metabolized, and the more
difficult it will be to dart it again.
If the Animal Doesn't Go Down

Under most circumstances, animals will show definite signs of being drugged within 5-
10 minutes of IM injection.
Note the time. Allow 10-15 (but generally no more than 15) minutes to elapse from the
time of injection. If the animal shows some drug effect, but is not down, re-administer
50% of the original dose of the primary immobilant, with or without a tranquilizer.
If the animal shows no drug effect after 10-15 minutes, re-administer the entire original
dose.
Remember: the goal for free-ranging animals is to achieve immobilization with a single
dose. If in doubt about the correct initial dose, it is better to administer more, rather than
less, drug.
What to do if the animal received no drug

If no sign of drug effect is apparent after 10 minutes, you can assume that the animal
probably received little or none of the original dose. If you are confident that the
drug(s) and dose(s) that you originally selected were appropriate, then give the
animal the same drug(s) and dose(s) again.
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Only when these factors have been considered can you make an informed decision
on whether to administer additional drugs or abandon the immobilization attempt.
Animals can be kept immobilized for extended periods (several hours) with
supplemental boosters of 33-50% of the initial immobilizing dose. This is
particularly true when using ketamine. Where ketamine was given initially in
combination with another agent, such as xylazine, usually only the ketamine needs to
be given to maintain immobilization, particularly with carnivores.
If the animal is down and can be handled, but it continues to struggle and is generally
making your life difficult, a low dose of a potent tranquilizer, such as medetomidine
(e.g., 1 mg), often calms the animal enough to allow safer and easier handling. This
technique should be used with extreme caution when handling dangerous animals
such as bears and large cats. These animals can awake suddenly when the alpha-2
adrenoceptor agonists are used (e.g., xylazine, ketamine).
Handling the Immobilized Animal

When an animal is finally “down” and can be safely handled, there are several
immediate steps that need be taken before you embark on whatever action prompted
the immobilization in the first place. This section lists those steps; their order is not
absolute as obvious emergencies might take precedence. Specific emergency
treatments are discussed in the section, Animal Medical Treatment .
Position body.
• Insure that nothing impinges on breathing, i.e., neck straight, nose/trunk clear.
• Position ruminants sternally if at all possible. Most other animals can be placed on
either side or sternally except for elephants which must be placed on their sides.
The head should preferably be higher than the thorax with the nose pointing down
to avoid aspiration of fluids.
• Try to keep the animal on relatively flat ground to avoid occlusion of the trachea,
pressure neuropathy, or circulatory impairment.
• Some animals, such as rhinos, may require acute emergency care once
immobilized. For these species, it may be prudent to establish an IV drip line.
• For lengthy immobilizations, roll the animal on its other side or sternally at least
every 60 minutes. Massage the "down" legs to restore circulation. It is preferable
to roll ungulates across the sternum as opposed to across the back.
Cover eyes.
Covering the eyes protects them from harmful ultraviolet light from the sun, reduces
drying, and prevents dirt and debris from entering them. Coating the eyes with a
lubricant further prevents drying, however, some feel that eye ointments result in dirt
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and grit sticking to the eye. A saline wash (e.g., contact lens saline) can also be used.
Covering the eyes also appears to further calm the animal even though effectively
immobilized.
You may wish to plug the animal's ears with cotton or cloth to avoid response to
sounds which can happen with animals given opioids. If you do this, attach the plugs
to each other and/or mark with a bright string or ribbon so you don't forget to remove
them!
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Ruminants should be positioned sternally.
Hobble legs.
This is particularly necessary with ungulates to avoid spontaneous kicking which
may injure someone. Hobbles also prevent human injuries or possible escape should
the animal partially or spontaneously recover. Hobbles can be made from leather, but
leather can rot and weaken over time. The best hobbles are made from a "bioplastic"
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material, a laminate of fabric and plastic. They are extraordinarily strong, flexible,
and waterproof. Horse tack shops can make such hobbles. Have them made about a
meter long with holes punched every 2 cm or so. Heavy duty snaps by the buckle can
be used to connect front and back hobbled legs together. The key to securing hobbles
on ungulates is to get them as tight as you can - and then tighten one more notch!
Loose hobbles are as dangerous as no hobbles at all because they give you a false
sense of security. Animals appear to sense when hobbles are loose and they increase
their struggling as a result.
Check vital signs.

Respiration
Once assured that the animal’s body position will not affect breathing, you should
check its respiratory rate (RR). Regardless of claims, there are really very few
scientifically-proven normal resting RRs of undrugged, wild animals. Experience
with a given species and capture process is your best guide. Respirations can be seen
(watch the abdomen or chest), felt (place hand in front of nostrils), or heard (place
ear by nostrils – a very sensitive technique).
Left: Protect eyes with either ophthalmic ointment or sterile saline. Right: Immobilized elk hobbled,
blindfolded, and placed on right side. Hobbles can be attached to the front legs and the back legs then
connected as above, or each front leg can be hobbled to a back leg, but the left side and right side
hobbles not connected. This latter configuration would allow the animal to be placed on its sternum.
Slowed RRs are most likely drug-induced, but they can be caused by hypothermia.
In cases of respiratory arrest or poor oxygenation, respiration can be supported
mechanically or pharmacologically. Rapid RRs could indicate hyperthermia, bloat,
aspiration, pulmonary edema, or shock. Use other parameters (i.e., temperature,
capillary refill time) to differentiate the causes of a rapid RR and treat accordingly. If
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you have a stethoscope (and you should), listen for abnormal chest sounds such as
gurgling which may indicate pulmonary edema. If the animal’s gums (or other
mucous membranes) are pinkish (as opposed to blue, gray, or muddy), tissues are
probably adequately oxygenated, even if the RR is 5-6/min.
Depth of respiration is as important as rate. An adequate rate with a shallow depth

may result in a low volume of air being moved resulting in an increase in CO2 in the
blood. You should also be familiar with respiratory rhythms. Roan antelope under
opioid anesthesia, for instance, often take a single deep breath, followed by 5-6
shallow ones, followed by a brief period of apnea. This rhythm is maintained
throughout anesthesia.
Portable pulse oximeters are valuable for assessing respiratory efficiency because
they measure oxygen saturation of hemoglobin. Pulse oximeters tend to
underestimate saturation at high levels and overestimate saturation at low levels. The
trend of oxygen saturation is usually more informative than absolute percents. That
is, if the percent oxygen saturation falls from 90% to, say, 70%, then you need to
determine the cause. Hypoxemia is defined at saturation levels <95% (West et al.,
2014) and, if at all possible, this level should be maintained through the use of
supplemental oxygen, whether by oxygen tanks or oxygen concentrators (note:
concentrators do not work in low ambient temperatures).
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Temperature and respiration are the primary concerns with an immobilized animal. Today's
immobilizing drugs have little adverse effects on the heart. A rapid heart rate, however, could indicate a
medical problem such as shock, which can be treated with fluids.
Temperature
Always carry a thermometer and use it continually throughout the immobilization
period. In general, mammalian rectal temperatures range from 37.5–38.8º C (99.5–
102º F), but normal temperatures should be established for each species. Also, rectal
temperatures do not accurately reflect core body temperatures, which are usually
higher. The further you can insert the thermometer probe, the more accurate it will
reflect true core temperature. Even then, the probe should be in contact with rectal
tissue and not in an air space. Temperature can change with season and not just in
hibernating animals. Because of species and seasonal differences, an absolute
temperature cannot be established for all species. Hyperthermia then might be
defined as 2º C (3.6º F) above normal temperature established for the species and
season. Although not as common, don't forget about hypo thermia!
Conventional large animal glass thermometers are sufficient, but readings are slow to
develop and they easily break and are not used much today. Electronic digital
thermometers, particularly those with a probe, are preferable. These devices are
inexpensive, fairly rugged, and rapid. Insert the probe into the rectum and place the
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unit on the upper side of the animal where it can be checked periodically by simply
pushing a button. The best digital thermometers generally have longer probes and
monitor the temperature continuously without having to be reset.
Pulse
Again, there are very few proven, normal resting heart rates of wild animals, so let
experience be your best reference. Smaller animals generally have higher heart rates
than larger animals. Heart rates can be detected: (1) with a stethoscope (usually best
detected on the “down” side of the animal, between the fourth to sixth ribs or behind
the point of the elbow); (2) by feeling the heart beat directly by compressing the
chest slightly; (3) by locating an arterial pulse; or (4) by using a pulse oximeter or
electrocardiogram.
A very fast heart rate could be a function of drugs (e.g., ketamine), physiological
responses (i.e., stress, excitement), hyperthermia, or shock. Use other parameters to
differentiate the causes of tachycardia. An abnormally slow heart rate could be a
function of drugs (e.g., xylazine), hypothermia, or metabolic disorders (e.g.,
hyperkalemia, hypercalcemia). Generally, if the capillary refill time is < 2 sec,
adequate perfusion is assumed and no action is required in the absence of other signs.
Check for wounds, injuries, and general condition.

Start from the nose and work toward the tail. Look for blood, swelling, hair loss, and
abnormal body configuration (e.g., fractures or luxations).
• Nose: check for blood, excess fluid, dirt, foreign objects.
• Mouth: check for jammed sticks (particularly with trapped carnivores), broken
teeth, lacerated tongue, dirt, food, etc.
• Eyes: clear of dirt, lubricate, and cover.
• Ears: blood could indicate concussion, but could be due to ectoparasites.
• Chest: listen for gurgling, moist sounds, rasping (think edema, pneumonia).
• Abdomen: watch for signs of bloat.
• Limbs: check for lacerations, fractures.
• Feet: check for lacerations, fractures of toes, imbedded sticks, burrs etc.
• Anus: check for bleeding (think hyperthermia), diarrhea.
• Skin: check for lacerations, abrasions. Also check for dehydration by pinching
loose skin (e.g., back of neck) to form a “tent.” Upon release, the “tent” should
collapse within 1 second. If the pinched skin remains raised or resumes its normal
configuration slowly, the animal is probably dehydrated Also check for
ectoparasites (ticks, mites, lice). Treatment for a heavy parasite infection may not
be feasible, but a high parasite load may indicate an animal in marginal condition
which could have impact on its recovery from anesthesia or long-term survival.
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Do not make loud or sharp noises.
Animals that have been immobilized with opioid agents often spontaneously respond
to loud or sharp noises, such as a slammed truck door. The response is usually a kick,
but such animals may try to stand. We do not recommend the use of ear plugs (as
others have); invariably there will come a time when you will forget to remove them
and most animals cannot dislodge ear plugs on their own. On the other hand, do not
try to be overly quiet around such animals, because some noise may serve to partially
stimulate the animal resulting in an “early warning” of recovery. This is particularly
important when immobilizing dangerous carnivores with ketamine-medetomidine
combinations.
Transport of the Immobilized Animal

Moving animals for short distances, as from the capture site to a truck, can be aided
by the use of a heavy tarp. Tarps can be made from heavy-duty canvas or synthetic
material with multiple hand-holds attached to the edges. Animals weighing as much
as 400 kg can be handled by 4–6 people. Tarps, toboggans, sleds, or plywood sheets
can be used to skid even the largest of animals over snow.
The same tarps can be used to catch bears or mountain lions which have climbed
trees where they were immobilized but remained in the branches. Preferably, climb
the tree, place a rope around the animal (use a bowline knot so it doesn't tighten), and
lower it to the ground. If this is not possible, a tarp can be used to break the fall of
the animal as it is pushed or falls from the tree.
The efficacy of a tarp to truly absorb the animal's fall is debatable. A 200-lb bear
falling from a 30-ft tree generates over 3,000 foot-pounds of energy! So the benefit
of a tarp may be more perception than reality. Nonetheless, if the press or public are
observing this operation, you would be very wise to use a tarp even if not convinced
of its efficacy. It is almost a guarantee that you will see yourself on the "6 o'clock
news" if the bears falls from the tree, crashes to the ground, and bounces
uncontrollably if you make no attempt to break its fall.
Helicopters are necessary for moving animals out of remote areas. Animals are best
moved while hobbled and blindfolded in either cargo nets or bags especially
designed to hold the species. The animal should be kept sternal with the head upright
if at all possible. Be sure that the neck is not bent to avoid strangulation. Many
ungulates have been transported by helicopter while hung upside down by their four
legs. Although animals apparently survive such handling without harm, this should
never be done with an anesthetized animal which may regurgitate and aspirate
stomach contents.
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A tarp can be used to move heavy animals by just a few people or serve as a clean ground cloth when
processing animals in the field. Tarps can also be used to break the fall of an animal in a tree, although
the physics of a large animal falling some distance argues against the true efficacy of this procedure!
Animals are best transported by helicopter in bags or platforms specifically designed for the species.
Awake animals can be transported if hobbled and blindfolded; anesthetized animals can also be
transported if their heads are kept upright to avoid regurgitation.
There is much discussion on the appropriate method of transporting animals over

long distances i.e., should animals be moved while anesthetized or while awake?
Anesthetized animals may stop breathing or overheat in transit because they are not
continually monitored. On the other hand, awake animals may pace continuously,
jump, kick, trample one another, overheat, or develop capture myopathy.
Each species and situation is different. If the species is fairly calm, such as moose,
then transport in an awake, revived condition is best. If the animal is hyperactive,
such as deer or pronghorn, then moving it while anesthetized (if the animal is stable)
might be best. The males of many ungulate species should have either their horns
removed, covered with piping or tubes, transported in individual crates, or one male
(with horns removed or protected) with a group of females.
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Tranquilizers are often used to calm excitable animals; this is particularly true of
long-acting tranquilizers (LATs). Other tranquilizers, such as midazolam or
azaperone, can also effectively take the edge off an awake animal (Wolfe and Miller,
2016).
Transport trailers should be dark, but not so enclosed as to preclude adequate air
circulation. Animals crowded in a closed trailer can quickly overheat, even at sub-
freezing temperatures. It is more important to allow for good air circulation then it is
to have a darkened trailer. Many North American ungulates have been transported
safely in unmodified, standard stock or horse trailers.
In general, movement should be fairly restricted when transporting awake animals by

placing as many as reasonable into a given space. This will prevent excessive
movement and the potential for developing capture myopathy or hyperthermia.
When shipping several ungulates together, keep them the same approximate size (to
prevent trampling of smaller animals) and avoid mixing males and females. If
feasible, male ungulates should have their antlers removed prior to transport to avoid
their injuring other animals from displaced aggression.
Most wildlife can be readily transported in a standard horse trailer. Horse trailers are preferred to stock
trailers because they are taller, which is appreciated by tall animals such as this moose.
Individual crates can also be used to restrict movement of ungulates. Ungulate crates
should be constructed with doors at both ends (easier to load and unload the animal)
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and with plenty of air holes. Handles should be placed on the sides to allow lifting.
Crates should be wide enough to allow the animal to lie sternally, but not allow the
animal to turn around. It should be tall enough for the animal to barely stand, but not
so tall as to allow the animal to flip over backward. Carnivores should be crated and
shipped separately. Carnivore crates can be relatively larger than ungulate crates
because excessive movement and capture myopathy are less of a concern. Carnivores
often lay down throughout the journey. Blocks of ice in a pan can provide needed
moisture while preventing spills.
Recovery from Immobilization

An animal recovering from anesthesia should not be left unattended. Ideally, you
should remain with the animal until it can walk in a relatively coordinated manner
(i.e., respond appropriately to objects, people, other animals) whether an antagonist
was administered or not. At the minimum, you should stay with the animal until it
can at least raise itself to a sternal position. An obvious exception to this is when
dealing with dangerous animals. Bears, which are usually immobilized with
cyclohexanes that have no antagonist, are left to recover on their own. Grizzly bears
are known to be particularly aggressive when recovering from immobilization. Keep
the animal cool or warm, depending on weather conditions (i.e., out of the sun in
summer, in the sun during winter), dry, and free from inter- or intraspecific
harassment or aggression. Look around the recovery area for possible hazards such
as sharp rocks, ledges, or water. Either relocate the animal or stay with it through
recovery so as to direct it away from such hazards. Animals recovering while on a
slope will usually travel downhill, where there is often water. Should an animal go in
the water, be prepared to take heroic actions! When releasing animals that have been
transported in a trailer, be sure that the release area is free of obstacles in the
immediate area. Many ungulates simply walk out of the trailer when the door is
opened, but some leap out and run in a panic. Enough clear area should be available
to allow the animal to quickly orient itself and avoid obstacles. For these same
reasons, try to never release animals at night. The sound of bodies crashing into trees
in the dark is not soon forgotten! Some species may benefit from being released in a
temporary enclosure containing food and water. Subsequent release from this site,
hours or days later, may result in the group staying together instead of fragmenting
as well as their staying closer to the original site.
Recovery of Lost Darts

A common concern when capturing animals in areas frequented by humans is the
recovery of darts that have missed or did not stay imbedded in the animal. Darts
containing potent opioids probably are the most worrisome. There is the fear that a
person finding the dart may somehow become exposed to the drug and have an
adverse reaction. However, drugs do appear to deteriorate over time when stored in
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aluminum darts. Elk that were given carfentanil stored in aluminum darts for 14 days
did not become immobilized, indicating significant loss of potency (Kreeger, 2002).
Thus, darts containing carfentanil may become less hazardous over time.
Left: An effective darting team using a person to determine range as well as follow the dart's path.
Right: Looking for a missed dart with the Recco system.
Types of transmitter darts. Upper left: radio transmitter and battery which is inserted into the rear of the
dart (Pneu-Dart). Upper right: phase-locked loop (PLL) transmitter inserted in rear chamber of Pneu-
Dart dart. Left: Recco reflector components and Dan-Inject dart. The PLL transmitter darts are
purported to have the longest ranges; the Recco darts, the shortest.
There are different methods for retrieving darts that have missed their target. It is
always a good idea to have a "spotter" looking over the shoulder of the person firing
the dart. The spotter's job is to visually follow the dart and nothing else. The spotter
has the best opportunity of following the dart's path and approximating where it may
have gone should it miss the target. If a dart misses the animal, the general area
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where the dart was thought to have landed should be marked with a flag, stake, or
other device. If enough people are involved in the capture effort, someone can be
deployed to locate the dart immediately. Otherwise, continue pursuit of the animal
and return to the lost dart site later. Search for the dart by walking increasingly larger
circles around the marker. Be slow and methodical; darts often get buried under
vegetation or snow and can be very difficult to locate. In Scandinavian countries,
retrieval of darts containing opioids is mandatory, even missed darts fired from a
helicopter. In this situation, a heavy weight with a long colored ribbon is thrown out
in the vicinity of the lost dart as well as recording the GPS position. A person is
deployed later on to retrieve the dart, which sometimes might have to wait until
spring when the snow thaws.
There are three types of darts that contain devices to aid location. The first type
contains a tiny radio transmitter operating in the 148–174 MHz bands. A radio
receiver equipped with a directional antenna is used to locate the dart. The
transmitter weighs less than 3 grams and fits in the back of the dart. The theoretical
maximum range of the transmitter is 1,500 m under optimal conditions (flat terrain
without significant vegetation), but can be less than 100 m in mountainous, heavily
forested terrain or if the animal is lying on the dart. Although these transmitter darts
can be expensive (US$200), they are reusable. Transmitter darts are available from
Palmer and Pneu-dart in North America and Wildlife Pharmaceuticals in South
Africa.
The second type is similar to the first, but employs a phase-locked loop (PLL)
transmitter. This technology is purported to: (1) be able to withstand the shock of
impact 15 times greater than crystal transmitters; (2) have an effective range of up to
2.4 km (1.5 miles); and (3) have up to 12 hours battery life. PLL darts cost US$315
for a kit and the receiver US$1,395. The PLL transmitter tail piece is reusable and is
combined with a one time use drug-containing dart with capacities from 1–3 ml. The
PLL darts area available from Pneu-Dart.
The third type operates on the frequency doubling principle. The dart contains a
lightweight (2 gram) reflector inserted in the air chamber of a Dan-Inject® plastic
dart. A directional signal is transmitted from a hand-held detector, which strikes the
reflector in the dart. The frequency of the reflected signal is doubled and sent back to
the scanning antenna and receiver of the detector. The receiver detects this signal and
a tone is heard via headphones. The maximum search distance is 30 m from the
ground and 200 m from the air. However under most conditions, the range is less
than 10 m on the ground. Although this range may seem limiting when compared to
radio transmitter darts, 99.6% of darts equipped with reflectors were located in
moose capture operations in Norway (Arnemo, unpubl. data). Darts equipped with
reflectors are much cheaper than radio transmitter darts, but the detector used in this
system is much more expensive than a radio receiver. The reflector system is
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available from Recco in Sweden (www.recco.com ). Also, reflective tape can be
attached to regular darts to aid in their nighttime recovery or to help follow darted
animals in the dark with the use of a spotlight.
Urban Wildlife Capture

Increasingly, wildlife management agencies, police, and animal control officers are
confronting the problem of large, sometimes dangerous, wild animals finding their
way into urban environments. Animals such as moose, bear, mountain lion, deer, and
even coyotes are usually considered a public hazard and it is expected that someone
needs to do something about them. Such animals, however, are probably more likely
to injure themselves than the public because they are scared and probably highly
stressed after being chased by kids and dogs.
Capturing animals in urban environments is not for the novice or faint of heart. There
is little room for error because your actions will be observed, and critiqued, by the
public and probably the media. Now is the time to really have your act together. If
you screw up, it will undoubtedly be captured by cell phone and replayed endlessly
on the Internet, embarrassing you and your agency. The public understands the need
to have the animal removed, but is intolerant of causing the animal pain or distress so
you need capture the animal as professionally as possible. The public never wants
the animal to be killed, so don’t even suggest that as a solution (unless, of course,
there really is no other option).
Oftentimes the best solution is to leave the animal alone and let it get out of town on
its own. For example, bears in trees will eventually come down if left alone (often
fairly quickly but sometimes not for a day or two). This option is not usually possible
because public officials feel the need to “do something” to eliminate the perceived
risk.
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Urban wildlife capture often presents challenging situations where both you and the animal will be
highly stressed!
Capturing wildlife in urban situations is where chemical immobilization is mandated.

Do not try to use physical restraint on a powerful and dangerous animal. You will get
hurt, the animal will get hurt, the whole episode will be a shambles, and the public
will castigate you for being heavy-handed. Television has taught the public to expect
you to “tranquilize” the animal with a single dart where it calmly goes to sleep and is
gently and respectfully removed from town. This expectation should be your goal
also! To achieve this goal, consider the following points:
Be professional.
Your behavior, demeanor, and actions will undoubtedly be observed by the public
and perhaps the media. Dress for the occasion; wear clean clothes or uniform. Go
through the previous discussion on Considerations Prior to Animal Capture and use
these to analyze your current situation. Have everything you need with you. Be calm
but firm and exude an aura of confidence. Never lose your temper, shout, or appear
highly emotional.
Communicate.
This cannot be over-emphasized. The police will undoubtedly be present. Tell them
what your plan is and how they can assist you. If something may go wrong with the
capture because of the animal’s location, temperament, or physical condition, discuss
this first with the authorities and even the press (but see below as well). Forewarning
people that the animal may get hurt or even be killed is usually a good strategy. If
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nothing happens, then you look good. If bad things happen as you predicted, then at
least you look knowledgeable. If you don’t discuss potentially bad outcomes and the
worst does happen, then you look incompetent in the eyes of the public (and again,
the press).
Use the right drugs.

This is something else that cannot be over-emphasized. The expectation of the public
is that you will hit the animal the first time with a dart; it will become “tranquilized”
fairly quickly; and you will transport it back to the wilderness where it will live
happily ever after. The only drugs that provide rapid, consistent, and predictable
results when capturing ungulates are the opioids (thiafentanil, etorphine). However,
you may not have access to these drugs and will probably be using a cyclohexane-
alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist combination (e.g. ketamine-medetomidine) or opioid
agonist-antagonist combination (e.g., BAM, NAM). Be prepared for longer
inductions times and animals not completely immobilized.
There may be some concern that accidental human exposure may occur if a dart
containing opioids misses and is found later by the public. Do not let this minimal
risk prevent you from making a worse decision by using the wrong drugs. These
animals will be highly stressed and will require potent drugs at high doses to achieve
effective immobilization. Drugs such as ketamine and tiletamine simply are not
potent enough to achieve quick immobilization under most circumstances.
The last thing you want is the animal to be stuck with multiple darts, being affected
by the (inappropriate) drugs but still running away when approached, and taking an
inordinate amount of time to finally be captured. If losing darts is a concern, use a
spotter (see below) or consider radio transmitter darts. Almost all carnivores can be
effectively immobilized with the cyclohexanes (ketamine, tiletamine). But again,
because these animals are highly stressed, always dose high !
Use a spotter.
Having an experienced person acting as a spotter can be beneficial. This person can
use a range finder to determine accurate distances, leaving you to concentrate on the
shot. A spotter also can usually follow the flight of the dart better than the shooter.
The spotter then can confirm a hit or miss and, if a miss, can more accurately
pinpoint where the dart may have landed. Mark where the dart was last seen and
continue pursuing the animal. Ideally, leave someone in the vicinity of the lost dart to
prevent someone else from finding it (see Recovery of Lost Darts ).
Control the public.
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This is where the police can most effectively be used. People often want to get closer
to the animal to get pictures or out of simple curiosity. These actions could scare the
animal even more resulting in the animal running further away or climbing higher in
a tree or up a pole. The police are very effective in preventing the public from
interfering with your job: use them.
Think about public perception.

By now, you should have figured out that your actions will be scrutinized by the
public. Always bear this in mind and always think about how every aspect of the
capture will be interpreted. Remember, you are representing your agency and you
must always act professionally and remain considerate and courteous. As discussed
previously (re: Transport of the Immobilized Animal ), always use a tarp or other
device to “break” the fall of a bear or lion in a tree. You won’t really affect the fall
that much because of the force generated, but it will look to the public as if you did.
Remember: it’s all about perception when it comes to the public.
The media come last.

The media are often present when wild animals are in town. Most people in the
media are considerate of your job at hand, but some can be rather pushy and
belligerent when seeking information. It is human nature to want to answer a
question, but you do not have the time to talk to the media until the animal is
secured. Politely tell them that you will talk to them afterwards. If necessary, use the
police to keep them away from you. Be firm, but not rude, when dealing with the
media.
Treat the animal respectfully.

Never take your frustration out on an animal once you get your hands on it. Even
though it might have ruined your Sunday golf match and you are hot and tired, don’t
just drag and throw it into the back to the truck like it was garbage. Try to move the
animal with a tarp or have enough people to assist in moving and loading it. It also
looks professional to have animals blindfolded and ungulates hobbled. There’s never
a reason to appear unkind and the public expects you to treat the animal thusly.
Talk to the public afterwards.

Consider talking to the public once the animal is caught and safely secured.
Professional wildlife biologists often forget that the general public rarely, if ever,
comes in close contact with wildlife. You should have the experience to assess the
state of immobilization or depth of anesthesia. Most animals will remain
immobilized for well over an hour before they begin to spontaneously move (let
alone recover). You have plenty of time to answer questions about the animal. There
is also nothing wrong with allowing the public (especially children) to touch the
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animal to experience its fur, claws, etc. Spending just a few minutes interacting with
the public can reap huge rewards in positive public relations for you and your
agency.
Euthanasia
Invariably, there will come a time when an animal must be euthanized either because
it has been critically injured or it is terminally ill. If an animal needs to be
euthanized, it should be done safely and effectively with some consideration for the
dignity of the animal and the sensitivities of the public. Many methods of euthanasia,
such as shooting and stunning, are effective and medically acceptable but are
reprehensible to the public (or even other biologists!). Chemical euthanasia is
generally the preferred method because it is safe, effective, and aesthetically
acceptable. Listed below are the various methods of euthanasia that are generally
employed for wildlife. Other methods, such as carbon dioxide and inhalant
anesthesia, are not listed only because they are not practical for field application. A
detailed discussion of euthanasia methods is published by the American Veterinary
Medical Association, entitled, AVMA Guidelines on Euthanasia and can be accessed
on the Internet (https://www.avma.org/KB/Policies/Documents/euthanasia.pdf ).
Note: It should be remembered that no animal that has been chemically captured and
then euthanized by physical methods or one that has been directly euthanized with
drugs can be used for human or animal food consumption (but see Carcass Disposal
).
Cervical Dislocation
Cervical dislocation can be used to euthanize birds, small rodents, and rabbits. For
mice and rats, the thumb and index finger are placed on either side of the neck at the
base of the skull. With the other hand, the hind limbs are quickly pulled, causing
separation of the cervical vertebrae from the skull. For small rabbits, the head is held
in one hand and the hind limbs in the other. The animal is stretched and the neck is
hyperextended and dorsally twisted to separate the first cervical vertebra from the
skull. For birds of poultry size or smaller, cervical dislocation is accomplished by
stretching and twisting.
Decapitation
Decapitation is generally not acceptable due to animal (and public) distress.
Exsanguination
Exsanguination (bleeding to death) is acceptable only if the animal has been rendered
unconscious by drugs or stunning. It is often a slow, messy, and unsightly process.
Bilateral sectioning of the jugular or femoral veins can be effective, but often the
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blood flow slows after awhile. If possible, try to severe the major arteries leading
from the heart by inserting a long-bladed knife into the junction of base of the neck
and shoulder and slicing inwards and downwards.
Stunning
Stunning by a sharp blow to the head with a hard object can be used for smaller
animals (< 5 kg). Stunning by a penetrating captive bolt can be used on larger
animals including the largest hoofstock. The disadvantage of any method of stunning
is that it may not cause death, so you must check that the animal is dead by
monitoring heart rate, respiration, or pupillary reflex. If you are not sure that the
animal has expired, it is wise to insure death by exsanguination. Note: non
penetrating captive bolts are not recommended as a method of euthanasia.
Immobilized elk being euthanized by shotgun with slugs. A neck shot was required to preserve the
head for disease analysis. The cervical vertebrae are first located by feel (don't guess where they are
located) and the muzzle placed appropriately. Otherwise, place the bullet between the ear and the eye
or at the juncture of an “X” connecting the ears and eyes.
Gunshot
Gunshot is often the most practical, if not only, means of euthanizing wild animals.
Ideally, the animal is under some sort of physical or chemical control so that
carefully-placed shots can be made. If the animal is not controlled, heart or lung
shots are preferable to head or neck shots.
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If the animal is under physical control or chemically immobilized, the best target for
shooting is at the intersection of two imaginary lines connecting the ears with the
contralateral eyes. Large, heavy, slow-moving bullets (e.g., shotgun slugs) are more
effective and safer than high-power rifle bullets. Be sure that all personnel stand
behind the shooter; bullets hitting bone can take off at unexpected angles. Place the
muzzle of the gun as close to the animal as feasible and aim at juncture of the “X”
connecting the ears and eyes. On large animals, or animals with heavy skulls, you
may want to shoot at a point slightly off center of this imaginary intersection. Try to
insure that the shot is placed as perpendicular to the skull as possible; bullets fired at
a shallow angle may bounce off thick skulls. For accurate bullet placement, it usually
preferable to place the barrel of the gun right on the skull or neck.
Although head shots are the most sure and humane method, sometimes the head
must be preserved for disease diagnoses (e.g., rabies, chronic wasting disease). In
these cases, the neck is the next preferred site. Again, shotgun slugs are most
effective for such shots. If you don't have slugs, shotgun shells loaded with bird shot
will suffice since, at these close ranges, the shot leaves the barrel virtually as an
intact unit. Although euthanasia by gunshot (or penetrating captive bolt) is usually
instantaneous, the animal may thrash and convulse for several seconds after the shot.
Large ungulates can deliver bone-breaking kicks during this period, so wait several
seconds after cessation of thrashing to handle the animal.
Barbiturates
Several euthanasia products are formulated to include a barbituric acid derivative
(usually sodium pentobarbital) with added local anesthetic agents. These drugs are
U.S. Schedule III controlled substances. Barbiturates are generally the preferred
method to euthanize domestic animals and they are acceptable for almost all species
and sizes of animals. However, the effective volume needed to euthanize large
ungulates (>300 kg) is surprisingly high (>100 ml). An entire bottle of commercial
euthanasia solution can be insufficient cause death, so have enough on hand to
complete the task. Intravenous injection is the preferred route, although
intraperitoneal (IP) and intrathoracic injections can be given to small animals and
birds.
Potassium Chloride
Another method of euthanasia that is available to anyone is IV injection of potassium
chloride (KCl). Increasing the concentration of circulating potassium (hyperkalemia)
in the blood directly influences electrical activity of the heart resulting in
cardiotoxicity and arrest. Potassium chloride can be inexpensively obtained from
chemical suppliers. Potassium chloride is also available in grocery stores as “light
salt,” which is a substitute for sodium chloride.
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A saturated solution can be made by adding about 300 mg of KCl per ml of solvent
(sterile water, physiological saline, distilled water, or even tap water). Shake
vigorously and immediately draw into a syringe as the KCl will settle out quickly of
this saturated solution. This solution must be given IV quickly (slow, drawn out
administration will not be effective). Administer at a dose of at least 50 mg KCl per
kg body weight. The animal should be anesthetized before KCl is administered.
Cardiac arrest is quite rapid (<30 sec) and should be verified by listening for
heartbeat or feeling for a pulse. Animals euthanized with KCl will often have clonic
muscle spasms (arching of neck, twitching) and sometimes vocalization for a few
minutes following administration.
Carcass Disposal
In the U.S., animals euthanized with barbiturate solutions must be cremated or
deeply buried by federal law. This is to prevent pass-along toxicity to scavengers.
Barbiturate toxicity, sufficient to kill a dog, has been reported to remain in a carcass
for up to two years after euthanasia. Animals that have been immobilized with the
opioids and have died shortly after immobilization (i.e., < 60 min) should also be
buried or removed from the field. Animals that have received only succinylcholine or
potassium chloride, however, can be safely eaten by birds or mammals.
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Quick Reference Guide to Animal Emergencies
Condition
Aspiration
Bloat
Capture Myopathy
Cardiac Arrest
Convulsions
Dehydration
Frostbite
Hyperthermia
Hypothermia
Respiratory Arrest
Seizures
Shock
Vomiting
Wounds
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T his section is not intended to be a comprehensive course on veterinary emergency
medicine. Rather it is intended to familiarize you with the most common medical
emergencies encountered in the chemical capture of wild animals. The list of
possible complications is lengthy, but the majority of problems are concerned with
respiration and temperature. This chapter is also written with the assumption that
many captures are conducted in the field where monitoring and emergency
equipment might be minimal. Thus, your ability to assess problems will be limited to
what you can see, hear, or feel.
This manual cannot teach techniques, such as inserting an endotracheal tube.

Although such techniques may be recommended, you should receive training from
an experienced individual if you are unfamiliar with them. The below order is based
on the probability of occurrence as well as necessity for immediate action. Contents
of a minimal veterinary first aid kit are included at the end of this section for your
information and to aid in selection of emergency equipment and supplies.
Respiratory Depression or Arrest

Definition:
Tissue hypoxia resulting in cell death or damage caused by inadequate oxygenation

of blood hemoglobin.
Causes:
• Drug-induced depression of respiratory center
• Airway obstruction
- nose, trunk occluded
- trachea occluded (neck draped over log, neck twisted, etc.)
- vomitus blocking airway
- edema blocking airway
• Pressure on the diaphragm
- bloat
- intestinal, uterine (fetus) contents
Signs:
• Few, shallow, or no respirations
• Cyanosis - gums blue, gray, or “muddy”
• Noisy breathing, wheezing, rattling
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• Oxygen saturation trend is continually downwards.
Treatment:
1. Cease all further administration of immobilizing drugs.
2. Establish patent airway.

Insure that neck is straight, tongue pulled out, trachea clear of vomitus, foreign
objects, etc. Position animal correctly; ruminants should be placed on their sternums;
elephants should always be on their sides; carnivores can be sternal or lateral.
3. Begin artificial ventilation.

Manual chest compression can be performed by laying the animal on its side and
pushing down firmly on the chest, 15–20 times per minute. Other methods include:
- folding, then raising and pulling forward on the front legs in a pumping
motion OR
- insert endotracheal tube and ventilate with air (resuscitation bag) or from
oxygen supply OR
- attempt tracheotomy if laryngeal area is hopelessly blocked.
After artificial ventilation has returned normal color to mucous membranes (gums
pinkish), stop ventilation for at least one minute to see if the animal will begin
breathing on its own. If no respirations are noted, resume ventilation, stopping
periodically to allow the animal to breathe without your intervention.
4. Administer oxygen
Oxygen can be administered by passing a plastic tube of appropriate size into the
nasal cavity, stopping the tip at the level of the eyes. Secure the tube with tape or
gauze. Administer oxygen with a D- or E-type oxygen cylinder containing 100%
oxygen and equipped with an ambulance pressure regulator. Oxygen flow rates are
generally species-specific. A good discussion of oxygen therapy can be found in
Fahlman (2014). Adjust flow rate until cyanosis disappears and/or oxygen saturation
is >90% (Cattet et al., 2005). Note that only approved aviation oxygen cylinders can
be carried on helicopters. Oxygen concentrators may solve this problem, but may not
work well in cold ambient temperatures. Most chemically immobilized animals
should receive supplemental oxygen, if at all possible.
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Artificial resuscitation via manual chest compressions can increase oxygenation even in large animals,
such as this elk.
An endotracheal tube and resuscitation bag are far more efficient than chest compressions for
increasing and maintaining oxygenation. However, you need to be equipped with the correct size of
tube and the knowledge of how to insert it!
5. Administer 1-2 mg/kg doxapram IV.
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Give doxapram only if artificial resuscitation did not cause the animal to start
breathing on its own.
Bighorn sheep being given oxygen via portable oxygen tank and nasal cannula.
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Respiration can be stimulated in ungulates by inserting a needle in the middle of the upper lip just
under the nostrils. Upon insertion, the animal should take a breath; further respirations can be
stimulated by moving or twirling the needle.
6. Try acupuncture.
Acupuncture has been used with mixed success to stimulate respiration in
immobilized ungulates (Janssens et al., 1979; Davies et al., 1984). Such assertions
are more anecdotal than scientific as no studies have been conducted to verify the
efficacy of this technique. Insert a needle into the upper lip just between and below
the nares (see picture). If just the act of inserting the needle does not cause the
animal to take a breath, try twirling it or moving it in and out. If neither of these
actions work, relocate the needle and try again.
7. Administer appropriate antagonist IV.

If artificial resuscitation or doxapram did not cause the animal to start breathing on
its own, your next recourse is to antagonize the immobilizing drugs, even though it
means that the animal must be released. If you cannot hit a vein within 30 seconds ,
split the dose and give the antagonist in two sites in the shoulder or hip muscles:
- Etorphine: administer 2 mg diprenorphine (or 20 mg naloxone or naltrexone)
for every mg of etorphine given.
- Carfentanil: administer 100 mg naltrexone or naloxone for every mg
carfentanil given.
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- Thiafentanil: administer 10–30 mg naltrexone or naloxone for every mg
thiafentanil given.
- Xylazine: administer 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine; 1 mg/kg tolazoline; or 1 mg
atipamezole for every 10 mg xylazine given.
- Medetomidine or detomidine: administer 5 mg atipamezole for every mg
medetomidine or detomidine given.
Comments:
Respiratory depression/arrest is probably the most common complication
encountered in wild animal immobilization. The best advice we can give concerning
respiratory arrest is not to panic. You probably have up to 5 minutes before
irreversible, hypoxic brain damage occurs. This is really a very long time in which to
take corrective action. Panic serves only to confuse your thinking and diffuse your
efforts – both of which cost the animal time. Having an IV drip line in place could
also prove invaluable in these cases.
Hyperthermia
Definition:
Hyperthermia is elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation that
occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates.
Causes:
• Metabolic heat generated by physical exertion
• Heat absorption from environment
- warm ambient temperatures, direct exposure to sun
- confinement in poorly ventilated space
• Drug-induced alteration of thermoregulatory centers
• Bacterial/viral infection
Signs:
• Elevated rectal temperature (> 2º C/3.6º F above normal)
• Extremities (ears, feet) very warm to the touch
• Rapid, shallow breathing
• Rapid heart rate, irregular pulse
• Coma, death
Treatment:
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2. Cool the animal.
First move the animal out of direct sunlight, if possible. Then employ one or more of
the following methods to cool the animal. Whole body immersion in water is
probably the most rapid means of decreasing the temperature. Moving air
("fanning") over a wet animal will increase cooling efficiency.
- immerse animal in water (pond, stream, water tank)
- spray entire animal with water, particularly the groin and belly
- pack ice or cold water bags on groin, head
- douse with isopropyl alcohol (rapid evaporation cools quicker)
- administer cold water enema
- administer cold lactated Ringer’s solution IV or IP (also see Dehydration)
The fastest way to lower elevated body temperatures is to immerse as much of the animal as possible
in water. In the winter, packing snow around the animal is preferable to wetting the animal which could
lead to the opposite problem - hypothermia!

Immobilizing drugs not only disrupt the thermoregulatory center, but they prevent
the animal from using its normal cooling mechanisms such as sweating and panting.
If the above cooling steps did not lower the animal’s temperature, your next recourse
is to antagonize the immobilizing drugs even though it means that the animal must
be released. If you cannot hit a vein within 30 seconds, split the dose and give the
antagonist in two sites in the shoulder or hip muscles:
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carfentanil given.
thiafentanil given.
Comments:
Severe hyperthermia (generally >41º C/106º F) is a medical emergency and you must
cool the animal immediately. Obtaining a rectal temperature should be one of the
first steps taken as soon as the animal can be safely handled. Monitor the temperature
throughout the immobilization period.
Hypothermia/Frostbite
Definition:
Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more
heat than it absorbs.
Causes:
• Drug-induced
- decreased metabolism and/or endogenous heat production
- alteration of thermoregulatory center
• Cold ambient temperature
• Loss of insulation
- wet, soaked coat
- oiled fur or feathers
- malnourished (decreased fat)
- recumbent in one position for too long (compresses downside fur)
• Inadequate circulation
- shock
- foothold trap
Signs:
• Decreased rectal temperature (> 2º C/3.6º F below normal)
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• Shivering
• Decreased heart rate
• Decreased blood pressure (pulse difficult to feel)
• Extremities cold to touch
• Extremities firm (frostbite)
Treating hypothermia is not easy. An external source of heat needs to be applied because the animal is
not generating sufficient endogenous heat. Covering the animal to retain heat is advisable. Also, the
heart rate should be monitored in severe cases. Drug metabolism will be slowed so recovery will be
prolonged.
Treatment:
1. Warm the animal.
The only treatment for hypothermia or frostbite is warming the animal or affected
part. One or more of the below methods can be employed to accomplish this.
Regardless of the method(s) used, expect a slow recovery back to temperatures
suitable for release of the animal.
- containers of warm water (do not wet the animal unless you can dry it also!)
- blankets
- foam pads (place under animal)
- hand warmers
- body heat (put small animal inside of your coat)
- electric heat pads, lights
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Comments:
Antagonism of immobilizing drugs is not recommended for hypothermia cases. This
is because recovery is invariably slow and if you release the animal with depressed
temperature, it may walk away appearing normal only to succumb to hypothermia
later because it was unable to produce enough endogenous heat to rewarm itself.
Still, warming may be difficult, if not impossible, for large animals such as deer. In
this case, your only recourse may be to antagonize (if possible) the drugs and release
the animal. You may actually have to give boosters of immobilizing drugs to keep
the animal unconscious until warmed. However, because the animal’s metabolism is
slowed by the hypothermia, drug effect is usually prolonged and recovery will be
slow anyway. Hypothermia is not as common of a problem as is hyperthermia.
Because of this, many overlook this problem in the field – much to their chagrin.
Very cold weather (< -18º C/0º F) is hard on animals, people, and equipment.
Prevention of hypothermia is usually preferred over having to somehow warm the animal. This bear is
covered to prevent heat loss.
Shock
Definition:
Shock is a clinical syndrome characterized by ineffective blood perfusion of tissues
resulting in cellular hypoxia. Shock is often seen in animals which have undergone a
stressful or strenuous capture or handling.
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Causes:
• Prolonged physical exertion
• Prolonged physiological and/or psychological stress
• Severe blood loss
Signs:
• Rapid heart rate
• Low blood pressure (slow capillary refill)
• Muscle weakness
• Depressed sensorium (often masked by drugs)
• Hyperventilation
Treatment:
2. Administer 30 ml/kg Lactated Ringer’s solution IV.

If shock is due to blood loss or redistribution of blood, administer lactated Ringer’s
solution IV rapidly by using a large-bore needle into a large vein such as the jugular
or femoral. Infusion of fluids works best with a drip set attached to the fluids bag,
but you could also use a large-capacity syringe (30–60 ml) by leaving the needle in
the vein, removing only the syringe to refill, and reattaching the syringe to the needle
to administer the fluids. Administering fluids to large animals may be impractical
due to the amount of fluid required (often several liters).
3. Administer 5 mg/kg dexamethasone IV.

Administer slowly (app. 30 sec). Prednisolone sodium succinate at 10 mg/kg IV or
methylprednisolone sodium succinate at 20 mg/kg IV can be substituted .
4. Assist ventilation if necessary.
Comments:
Many deaths of captured animals are attributed to stress or shock but a definitive
diagnosis often remains open. Like capture myopathy, there may be little that you
can do to treat shock, except prevent it from happening in the first place.
Bloat
Definition:
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Excess gas resulting from normal fermentation accumulating in the rumen of
ungulates or the stomach of non-ruminants; the rumen/stomach enlarges compressing
the diaphragm and lungs and impairing respiration.
Causes:
• Drug-induced (xylazine, opioids)
• Incorrect body position
Signs:
• Increase in size of abdomen
• Labored breathing (rapid, shallow)
• Increased salivation
Treatment:
1. Correct body position.
If at all possible, position the animal on its sternum. Hold head up to straighten
esophagus. Elephants should always be placed on their sides.
2. Pass stomach tube.

A fairly flexible, plastic tube (approx. 120 cm long x 1.5 cm O.D.), inserted through
the esophagus into the stomach, can relieve bloat by releasing intestinal gas.
Lubricate the tube with K-Y jelly and be sure that there are no sharp edges on the
tube that could lacerate tissue. Be sure you are not in the trachea! If you are not sure
about the placement of the tube, listen to the end of it for breathing sounds. Also, the
animal will oftentimes cough if the tube is placed into the trachea.
3. Insert large-bore needle into left side to release gas in ruminants.

If you don’t have a stomach tube or can’t otherwise relieve the bloat, place the
animal right side down. Next, locate the highest point of the bloated rumen (which
will be on the left or upper side); this essentially will be the tallest point of the
animal’s side if it is lying on a flat surface. Insert a large needle straight into the
rumen at this point. You should be able to hear and smell escaping rumen gas. This
method is slower than a stomach tube, so continue to monitor breathing until the
bloat is relieved.
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To prevent bloat, ungulates should be kept in the sternal position. Position is less crucial in carnivores,
but they can still bloat, particularly if they have recently eaten.

If the above steps did not relieve the bloat or if a respiratory crisis develops, your
only recourse is to antagonize the immobilizing drugs even though it means that the
animal must be released. Antagonism of the immobilizing drugs should allow the
animal to eructate on its own to relieve the bloat. If you cannot hit a vein within 30
seconds, split the dose and give the antagonist in two sites in the shoulder or hip
muscles:
carfentanil given.
thiafentanil given.
Comments:
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A stomach tube should be standard equipment when immobilizing ruminants
because bloat is a common sequelae to chemical capture. Often however, you will be
through with the procedure and will have antagonized the capture drugs before bloat
develops to the point of causing complications.
Vomiting/Aspiration
Definition:
Vomiting is the ejection of stomach contents through the esophagus and mouth;
aspiration is the inspiratory sucking into the airways of foreign material, such as
vomitus.
Causes:
• Drug-induced (e.g., xylazine)
• Stress, excitement
• Head positioned lower than stomach/rumen
Signs (aspiration):
• Gurgling sounds during respiration
• Choking, gasping
• Cyanosis - gums blue, gray, or “muddy”
• Presence of foreign material in larynx, trachea, nostrils
• Respiratory arrest
162
Aspiration pneumonia in a moose. Top left: notice the rumen contents in the nostrils; a sign of trouble.
Below: upon recovery, the moose coughed violently. Notice the rumen droplets being expelled .
Left: within three days the moose had succumbed to severe pneumonia. Aspiration can be reduced in
moose by not adding tranquilizer to the primary anesthetic (Kreeger, 2000).
Treatment:
2. Clear airway.
Clear vomitus, mucus, etc. as much as possible. Place the animal on its sternum with
its neck down and head extended and then lift the body with head and neck
remaining down, if possible, to help clear vomitus. Smaller animals can be
suspended by their rear legs and shaken up and down slightly.
3. Begin artificial ventilation, if necessary.

If breathing has ceased, use one of the below methods to induce the animal to begin
breathing on its own:
- manual chest compression can be performed by laying the animal on its side
and pushing down firmly on the chest, 15–20 times per minute OR
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- folding, then raising and pulling forward on its front legs in a pumping motion
OR
- insert endotracheal tube and ventilate with air (resuscitation bag) or from
oxygen supply OR
- attempt tracheotomy if laryngeal area is hopelessly blocked.
4. Administer 1-2 mg/kg doxapram IV.

Give doxapram only if artificial resuscitation did not cause the animal to start
breathing on its own.
5. Administer long-term antibiotics.

Aspiration of vomitus can result in the development of pneumonia (see comments).
Comments:
Vomiting in and of itself may not be a problem; the aspiration of the vomitus is. Not
only can the animal choke on the vomit and die, the mere aspiration of just a small
amount of stomach contents can inoculate the lungs with bacteria resulting in
pneumonia. The pneumonia may not develop for days - long after the animal has
been released and oftentimes beyond further treatment. Thus, aspiration may result in
the delayed death of the animal even though at the time of recovery it seemed
perfectly healthy. Aspiration of large amounts of vomitus has a grim prognosis for
the animal and euthanasia may be considered.
Capture Myopathy
Definition:
Capture myopathy (CM) is a complex condition affecting animals which usually
have undergone a particularly stressful or strenuous capture or handling. It is
invariably associated with severe or prolonged physical exertion, but psychological
stress is suspected as an important initiator of CM. The pathophysiology of CM is
complex and we refer you to Paterson (2014) for an in-depth discussion.
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One of the few grossly observable signs of capture myopathy is pale discoloration of the large muscles
(circle) of the hindquarters. Normal musculature is to the left of the circle.
Causes:
• Prolonged physical exertion
• Prolonged physiological and/or psychological stress
Signs:
• Ataxia, weakness
• Paresis or paralysis
• Myoglobinuria (dark, brownish urine)
• Death
Treatment:
Essentially none. Several "treatments" have been tried, but none scientifically
determined to be efficacious: e.g., sodium bicarbonate, electrolyte solutions,
dantrolene, vitamin E, and muscle relaxants (Paterson, 2014).
Comments:
Because the pathogenesis of CM is incompletely understood, treatment is difficult
and often unsuccessful. There is nominal consensus that lactic acidosis (lowered
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blood pH) is a consistent finding in CM cases. Restoration of normal blood pH by
the administration of sodium bicarbonate is thought to ameliorate much of the
pathology associated with CM. Signs of CM may develop within a few hours of
capture or may not appear for several days. Blood samples will show severely altered
serum chemical values; necropsy of the hindquarters often reveals gross or
microscopic muscle degeneration. Capture myopathy occurs predominantly in
ungulates, but it has also been reported in primates, birds, marsupials, seals,
raccoons, and dogs. It is more frequent in animals with high metabolic rates (e.g.,
pronghorn) and may be higher in autumn months when the abundance and nutritional
quality of forage is lower.
Seizures/Convulsions
Definition:
Transient disturbance of cerebral function characterized by a violent, involuntary
contraction or series of contractions of the voluntary muscles.
Causes:
• Drug-induced (e.g., ketamine or ketamine combinations)
• Trauma
• Hypoglycemia
Signs:
• Uncontrolled muscle spasms; whole body spasms
• Rigid extension of the limbs
• Mouth gaping
Treatment:
1. Administer 10 mg diazepam IV slowly.
Administer the diazepam dose IV over a 10–15 second interval to prevent cardiac
arrest due to a rapid IV bolus. Midazolam can be substituted for diazepam at the
same dose. Midazolam does not have to be injected slowly. Both diazepam and
midazolam can be given IM. Repeat dose if animal continues to seizure.
2. Monitor temperature.
Prolonged seizures can increase body temperature due to endogenous heat

production. If temperature > 2º C/3.6º F above normal refer to treatment of
hyperthermia.
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Comments:
Most seizures seen during chemical immobilization are due to the use of ketamine,
either when used alone or in conjunction with the alpha-2 adrenoceptor or
phenothiazine tranquilizers. Usually, seizures do no harm to the animal, but they
disrupt handling of the animal and can lead to hyperthermia and other complications
if left untreated. Seizures accompanying ketamine immobilizations are most
common during induction and recovery from anesthesia.
Wounds
Treatment:
1. Clean the wound.
Small, shallow lacerations can be lavaged with a povidone-iodine, 2% chlorhexidine
scrub solution, or sterile saline. Deeper, penetrating wounds can be flushed by
diluting povidone-iodine with sterile saline to a 10% solution or 2% chlohexidine to
a 0.05% (i.e., 1:40 dilution of the 2% solution) solution. If necessary, use a scalpel to
cut away (debride) heavily damaged, diseased, or contaminated tissue.
2. Suture the wound, if necessary.

Generally, deep, penetrating wounds should not be sutured to allow drainage; lengthy
lacerations, deep or shallow, should probably be sutured. Despite the fondness of
some “old hands” to suture wounds with black thread or monofilament fishing line,
there really is a rationale for using the different types of suture materials, needles,
and patterns. For more information, you should consult surgery textbooks, or better,
obtain first-hand experience with a veterinarian.
Nonetheless, the situation is somewhat simplified under field situations. Although it

is generally preferred to use non -absorbable sutures to close the outer skin layer and
absorbable sutures for all internal layers, in the field you only need absorbable
sutures for all closures since you will be releasing the animal (there is little
likelihood that you could recapture the animal to remove any skin sutures!).
If the wound is deep, suture the internal muscle layers first using a tapered needle;
then suture the skin using a “cutting” needle. It can be difficult, if not impossible, to
suture skin using tapered needles, so be sure that you are at least equipped with
cutting needles. If suturing a long and deep laceration, leave an opening in the
ventral (lower) portion of the wound to allow for drainage.
If suturing a wound is required during cold winter months, do not shave the wound
because the animal will lose tremendous amounts of heat. Rather, saturate the wound
area with a mixture of iodine and sterile gel lubricant. Then just push the sticky hair
coat aside while you suture.
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3. Give antibiotics.
Any animal receiving a laceration should be given antibiotics to reduce the
magnitude of infection. The penicillins are the most commonly-used antibiotics since
they are effective against many of the skin microbes as well as formulated in
repository (long-lasting) preparations.
Left: treating a dart wound directly in a rhinoceros with a preloaded antibiotic tube intended for mastitis.
Right: if darts are carefully removed and there is no evidence of underlying tissue damage, antibiotics
probably are not necessary.
A combination of procaine penicillin G and benzathine penicillin G provides both

fast, high blood concentrations (procaine) plus prolonged therapeutic concentrations
(benzathine; 5-7 days). The minimum dose should be 22,000 IU/kg (10,000 IU/lb) of
the benzathine penicillin G in order to obtain the repository effect. That is, if a
penicillin combination contains 300,000 IU/ml of both penicillin types, then there is
150,000 IU/ml of the benzathine penicillin G. A 100-kg (220 lb) animal would be
given (100 kg x 22,000 IU/kg)/150,000 IU/ml = 14.6 ml of the combined antibiotic.
This should be administered with a large-bore needle IM at no more than 5 ml per
injection site. Inject penicillin subcutaneously (SQ) or in the large muscle masses of
the proximal hind limbs (i.e., hip muscles). The penicillins need to be kept
refrigerated when not in use, which is a drawback for extended field use.
Long-acting oxytetracycline injectable antibiotics do not require refrigeration and

they are effective against a broad spectrum of bacteria. When administered IM,
absorption is significantly slowed compared to other oxytetracycline formulations.
Thus, a single dose may provide protective blood concentrations for up to 48 hours
after administration. Note: antibiotics should be used judiciously because if the
antibiotic is not approved for food animals it would render the animal inedible.
Antibiotics usually do not need be given to animals which have been darted, unless
underlying tissue damage is suspected. Explosive darts with large-bore needles can
inoculate surface bacteria resulting in debilitating abscesses. The dose would be the
same as the above dose for treating wounds. The use of antibiotics in thick-skinned
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species such as elephant and rhino is essential. You can directly treat the dart wound
because it is easy to locate due to the large needles used. These dart wound channels
can be treated with intramammary infusion tubes. These tubes are essentially
disposable syringes, pre-filled with antibiotics, and equipped with a rounded, plastic
“needle” used to treat mastitis in dairy cattle. Insert the needle into the dart wound
and squeeze the tube until antibiotic comes back out of the wound.
Cardiac Arrest
Definition:
Loss of effective cardiac function resulting in cessation of circulation.
Causes:
• Drug-induced
• Hypoxia (respiratory failure)
• Acid-base imbalance
- acidosis
- alkalosis
• Electrolyte imbalance
- hyperkalemia
- hypokalemia
- hypocalcemia
• Autonomic nervous system imbalance
- increased sympathetic tone
- increased parasympathetic tone
• Hypothermia
Signs:
• Weak or absent heart sounds or pulse
• Poor capillary refill (> 2 sec - see comments)
• Cyanosis - gums blue, gray, or “muddy"
• Increased respiratory rate, abnormal pattern, or apnea
• Dilated pupils
• Skin cold
• Loss of consciousness
Treatment:
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2. Be sure that the animal can breathe.
- head and neck in proper position
- no airway obstructions
- begin artificial respiration (see Respiratory Arrest) if apneic
- administer doxapram 1–2 mg/kg IV if apneic
3. Begin external cardiac massage.

Place the animal on its side and apply pressure downward over the heart. Compress
for a count of 1 and release for a count of 1 with 60–100 cycles/min. An assistant
should palpate the femoral pulse while cardiac massage is being performed to make
sure that an effective wave is being produced.
4. Inject 0.2 mg/kg of 1:10,000 epinephrine intravenously IV or intracardially (IC) and

continue massage.
For IC injection, you may need a long needle (2–3 in) to hit the heart. Insert the
needle between the 4th to 6th ribs (usually above and slightly behind the point of the
elbow), pull back on the plunger to withdraw blood from the heart to confirm that
you are in the heart (or at least a major vessel), and inject. Use a stethoscope to
monitor the heart. Note: many epinephrine concentrations come as 1:1,000; you
should dilute each ml of this solution with 9 ml of physiological saline or lactated
Ringer’s solution before administering IV or IC.
5. If no response to the above, inject 0.1 ml/kg calcium chloride solution (10% or 100
mg/ml) IV or IC.
Calcium gluconate (10%) solution can be substituted for calcium chloride.
6. If still no response to the above, repeat epinephrine and calcium chloride doses plus
inject 10–20 mEq sodium bicarbonate IV or IC.
Comments:
Capillary refill time (CRT) is a method to assess peripheral perfusion and, by
inference, cardiac function. To evaluate CRT, locate a non-pigmented (i.e., pink) area
on the gums, vulva, inner eyelid, etc. of the animal. Apply pressure to this site with
your finger and the compressed area will turn pale due to blockage of blood
circulation. Release finger pressure and time (by counting one-one thousand, etc.)
how long it takes for the bloodless area to turn pink again as blood perfusion is
restored. A CRT of <2 sec generally implies adequate blood pressure. A slower refill
time indicates low blood pressure or other circulatory dysfunction.
The ideal method of cardiac dysfunction diagnosis and treatment is far more
complex than presented here and in most field situations, you’ll probably neither
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have time nor materials to follow a highly-complex treatment protocol. In the field,
heart function has successfully been revived with cardiac massage and one or more
epinephrine injections, but no other drugs. Those interested in a more detailed
discussion of cardiac emergencies should consult an emergency treatment manual
such as the Kirk & Bistner's Handbook of Veterinary Procedures and Emergency
Treatment (Ford and Mazzaferro, 2012). The occurrence of cardiac arrest in animal
immobilization is fortunately rare, since odds are against saving the animal in the
field.
Assessing Capillary Refill Time (CRT) in a mountain lion by applying pressure to the gum, releasing
pressure, and determining how long it takes for color to return.
Many cardiac problems do not arise directly from drug use but from metabolic
disturbances due to extreme physical exertion and stress. The addition of drugs to a
compromised physiological system often precipitates a crisis. Without an
electrocardiogram or trained ear (auscultation), cardiac arrhythmias are difficult to
detect or diagnose. However, many arrhythmias are probably benign in that they
apparently do no long-term harm to the animal upon recovery. Again, consult the
above reference if more information is desired on cardiac arrhythmias.
Dehydration
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Definition:
Reduction of the body’s water content
Causes:
• Decreased water intake
• Hyperthermia (increased loss of water by transpiration)
• Fever (increased loss of water by transpiration)
• Chronic vomiting
• Chronic diarrhea
• Wound drainage
• Polyuria (excessive urination)
Signs:
• Skin lacks pliability (see comments)
• Mouth, gums dry or tacky
• Weak pulse
• Depressed sensorium (may be masked by drugs)
• Signs of shock
Treatment:
Administer additional drugs to keep the animal immobilized only if necessary to
initiate or maintain treatment. Often, the animal may be so depressed that additional
drugs will not be necessary.
2. Determine the volume deficit (4-6-8-10 rule).

The loss of 4% of the body weight in fluid can be determined simply by a history of
fluid loss (e.g., held in trap or pen without water for several hours in warm weather,
etc.). A 100–kg animal with a 4% loss would have a volume deficit of 4 liters (100
kg x 0.04 = 4 kg = 4 liters fluid). An animal losing about 6% of its fluid volume
would have obvious fluid deficits. The mucosa of the mouth would be red and dry;
the skin would be tacky and not pliable (see comments). As before, a 100–kg animal
with a 6% loss would have a volume deficit of 6 liters. A loss of 8% fluid volume
represents severe fluid loss. The pulse would be weak and the animal depressed. A >
10% fluid loss is life threatening.
3. Administer fluid therapy.

Use the 4–6–8–10 rule above to calculate the amount of fluids required. Administer
isotonic lactated Ringer’s solution or 0.9% saline either IV, SQ, or IP.
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Comments:
One of the quickest methods of diagnosing clinical dehydration in the field is to
pinch the animal’s skin forming a “tent.” If the animal is well hydrated, the skin tent
will collapse to its normal configuration almost instantly. If the tent collapses relative
slowly (e.g., 1–2 sec), you can assume that the animal is dehydrated. If the tent
doesn’t collapse at all or very slowly (> 5 sec), assume that the animal is seriously
dehydrated (≥ 8% loss).
The correct assessment of fluid loss with its concomitant electrolyte imbalance is
usually beyond the capabilities of field biologists to precisely determine. Depending
on the type of fluid loss, the animal’s blood pH can be altered, electrolytes (e.g.,
sodium) lost, and the blood can be hypo- or hypertonic. Each of these conditions
actually require a specific course of fluid therapy with over a dozen fluid types from
which to choose. It is unlikely that you will be able to determine the osmolar deficit,
special ion involvement, or acid-base status and equally unlikely that you will be
lugging around several liters of the differing fluids. Thus, it seems most practical for
field immobilizations to be equipped with one type of fluid (e.g., lactated Ringer’s)
in an amount sufficient to treat the target animal.
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Fluids can be administered intravenously, as in the jugular vein of this bear, or subcutaneously. Fluid
therapy should not be attempted without previous experience or guidance from a veterinarian or
experienced technician.
Analgesics
Analgesics diminish sensation to pain without the loss of consciousness. Analgesics
should be provided to any animal that may perceive pain upon recovery from
immobilization. Such pain may be due to a severe wound that required treatment,
tooth extraction for aging, or any surgical incision (e.g., transmitter insertion).
Although there is little known about the efficacy of analgesics in wildlife, a great
deal is known about their efficacy in domestic and zoo animals and there is no reason
to think that the pathophysiology of pain is different in free-ranging animals. Just
because a captured animal survives the capture event, does not mean that it is
functioning or behaving normally upon release, or that wild animals "don't feel pain
like humans." There are several reasons to rethink this, namely: (1) there is an ethical
responsibility to the animals under our care, (2) even if analgesic efficacy is dubious,
its use does no harm to the animal, and if nothing else, (3) your Animal Care and
Use Committee will require it!
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Many immobilizing drugs (opioids, cyclohexanes, alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists)
have analgesic properties, but these properties are negated when antagonists are
given or when metabolized. A thorough coverage of pain and pain management is
beyond the scope of this handbook, but excellent information and recommendations
can be found in Whiteside (2014) and Chinnadurai et al. (2016). The reader should
also consult Grimm et al. (2015) for in-depth coverage of analgesic drugs and doses.
Below is a brief discussion of some different analgesics.
Opioids
Butorphanol, buprenorphine, morphine, hydromorphone, fentanyl
Opioids for pain management should be used judiciously in free-ranging wildlife due
to their potential for prolonged sedation. Sedation could be problematic for both prey
species or predators facing intraspecific aggression (e.g., wolves).
NSAIDS
Meloxicam, Carprofen, Ketoprofen, Phenylbutazone, Flunixin Meglumine, Ibuprofen
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) are probably the drugs of choice
for free-ranging wildlife. Meloxicam, carprofen, and ketoprofen are widely used in
zoo and free-ranging wildlife. Phenylbutazoine and flunixin meglumine may be
useful analgesics in large species (e.g., rhinoceros). Ibuprofen should not be used in
carnivores due its side effects.
Corticosteroids
Triamcinolone, Medroxyprednisolone
Corticosteroids are generally not used on wildlife due to potential negative side
effects, but may be useful for joint infusions (Whiteside, 2014).
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Veterinary First Aid Kit Checklist
General:
Variety of different needle sizes and lengths, including a few long
enough for intracardiac injections
1-, 3-, 5/6-, 10/12-, and 30/60–ml syringes
Stomach Tube
K-Y Jelly
Endotracheal Tubes – French sizes 28, 36, 44
IV Drip Set
Physiological Saline (0.9% NaCl)
Lactated Ringer’s Solution
Tourniquet (for raising veins)
Thermometer
Stethoscope
Resuscitation Bag
For Wound Management:

Povidone-iodine or 2% chlorhexidine scrub solution
Antibiotics (procaine-benzathine penicillin)
Gauze sponges, 4 cm x 4 cm
Iodine Surgical Scrubs
Needle holder or hemostats
Tissue forceps
Spools of sizes 0 and 000 chromic gut (or other absorbable suture)
Tapered (for muscle) and cutting (for skin) suture needles
Scalpel Blades
Scissors
Roll gauze
Adhesive tape
Sterile Surgical or Examination Gloves
Analgesics
Emergency Drugs (be sure drugs are not outdated):

Naloxone (or naltrexone, nalmefene)
176
Diazepam or midazolam, 5 mg/ml
Epinephrine, 0.1 mg/ml (1:10,000)
Atropine Sulfate, 0.5 mg/ml
Doxapram hydrochloride, 20 mg/ml
Dexamethasone, 2 mg/ml
Calcium Chloride, 10% (100 mg/ml)
Sodium Bicarbonate, 1 mEq/m
177
Quick Reference Guide for Human Exposure to:
Drug Name
Acepromazine
Azaperone
Carfentanil
Detomidine
Dexmedetomidine
Diazepam
Etorphine
Fentanyl
Gallamine
Haloperidol
Ketamine
Medetomidine
Midazolam
Promazine
Romifidine
Succinylcholine
Sufentanil
178
Thiafentanil
Tiletamine
Xylazine
179
T here are many agents used in animal anesthesia that could be harmful to humans.
Accidental exposure can occur in many ways but, most commonly, drugs are sprayed
in the eyes or mouth or injected via a syringe with an unprotected needle. Accidental
injection by being hit with a dart or receiving the full dose by some other method is
rare. However, there have been at least two published fatalities (Anonymous, 1976;
Summerhays, 1976) and several accidental exposures reported (Haymerle et al.,
2010). Thus, this discussion is not trivial. Perhaps the biggest problem with wildlife
immobilizing drugs is their potential for human abuse (addiction, suicide). Two
excellent immobilizing drugs (phencyclidine, carfentanil) have already been taken
off the market and the status of ketamine is precarious. Following are some
precautionary steps to take and rules to follow that should decrease the chances of
accidental drug exposure.
Preventative Measures
Obtain competent training.
Safe drug handling and use should not be a self-taught course. Attend courses taught
by experienced instructors on the use of capture drugs. Unfortunately, there are
several “wannabe” individuals teaching the chemical capture of wildlife, but many of
them are woefully inexperienced and misinformed. Make an effort to seek out
qualified instructors.
Be trained in basic first aid and CPR techniques.

Ideally, everyone involved in the immobilization effort should have this training.
Murphy’s law would dictate that if only one person on the team had such training,
that would be the person who needed medical help!
Always work in pairs.

This is absolutely essential when working with drugs that are potentially harmful.
Always have appropriate antagonists immediately available.

You may not have a second chance to remember the antagonist back in the truck or
office. You don't need to have a syringe "preloaded" with the antagonist; just have
the antagonist, syringe, and needle together and close at hand.
Wear protective gloves and eye protectors.

Drugs can be spilled, sprayed, dripped, dropped, slopped, and leaked in more ways
than you can imagine. Don’t spray drugs into the air and don’t hold loaded syringes
180
in your mouth. Also don’t smoke, eat, drink, rub your eyes or mouth, or work with
open sores when working with immobilizing drugs.
Load darts on a stable platform.

Have a solid work place when loading darts, especially many darts at the same time.
Although circumstances sometimes call for a violation of this advice, a sudden bump
in the road or downdraft is a good way to stick yourself with a needle!
Try not to do this (left: loading dart in moving helicopter) and definitely don't do this (middle: author TK
and sea otter). Above: use a stable platform to guide a needle cap into place.
Carefully withdraw drugs from vials.

Do not inject excessive air into drug vials; equalize air pressure in vials with a needle
before withdrawing drug. This is particularly important if you work at different
altitudes with the same drug vial (vials used at low altitudes will develop high
internal pressures at high altitude). Only if needed, tap the syringe to clear air
bubbles. Use a small needles to withdraw the drug because large-gauge needles will
create holes where drug can leak.
Avoid using pressurized darts when using potent drugs.

Darts whose contents are under pressure by air, butane, or spring tension have their
needles capped with a silicone plug or sleeve. When these darts are pressurized, there
is a possibility that drug will leak from the sleeve or even discharge prematurely. If
you must use pressurized darts, place the needle into a test tube or other device that
will contain the drug should it leak.
Treat syringes and darts as if they were guns.

That is, always consider them “loaded” and watch where you point them. Don’t carry
loaded, unprotected syringes in your pocket; hold them in your hand with protective
181
cap on or carry them in a protective case such as a test tube or cigar case.
Know what you are using.

Make sure the contents of bottles, tubes, and loaded syringes are marked. If you
don’t know what drug it is, don’t use it!
Be careful with used darts, syringes, and needles.

All of these items will have residual drug remaining in them and many exposures
have occurred as a result of careless handling. Store and dispose used needles and
syringes with care. It may be safer not to recap the needle with the cover, rather just
discard the needle into an appropriate used-needle disposal container. It is very easy
to jab a finger when recapping needles – particularly when you are in a hurry or
distracted. Recap used needles by placing both hands on a firm surface and carefully
guide the cap into place.
Always clean used darts with care. Cap-Chur® darts often have residual pressure
remaining in them after they have been fired. With these darts, it is safer to unscrew
the tailpiece first to relieve pressure. Even then, have the dart opening pointed away
from you. You can also submerge the whole dart under water before disassembling.
Wear gloves and goggles when cleaning these darts.
Rules for Accidental Exposure

The previous discussion was concerned with preventative measures. Below are rules
to follow when there has been an actual accidental exposure. Following this section
are specific treatments for drugs commonly used in wildlife immobilization.
Keep your head.

A person's initial reaction to drug exposure is usually psychological because the
person is aware of the potential toxicity of the drug, particularly the opioids. This
psychological reaction can cause lightheadedness and, in the extreme, cause
hyperventilation and fainting, which can be misinterpreted as a drug effect. Take it
from the authors, we have both experienced this!
Stay calm and try to determine how much drug could have been delivered. Many
“exposures” are needle pricks or slight skin exposure. If there is doubt that a
significant amount of drug has been absorbed, you may wish to quietly wait to
determine if any signs of exposure develop. If there are no signs within 15–30
minutes, you can probably assume that the amount was clinically insignificant and
go back to work (but continue observing the patient for up to 60 minutes).
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On the other hand, if you know that the person has received a significant drug
exposure, you want to work fast, but always under control. You probably have 3–5
minutes after complete respiratory arrest before there is irreversible brain damage.
Considering the amount of time required to absorb drugs after an IM injection, you
most likely have much longer than three minutes in which to get your act together.
Tell others of the accident.

It is not the time to be embarrassed or feel stupid after you have accidentally injected
yourself, particularly with any of the potentially-lethal drugs. Tell someone about the
accident immediately!
Wash the site.

Irrigating the injection/exposure site (particularly mucous membranes) with large
volumes of water will greatly reduce further drug absorption.
Administer the appropriate antagonist(s).

This applies primarily to opioid exposure, but it also includes exposure to the potent
alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists such as medetomidine. The administration of opioid
antagonists is probably the single most important life-saving action that you can
take.
Remember your “ABCs”.

A = Airway
Insure that the patient has a clear airway by placing him/her on the back and tilting
the head as far back as possible. Be sure the tongue is clear of the pharynx.
B = Breathing
If breathing has ceased, you must begin artificial respiration. Place the heel of one
hand on the breastbone. Place the heel of your other hand on top of the first hand.
Position your body directly over your hands. Give 30 chest compressions, fast and
hard. Press down about 2 inches (5 cm) into the chest. Each time, let the chest rise
completely. Count the 30 compressions quickly. Look, listen, and feel for breathing.
If still not breathing, pinch the nose and cover victim’s mouth with yours and give
two “rescue” breaths (chest rises). Repeat chest compressions and rescue breaths
until the person recovers or help arrives.
C = Circulation
If the heart stops (no pulse, no heart sounds, color bluish), begin cardiac massage by
placing the heel of your hand (with the other hand on top of the first) on the lower
third of the sternum and push 60 (minimum) to 100 times a minute. Continue
artificial respiration concurrent with cardiac massage.
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Note the time.
Despite the harried circumstances surrounding accidental drug exposure, try to
remember when the exposure occurred and when treatments were administered. This
time could be valuable in assessing the amount of drug absorbed as well as
determining an appropriate treatment regimen.
Transport the person to the nearest emergency center.

If feasible, have the person walk to the vehicle, but not at a strenuous rate. If the
person requires CPR or otherwise can’t be transported, send for help. If there is no
one available to send, stay with the patient! Although the exposed person may be
conscious when you leave for help, more drug will be absorbed over time and the
person may lapse into a coma leading to respiratory depression and death.
The major cause of death in cases of accidental exposure would be respiratory arrest,
but you can artificially resuscitate a person for a long time while waiting for help to
arrive. So, don’t abandon an exposed person even if that person insists that he/she is
all right.
Specific Emergency Treatments
Opioids
Fentanyl, Sufentanil, Carfentanil, Etorphine, Thiafentanil
Symptoms:
• Dizziness, incoordination, lethargy, sedation
• Nausea, vomiting
• Pinpoint pupils
• Breathing slow, shallow, or absent; bluish tinge to skin and mucous membranes
• Cold, clammy skin; weak pulse
• Collapse, unconsciousness, and coma
• Cardiovascular collapse (secondary to hypoxia)
• Death
Treatment:
1. Call for help.
Appoint someone to call for help, if available. Otherwise stay with the patient until a
third party arrives to help.
184
2. Wash site.
Flush mucous membranes (eyes, mouth, wound, etc.) with copious amounts of water.
Use cool or room temperature water - do not use hot water. If drug was injected IM,
keep the wound open and try to express blood from the site.
3. Attempt to establish an IV line.

Try to place a butterfly catheter in a vein and secure with adhesive tape. Use a
tourniquet, if needed to raise the vein, then remove it. The veins on the back of the
hand are often easier for the inexperienced to hit; otherwise try for the vein on the
inside of the elbow. If you can’t locate a vein within 60 seconds, administer the
antagonist IM or intranasally.
4. Administer at least 10 mg naloxone, naltrexone, or nalmefene.

Do this only if the patient is demonstrating any of the above symptoms. All these
antagonists are very safe and overdosing is unlikely, regardless of the dose
administered (but see below note). Thus, don't waste time trying to withdraw
precisely 10 mg. Just withdraw enough to be achieve the 10 mg minimum, but don't
worry if you administer 25 mg or even 100 mg!
If the patient is asymptomatic, wait and observe the patient closely; if no symptoms
develop within 15–30 minutes of exposure, no further treatment may be necessary.
However, the patient should not be left alone for several hours even in the absence of
symptoms. If there is no improvement in the patient’s condition within 1 minute after
giving the antagonist IV (or within 2-3 minutes for IM administration), repeat the
dose. Continue to repeat this dose every 3-5 minutes until central nervous system
depression is antagonized.
For IM administration, inject the antagonist into the large thigh muscles, shoulder, or
other available muscle mass. If for some reason you cannot administer the antagonist
IM, spray into the nose (Kerr et al., 2009). Note: do not use diprenorphine (M50-50®
) as an antidote in humans due to its side effects.
Note: if for some reason you know or suspect that the victim is an opioid addict, do
not give the above 10 mg recommended dose as a bolus. Rather titrate administration
at a rate of about 2 mg/min until breathing is restored. Sudden, complete antagonism
of opioid overdose in an addict could precipitate an opioid withdrawal crisis, which
you may not be prepared to treat (Cole and Nelson, 2013).
5. Place victim on side.
185
Prevent vomiting and aspiration of the vomitus by keeping the individual on his/her
side, if unconscious. If the person is conscious, keep him/her moving (walking), if
possible.
6. Remember your ABC’s and be prepared to apply CPR.
7. Transfer the patient to an emergency center when feasible.
Comments:
You should never use opioids without one of the above three antagonists available.
Do not use diprenorphine (M50-50® ). Naloxone, naltrexone, and nalmefene are
preferred antagonists because they are “pure” antagonists, whereas diprenorphine has
both antagonistic and agonistic (undesirable in case of opioid overdose) properties.
There are no data on the correct dose of the above three antagonists to administer in
cases of human exposure to etorphine, thiafentanil, or carfentanil. Naloxone,
naltrexone, and nalmefene are all very safe drugs and humans should be able to
receive amounts much higher than the dose given.
In the only reported case of treatment of carfentanil toxicity, naltrexone was

successfully titrated after effect up to about 50 mg IM (Haymerle et al., 2010). If you
do not see any effect after administration and the person is comatose and/or has
stopped breathing, consider increasing the dose.
If you wish to have naloxone for any human exposure, be advised that naloxone is
marketed worldwide in 0.4 mg/ml ampules and 1 mg/ml in some countries. To obtain
the recommended 10 mg of naloxone, you would have to break open 25 glass
ampules! It is doubtful that the patient will have time for this. The 1 mg/ml
preparation would be preferable, even though it would still require a 10 ml injection.
However, approximately 1 mg of naloxone (2-3 ampules) in an average 80-kg adult
(at 0.013 mg/kg) would occupy 50% of available human opioid receptors, which
could be sufficient to at least restore breathing (Melicher et al., 2003).
Although injectable naltrexone is not yet approved for human use (oral naltrexone is
FDA-approved), we would not hesitate in using it in an emergency. Indeed,
emergency care physicians recommended that "...if naloxone is not readily available,
any opioid antagonist should do, because the live-saving effect is primordial. This
should be considered before any commercial regulation" (Sterken et al., 2004).
Cyclohexanes
Ketamine, Tiletamine
Symptoms:
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• Disorientation, hallucination, excitement, abnormal behavior
• Decreased respiratory rate
• Collapse into general anesthesia
• Coma
Treatment:
1. Wash site.
2. Keep patient quiet.

Minimize stimulation (sound, touch, light, etc.); never leave the patient unattended.
Physically restrain the patient, if needed, to prevent self-inflicted injury.
3. Give artificial resuscitation, if necessary.

Respiratory depression may be seen only if the patient has received a large dose.
4. Administer 10 mg of diazepam if patient has convulsions.

You can administer 10 mg of diazepam or midazolam IV or IM if the victim has
repeated or prolonged convulsions . If diazepam is given IV, administer slowly (10-
15 seconds). Note: convulsions are unlikely with tiletamine-zolazepam combinations
because of the zolazepam component. Any convulsions would likely be transitory.
5. Transport to emergency center.
Comments:
Remember that the commonly-used cyclohexanes (ketamine, tiletamine) are
congeners of phencyclidine, also known as PCP or Angel Dust. We are probably all
familiar with accounts of bizarre human behavior resulting from PCP abuse and the
most likely result of cyclohexane injection is such abnormal behavior. These
behaviors have been seen with both drugs (Krystal et al., 1994; Huang et al., 2016).
It is unlikely that the doses of ketamine used in animal immobilization would be

lethal to humans since the clinical IM dose for humans can be as high as 13 mg/kg.
However, humans have died from self-administered overdoses of tiletamine-
zolazepam (Cording et al., 1999; Chung et al., 2000) as well as prolonged movement
disorders (Lee et al., 2009). A biologist shot himself with a dart containing ketamine-
xylazine and received the full dose intended for a mountain lion. This person quickly
187
became fully anesthetized, but recovered after transport to a hospital (TK pers.
comm.).
The above underscores the point that in wildlife use, ketamine is almost always
combined with a tranquilizer/sedative, often an alpha-2 adrenoceptor. The total
amount of tranquilizer/sedative may not be enough to require treatment, unless the
person is showing symptoms. In this case, antagonism of the alpha-2 adrenoceptor
agonist should be considered (see later for symptoms and treatment of
tranquilizers/sedatives). Also keep in mind, that an overdose of ketamine or
tiletamine may not be accidental as these are known drugs of human abuse. Despite
some misconceptions, there is no known antagonist for these cyclohexanes.

Succinylcholine
Symptoms:
• Nausea
• Progressive muscle paralysis
• Decreased respiratory rate, arrest
• Cyanosis
• Unconsciousness
• Death
Treatment:
1. Wash site.
2. Give artificial resuscitation.

If the muscles of respiration become paralyzed, you will have to provide
resuscitation until the drug effects wear off.
Comments:
Fortunately, this drug is metabolized quickly (2–5 minutes) in humans and simple
maintenance of artificial resuscitation should be sufficient to allow recovery.
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Gallamine
Symptoms:
• Nausea
• Progressive muscle paralysis
• Decreased respiratory rate, arrest
• Cyanosis
• Unconsciousness
• Death
Treatment:
1. Wash site.
2. Administer antagonist.
Do not give neostigmine as the antagonist unless you also have atropine available.
The protocol for gallamine antagonism is as follows (Morkel, 1993):
a. Give 0.5 mg atropine IV slowly (15–30 seconds) or give IM. If given IM,
wait 5 minutes before the next step.
b. Give 1 mg neostigmine IV slowly (15–30 seconds) or give IM.
c. Repeat steps 1 and 2 every 5 minutes until recovery, but not to exceed three
repetitions (i.e., total atropine given is 1.5 mg and total neostigmine given is
3 mg).
3. Give artificial resuscitation.

If you don’t have atropine and neostigmine and if the muscles of respiration become
paralyzed, you will have to provide resuscitation until the drug effects wear off.
Comments:
Overdosing with neostigmine can be dangerous to the patient, therefore do not
exceed recommended dose. Signs of neostigmine overdose include: tremors, violent
stomach cramps, defecation/urination/salivation/difficult breathing, constricted
pupils, very slow pulse. If you suspect neostigmine overdose, the protocol for
treatment is as follows (Morkel, 1993):
• Give artificial resuscitation, if necessary.
• Give 1 mg atropine IV slowly
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• If pulse drops below 60 bpm, give 0.5 mg additional atropine.
Continue giving increments of 0.5 mg atropine until pulse exceeds 60 bpm, but do
not exceed 2 mg atropine total dose.
Xylazine, Detomidine, Medetomidine, Dexmedetomidine, Romifidine
Symptoms:
• Decreased respiratory rate, heart rate, or blood pressure
• Sedation, dizziness, nausea, slurred speech, unsteady gait
• Miosis (excessive constriction of the pupil)
• Unconsciousness
Treatment:
1. Support respiration, if necessary.
Administer artificial resuscitation if patient’s respiratory rate falls below 6 breaths
per minute or if lips and gums become pale or bluish.
2. Administer appropriate antagonist.

Although no alpha-2 adrenoceptor antagonists have been approved for human use,
they have been used in several emergency and research situations. Atipamezole is the
drug of choice for antagonism of any alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonist. Atipamezole up
to 100 mg IV in humans was well tolerated (Karhuvaara et al., 1990). If the patient is
showing symptoms, administer atipamezole slowly (0.3 mg/kg IV or 0.6 mg/kg IM
every 3-5 min) and monitor for antagonistic effects. If the patient is showing severe
symptoms within 5 min of exposure (unconsciousness, unstable), give 100 mg
atipamezole IM (Greenberg et al., 2018). In general, a dose ratio of 40:1 to 100:1 for
atipamezole:dexmedetomidine and 20:1 to 50:1 for atipamezole:medetomidine is
recommended (Karhuvaara et al., 1991; Scheinin et al., 1998). Although detomidine,
romifidine, and xylazine are less potent than dexmedetomidine and medetomidine,
atipamezole should be administered based on symptoms and recommendations by
Greenberg et al. (2018).
Comments:
There have been several suicide attempts with xylazine at doses ranging from 400–
2,400 mg. All of these patients survived; however, some required intensive care for
up to 60 hours (Carruthers et al., 1979; Fyffe, 1994). Fatalities involving xylazine are
always in association with the patient taking other drugs (Poklis et al., 1985; Fyffe,
1994). Doses of 100–120 μg medetomidine will put 50% of adult males to sleep
190
(Scheinin et al., 1989). This is a very small volume of concentrated medetomidine
(20–40 mg/ml); larger volumes should result in more severe symptoms.
Diazepam, Midazolam
Symptoms:
• Decreased respiratory rate
• Ataxia, lethargy, slurred speech
• Sleepiness, coma
Treatment:
1. Support respiration, if necessary.
per minute or if lips and gums become pale or bluish.
2. Administer flumazenil at 0.2 mg IV followed by 0.1 mg IV every minute until patient

responds.
Flumazenil is a benzodiazepine antagonist that has been used in cases of severe
benzodiazepine overdose; it has a high therapeutic index (3,000) so overdosing with
this antagonist is unlikely; however, complications in humans can occur and there is
some doubt as to its beneficial effect (Mathieu-Nolf, 2001)
Comments:
Death due to overdose of benzodiazepine agonists is rare and highly unlikely given
the doses of these drugs used in wildlife immobilization. In one case, oral ingestion
of 1,500 mg diazepam caused only minor toxicity. Exposure to these agents would
most likely be in conjunction with, and therefore exacerbate the effects of, primary
immobilizing agents (opioids, cyclohexanes).
Promazine, Acepromazine, Haloperidol, Azaperone

Symptoms:
• CNS stimulation (tremors, rhythmic movements, constant movement, facial
grimacing, stiff neck and/or tongue)
• Tachycardia (rapid heart rate)
• Seizures
• Hyper- or hypothermia
• Ataxia, lethargy, slurred speech, akinesia (affective indifference)
191
Treatment:
1. Support respiration and cardiovascular function, if necessary.
per minute or if lips and gums become pale or bluish. In rare cases, ventricular
fibrillation may occur requiring full CPR and immediate transport to an emergency
treatment center.
2. Administer 10 mg diazepam IV slowly (10-15 sec) for seizures.
This dose may be repeated every 10–15 minutes as needed to control seizures; do not
exceed 30 mg total dose of diazepam.
Comments:
Death due to overdose of phenothiazine and butyrophenone tranquilizers is rare and
highly unlikely given the doses of these drugs used in wildlife capture. Exposure to
these agents would most likely be in conjunction with, and therefore exacerbate the
effects of, primary immobilizing agents (opioids, cyclohexanes). In very unusual
cases, a neuroleptic malignant syndrome may appear after several hours to months,
most often after haloperidol overdose. This syndrome is characterized by profound
hyperthermia, tachycardia, hypotension or hypertension, and fluctuating mental
status progressing to coma.
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Human First Aid Kit Checklist
General:
Variety of needles
1–ml syringes
3–ml syringes
10–ml syringes
IV Butterfly Cannulas
Adhesive Tape
IV Drip Set
Physiological Saline (0.9% NaCl)
Tourniquet (for raising vein)
Thermometer
Stethoscope
Gauze, 2–in.
Scissors
Band-aids
Topical Antibiotic
Iodine Surgical Scrubs
Forceps (tweezers)
Scalpel Blades
3–0 Absorbable Sutures with Cutting Needle
Needle holder/hemostats
Sterile Surgical or Examination Gloves
Emergency Drugs (be sure drugs are not outdated):

Naloxone (naltrexone, nalmefene)
Diazepam or midazolam, 5 mg/ml
Epinephrine, 0.1 mg/ml (1:10,000)
Atropine Sulfate, 0.5 mg/ml
Neostigmine Methylsulfate, 1 mg/ml
Methylprednisolone Sodium Succinate
193
T his chapter lists species by common name in alphabetical order. Scientific names
are also provided should there be confusion about the common name. The
information provided is intentionally designed to be brief to enable the user to
quickly locate a specific animal and to simplify the decision-making process. The
following information is provided for each animal, as applicable:
Weight: The average adult weight, or range of weights, is listed. Weights were
derived either from the literature, the personal records of the author or others, or
from Walker’s Mammals of the World (Nowak, 1999).
Recommended Drug: This is an appropriate drug and dose for the species under
most circumstances. Unless otherwise stated, it is assumed that these drugs will be
administered intramuscularly .
Note: Be sure to read all doses carefully. We have tried to maintain consistency by
using doses based on mg drug per kg body weight (mg/kg). Some drugs, however,
are formulated as mixtures, thus doses are given as ml of drug per kg body weight.
Some doses are also given as total body dose and are based on average, adult body
weights. Also note the intentional inconsistency of doses relative to style. Where
194
doses are fractionated (e.g., 0.125 mg/kg, 1.5 mg/kg), we have used appropriate
style. However, when doses are in whole numbers (e.g., 5 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg), we
have omitted the decimal point and the following zero (e.g., 5.0 mg/kg). The reason
for this is that we did not want someone, who in haste or in poor light, to miss the
decimal point and give the animal 10 times the recommended dose.
Supplemental Drug: Use this drug and dose should the original dose not immobilize
the animal, or if there was only partial injection.
Antagonist: If the recommended drug can be antagonized, the appropriate drugs and
doses will be listed here. Note: Atipamezole is always the preferred antagonist for
alpha-2 adrenoceptor sedatives because of its specificity. Atipamezole can
antagonize the following sedatives (mg atipamezole/mg sedative): 5 mg/mg
medetomidine; 10 mg/mg dexmedetomidine; 5 mg/mg detomidine; and 1 mg/10 mg
xylazine. Although many drug doses list yohimbine or tolazoline to antagonize
xylazine, atipamezole would still be preferred if you have it.
Alternative Drugs: These are drugs and doses which also have successfully
immobilized the species. Their listing as “alternative” in no way implies that they are
less effective than the recommended drug. If you are more familiar with one of these
alternative drugs, then by all means use it.
Note: Carfentanil is no longer available, however many people still have supplies of
carfentanil which they can use for several more years. Thus, we have moved
carfentanil from a Recommended Drug category to an Alternative Drug category.
Also, even though you may not have carfentanil, you might be able to convert a
carfentanil dose to other opioids that are still available. In elk, the relative potencies
of sufentanil : thiafentanil : carfentanil are 0.1 : 0.25 : 1.0 (Kreeger et al., 2011).
Comments: Additional information, particularly cautions, is provided here.
References: References applicable to the species are provided for your information
and further reading. We strongly recommend obtaining and reading these references
prior to immobilizing the animal. Much information is contained therein that is not
presented in the Comments portion for each species, yet will be of use and interest to
you. Some references may not contain information specifically on chemical
immobilization, but they have been included for general information.
In general, the references that we have included in the bibliography are studies
involving several animals. We intentionally omitted a large body of literature where
only a single animal was immobilized for some specific purpose such as examination
195
or surgery. Sample sizes of n = 1 rarely have value. Although many of the
recommended doses are based on a specific study, many other doses are an
amalgamation of several studies and the authors' own experiences. Thus, we have not
tied a specific reference to a specific dose.
We have spent a great deal of effort to amass what we believe is the most
comprehensive bibliography of chemical capture in the world. However after making
that boast, we will also readily admit that we didn’t find all applicable references. If
you feel that we have forgotten a significant reference, please feel free to notify us
and we will include it in subsequent editions.
Can’t Find Your Critter?

Although this chapter provides drug doses for almost 500 species, there might not be
information available for your particular animal of concern. In such cases, you could
look up a closely-related species and use the provided doses as a starting point. For
example, there isn’t a dose listed for sable, Martes zibellina , but there is a dose for
the American pine marten, Martes americana . These species are similar enough that
drugs and doses for one should be safe and effective for the other.
If all else fails, you could estimate an initial dose of ketamine and xylazine by using
the below graph. To use this graph, start with the body weight (known or estimated)
and draw a straight line upwards until it intersects both the ketamine and the xylazine
lines. Then draw a line to both Y axes to determine the ketamine (left axis) and
xylazine (right axis) doses. Note that all axes are logarithmic; doses will only be
estimates due the nature of such scales. Also remember that the derived doses will be
mg of drug per kg body weight and not the total dose. The derived doses should
serve as starting doses only; be prepared to adjust upwards or downwards based on
your initial results.
Or if you prefer using ketamine and medetomidine, try an initial dose of 3.0 mg/kg
ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine. This dose is based on the mean of this
combination reported in 56 species.
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Ketamine-xylazine doses derived from 44 mammalian species. Formulae for best-fitted curves were:
ketamine (mg/kg) = 34.387BW -0.369 and xylazine (mg/kg) = 3.454BW -0.223 . Example (dashed lines) is
for a 100-kg animal. The derived doses would be approximately 6.3 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.2 mg/kg
xylazine. Note that all axes are logarithmic.
197
Butorphanol-Azaperone-Medetomidine (BAM)
Quick Reference Chart
In the U.S., BAM is a premixed drug preparation consisting of 27.3 mg/ml
butorphanol plus 9.1 mg/ml azaperone and 10.9 mg/ml medetomidine. Some
butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine doses are given in the following Drug Doses
by Species , but they are on a mg/kg basis and the reader must do the calculations.
The below doses have been provided by Wildlife Pharmaceuticals and they are
intended to be used with their BAM drug mixture. These doses are the recommended
total dose for the given species, but the user should be prepared to adjust the dose
based on circumstances (see the Putting It All Together chapter).
198
199
200
*BAM dose plus 200 mg ketamine
**BAM dose plus 100 mg ketamine (standing sedation)
DISCLAIMER: The information is intended for use by veterinary professionals only

and is made available on the express condition that no liability, expressed or implied,
is accepted by Wildlife Pharmaceuticals, Inc. for the accuracy, content, or use
201
thereof. The information is to be used entirely at the reader’s discretion. Practitioners
and wildlife industry professionals should rely on their own expertise, knowledge
and judgment when determining the appropriate prescribing dose for BAM
administration in target species. (Information reprinted with permission of Wildlife
Pharmaceuticals, Windsor, CO).
202
Drug Doses by Species
AARDVARK, Orycteropus afer
Weight: 30–70 kg
Recommended Drug: 3 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine plus
0.25 mg/kg midazolam
Supplemental Drug: 2 mg/kg ketamine
Antagonist: 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole
Alternative Drugs: 14 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
• 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Comments: Allow the animal to recover fully (as in a cage) before allowing it to
enter its burrow; asphyxiation may occur otherwise. Aardvarks are thick-skinned
making barbed dart removal somewhat difficult.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; 1976;
Jessup et al., 1980; IWVS, 1992; Nel et al., 2000; Vodicka, 2004; Langan, 2007;
2014; Rey et al., 2014
AARDWOLF, Proteles cristatus

Weight: 9–14 kg
Recommended Drug 15 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.3 mg/kg acepromazine
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
• 1 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam and 0.01 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with
0.05 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Use lightweight darts with a low-impact darting system.
References: Young, 1966; Seal et al., 1970; Anderson and Richardson, 1992;
IWVS, 1992; Richardson and Anderson, 1993; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Hahn et
al., 2007
ACOUCHIS (GREEN, RED), Myoprocta spp.

Weight: 0.6–1.3 kg
Recommended Drug: 5.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Supplemental Drug: 5.5 mg/kg ketamine
Antagonist: None
203
References: Young, 1966; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Gray et
al., 1974; Schobert, 1987
ADDAX, Addax nasomaculatus

Weight: 60–125 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.04 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.025 mg/kg detomidine
Supplemental Drug: If animal is not down in 15 minutes, repeat full dose
Antagonist: 0.08 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.15 mg/kg atipamezole
Alternative Drugs: 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.07 mg/kg medetomidine;
antagonize with 0.25 mg/kg atipamezole
• 0.025 mg/kg carfentanil; antagonize with 2.5 mg/kg naltrexone
References: Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; York and Huggins,
1972; Alford et al., 1974; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Jensen, 1982; Silvestris and
Heck, 1984; Densmore et al., 1987; Allen et al., 1991; Klein et al., 1994; Páras et
al., 2002; Portas et al., 2003; Ball, 2007; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014
AGOUTI, Dasyprocta spp.

Weight: 1.3–4 kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bacher et al., 1976;
Genevois et al., 1984a
ALLIGATOR - SEE CROCODILIANS
ALPACA, Lama pacos

Weight: 55–65 kg
Recommended Drug: 1 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.4 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.04
mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Dugdale, 2001; Mama, 2007;
Abrahamsen, 2009; Mama and Walzer, 2014
AMPHIBIANS, GENERAL
204
Recommended Drug: 1-3 g tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) per liter of
water buffered to pH 7.0-7.5
Antagonist: Wash amphibian repeatedly in clean, warm water (no anesthetic)
Alternative Drugs: 50 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg diazepam
Comments: Use higher dose rates tricaine methane sulfonate for smaller
amphibians and lower dose rates for larger amphibians. The longer the
amphibian is immersed in the anesthetic solution, the longer the duration of
effect. Always induce immobilization with the lowest effective dose possible.
Adult amphibians can drown if left submerged while under general anesthesia.
Eugenol (clove oil) has been found effective for leopard frogs (see Lafortune
etal., 2001). Gas anesthesia works well for amphibians also. Tiletamine-
zolazepam does not appear to be a satisfactory anesthetic for many amphibians.
References: Kaplan and Kaplan, 1961; Kaplan et al., 1962; Kaplan, 1969;
Beck, 1972; Rie, 1973; Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Wass and Kaplan, 1974;
Vethamany-Globus et al., 1977; Robinson and Scadding, 1983; Cooper, 1984;
1987; Sedgwick, 1986; Letcher and Amsel, 1989; Letcher, 1992; Letcher and
Durante, 1995; Stetter et al., 1996; Cathers et al., 1997; Ross and Ross, 1999;
Lafortune et al., 2001; Cakir and Strauch, 2005; Gentz, 2007; Stetter, 2007;
Mitchell, 2009; Mitchell et al., 2009; Baitchman and Stetter, 2014; Speare et al.,
2014
ANKOLE - SEE CATTLE, FERAL
ANOA, Bubalus spp.

Weight: 150–300 kg
Alternative Drugs: 6 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with
• 0.02 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg
naltrexone plus 2 mg/kg tolazoline
References: Curro, 2007; Napier and Armstrong, 2014
ANTEATER, BANDED - SEE NUMBAT
ANTEATER, GIANT, Myrmecophaga tridactyla

Weight: 18–39 kg
Recommended Drug: 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 3.5 mg/kg xylazine
205
Antagonist: 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine;
• 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/kg midazolam
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Gillepsie
and Adams, 1985; Kock et al., 1989; Carregaro et al., 2009; West et al., 2007a;
2014b
ANTEATER, LESSER (TAMANDUA), Tamandua tetradactyla

Weight: 2–7 kg
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; West et al., 2007a;
2014b
ANTEATER, SILKY, Cyclopes didactylus

Alternative Drugs: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.5 mg/kg xylazine
References: West et al., 2007a; 2014b
ANTELOPE, NORTH AMERICAN - SEE PRONGHORN
ANTELOPE, FOUR-HORNED, Tetracerus quadricornis

Weight: 17–21 kg
Recommended Drug: 15 mg/kg ketamine
Antagonist: None
References: Shashidhar, 1981
ANTELOPE, ROAN, Hippotragus equinus
206
Recommended Drug: 0.03 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.3 mg/kg azaperone
Supplemental Drug: 0.015 mg/kg thiafentanil
Antagonist: 0.6 mg/kg naltrexone
Alternative Drugs: 0.025 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.3 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize
with 0.05 mg /kg diprenorphine
• 0.012 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.005 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.5 mg/kg
ketamine; antagonize with 0.6 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.04 mg/kg atipamezole
• 60 mg fentanyl plus 200 mg azaperone; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg naloxone
naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 3 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine (calm animals)
Comments: Aggressive to each other when captured in groups; immediately
immobilize if captured in bomas. Hyaluronidase (1,500-3,000 IU) can be added
to the drug mixture to decrease induction time. If confined in bomas, the
etorphine dose can be reduced. Approach downed animals carefully; semi-
immobilized animals can rake with their horns. Ketamine (50-100 mg IV to
effect) can be given to improve immobilization once the animal is down. Long-
acting tranquilizer doses: zuclopenthixol (adult male, 300 mg; adult female, 225
mg; subadult, 125 mg); perphenazine (adults, 100-250 mg). The zuclopenthixol
gives excellent tranquilization for three days.
References: Lanphear, 1963; Pienaar, 1968a; 1968b; 1973a; Koci, 1971b; 1972;
Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; Hofmeyr and de Bruine,
1973; Hofmeyr, 1974; De Vos, 1975; Röken, 1975; Smuts, 1975; Haigh, 1976d;
Jones, 1977; Slee and Walker, 1977; De Vos, 1978a; Hofmeyr, 1981; Silvestris
and Heck, 1984; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Kock, R. et al., 1989; IWVS,
1992; Morkel, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Citino et al., 2001; Kock, M., et al.,
2006; Ball, 2007; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014
AOUDAD, Ammotragis lervia

Weight: 40–55 (f) 100–145 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.12 mg/kg medetomidine
Alternative Drugs: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 2.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with
0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 3 mg etorphine plus 10 mg ketamine plus 10 mg xylazine; antagonize with 6
mg diprenorphine plus 0.15 mg/kg yohimbine
• 1.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine (calm animals only)
207
Comments: The use of xylazine without an antagonist may cause extremely
prolonged recoveries (Klöppel, 1969; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970). When using
ketamine-medetomidine, wait 5 minutes after recumbency before approaching
animal.
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961; Heuschele, 1961a; Wright,
1963; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Klöppel, 1969; Gauckler and
Kraus, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; York and Huggins,
1972; Woolf et al., 1973; Boever and Paluch, 1974; Mehren and Rapley, 1975;
Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Wiesner, 1977; Jessup, et
al., 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Jacobson and Kollias, 1984; Silvestris and
Heck, 1984; Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Barnett and Lewis,
1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Snyder et al., 1992; Jurczynski et al., 2006;
Caulkett and Haigh, 2007b; Liptovszky et al., 2012; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014
APE, BARBARY - SEE MACAQUE, BARBARY
APE, CELEBES, Cynopithecus niger

Weight: 6–15 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 25 mg/kg ketamine
References: Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987
ARMADILLO, GIANT, Priodontes maximus

Weight: 18–33 kg
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/k xylazine
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/k midazolam
References: West et al., 2007a; 2014b
ARMADILLO, HAIRY, Chaetophractus nationi
208
Weight: 1–2 kg
Recommended Drug: 15 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.4
mg/kg midazolam
References: Rojas et al., 2010
ARMADILLO, LONG-NOSED, Dasypus novemcinctus

Weight: 3–10 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.1 mg/kg butorphanol plus 15 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.07
mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole
• 8.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2000; West et al., 2007a; 2014b;
Hernandez et al., 2010
ARMADILLO, SIX-BANDED, Euphractus sexcinctus

Weight: 3–6.5 kg
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
• 30 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.5 mg/kg midazolam
References: West et al., 2007a; 2014; Peron de Oliveira Gasparatto et al., 2017
ARMADILLO, THREE-BANDED, Tolypeutes spp.

Weight: 1–2 kg
209
• 30 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.5 mg/k midazolam
References: West et al., 2007a; 2014b; Orozco, 2011; Gasparotto et al., 2017
ASS, WILD, Equus asinus

Recommended Drug: 3 mg etorphine plus 200 mg xylazine
Supplemental Drug: If not down in 15 min, repeat full dose
Antagonist: 2 mg diprenorphine per mg etorphine given
Comments: Standing sedation might be achieved using detomidine and
butorphanol (Bouts et al., 2017).
References: Heuschele, 1961; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Röken, 1975; Jessup
et al., 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von
Hegel, 1985; Woolnough et al., 2012; Bouts et al., 2017
BABIRUSA, Babyrousa babysussa

Weight: 75-100 kg
Recommended Drug: 2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1.5 mg/kg xylazine
Alternative Drugs: 1.25 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.4 mg/kg
butorphanol; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg naltrexone
• 0.15 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.08 mg/kg
midazolam; antagonize with 1.5 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Males may require lower doses than females. Flumazenil may also
be given to antagonize the zolazepam or midazolam. Xylazine was given as a
premedication in the study of James et al., 1998; 1999. Consulting references
prior to capture is recommended.
References: James et al., 1998; 1999; Padilla, 2004; Padilla and Ko, 2007; 2014
BABOON, CHACMA, Papio ursinus

Weight: 8–30 kg
Antagonist: None
210
References: Kroll, 1962; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Van Niekerk and Pienaar,
1963a; Field et al., 1966; Steyn, 1975; Beck, 1976; Melton, 1980; Goosen et al.,
1984; Van Der Merwe et al., 1987; Jessup et al., 1980; Melton and Melton, 1982;
Schobert, 1987; Burroughs, 1993c
BABOON, GELADA, Theropithecus gelada

Weight: 13–20 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Kroll, 1962; Field et al., 1966; Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Eads,
1976; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987
BABOON, HAMADRYAS, Papio hamadryas

Weight: 10–18 kg
Antagonist: 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole; give 1/2 dose IV, 1/2 IM
Comments: Ketamine-medetomidine use may not induce complete
immobilization; increase amount of ketamine, if necessary.
References: Kroll, 1962; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck,
1972; 1976; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Ølberg, 2007
BABOON, OLIVE, Papio anubis

Weight: 14–41 kg
Alternative Drugs: 4.4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
• 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.25 mg/kg diazepam
References: Kroll, 1962; Ericksen, 1968; Field et al., 1966; Bauditz, 1972;
Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Jessup et al., 1980; Woolfson et al., 1980;
Schobert, 1987; Ølberg, 2007
BABOON, WESTERN, Papio papio

Weight: 10–30 kg
211
Recommended Drug 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/kg acepromazine
Comments: Be aware of possible aggression among males during the recovery
phase.
References: Heuschele, 1959; 1961a; 1961b; Kroll, 1962; Vondruska, 1965;
Beck, 1976; Cohen and Bree, 1978; Ølberg, 2007
BABOON, YELLOW, Papio cynocephalus

Weight: 14–41 kg
References: Beck and Dresner, 1972; Eads, 1976; White and Cummings, 1976;
Schobert, 1987; Burroughs, 1993c; Ølberg, 2007
BADGER, EUROPEAN (OLD WORLD), Meles meles

Weight: 10–16 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine;
• 15 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.4 mg/kg acepromazine
Comments: Thornton et al. (2005) found that combinations of
ketamine/midazolam or ketamine/medetomidine were not "convincing
alternatives" to ketamine alone.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Hunt, 1976; Mackintosh
et al., 1976; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Wolfensohn, 1992; Travaini et al.,
1994; deLeeuw et al., 2004; Thornton et al., 2005; McLaren et al., 2005a; 2005b;
Davison et al., 2007; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007; 2014
BADGER, FERRET, Melogale moschata

Weight: 1–3 kg
212
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Kollias and Abou-Madi,
2007; 2014
BADGER, HOG, Arctonyx collaris

Weight: 7–14 kg
Antagonist: None
2007; 2014
BADGER, HONEY, Mellivora capensis

Weight: 7–13 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Approach either darted or trapped honey badgers with care.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974;
Schobert, 1987; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
BADGER, AMERICAN, Taxidea taxus

Weight: 4–12 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Badgers require care in drug administration because they struggle
and resist handling; try to physically restrain the animal to insure accurate drug
injection.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bailey, 1971;
Fitzgerald, 1973; Boever et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Jessup, 1982b;
Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Pigozzi, 1988;
Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Schwantje et al., 1998; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
213
BANDICOOT, LONG-NOSED, Perameles gunnii
Weight: 450–900 g
Recommended Drug: 0.005 mg/g tiletamine-zolazepam
Supplemental Drug: 0.005 mg/g ketamine
Antagonist: None
• Gas (isoflurane, sevoflurane) anesthesia
References: Shima et al., 1993; Lynch, 2008; Holz, 2014b
BANDICOOT, SHORT-NOSED, Isoodon macrourus

Weight: 1–1.5 kg
Antagonist None
References: Denny, 1974; Holz, 1992; 2014b; Lynch, 2008
BANTENG, Bos javanicus

Recommended Drug: 4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.2 mg/kg
detomidine
Supplemental Drug: If not down in 15 minutes, repeat full dose
0.06 atipamezole
• 0.01 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.1 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.05 mg/kg acepromazine;
antagonize with 0.02 mg/kg diprenorphine
• 0.007 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.15 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.11 mg/kg xylazine;
antagonize with 0.7 mg/kg naltrexone
Comments: Expect prolonged recoveries when using tiletamine-zolazepam,
even when the detomidine is antagonized (see Bradsha et al., 2005).
References: Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Wiesner et al., 1982;
Bradshaw et al., 2005; Curro, 2007; Napier and Armstrong, 2014
BARASINGHA, Cervus duvauceli

Recommended Drug: 0.015 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
214
Supplemental Drug: If animal is not down in 15 min, repeat full dose
Antagonist: 0.03 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Alternative Drugs: 1 mg etorphine plus 100 mg ketamine plus 100 mg xylazine;
antagonize with 2 mg diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Prone to sudden leg kicks.
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961; Heck and Rivenburg,
1972; Jones, 1972; 1984; Woolf et al., 1973; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wiesner,
1975; 1977; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Seal and Bush, 1987; Allen et al., 1991;
Saravanan et al., 2013
BATS, GENERAL
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg xylazine
Antagonist: Not recommended due to rough recovery
Alternative Drugs: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg acepromazine
• 6 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.06 mg/kg medetomidine
• 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.025 mg/kg medetomidine IV
References: Beck, 1976; Rauch and Beatty, 1977; Bassett, 1987; Wilson, 1988;
Heard et al., 1996; 2006; Heard and Huft, 1998; Jonsson et al., 2004; Wimsatt et
al., 2005; Sohayati et al., 2008; Heard, 2007b; 2014b; Olsson and Woods, 2008;
Epstein et al., 2011; Rodriguez Barbon et al., 2017
BEAR, ASIATIC BLACK, Ursus thibetanus

Weight: 65–90 (f), 110–150 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
detomidine; antagonize with 0.12 mg/kg atipamezole
• 2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele, 1961a; Kuntze, 1967; Seal and
Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Schobert, 1987; Asano et al., 2007; Laricchiuta
et al., 2008; Shanmugam Arun et al., 2016; Jeong et al., 2017
215
BEAR, BLACK, Ursus americanus
Weight: 92–140 (f), 115–270 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 4.4 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with
• 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.2
mg/kg atipamezole
• 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2.2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.11
mg/kg yohimbine
• 3.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.008 mg/kg dexmedetomidine;
• 0.3 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.25 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.1 mg/kg
medetomidine; antagonize with 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole plus 1.5 mg/kg
naltrexone
• 0.02 mg/kg etorphine; antagonize with 0.04 mg/kg diprenorphine
• 0.03 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg
Comments: Anesthetic induction with tiletamine-zolazepam may take up to 20
min and recoveries may be prolonged (2-4 hours). However, combining
tiletamine-zolazepam with medetomidine will reduce both induction and
recovery times (if atipamezole is given). Bears may arouse spontaneously when
using medetomidine with either ketamine or tiletamine-zolazepam or the
butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine combination. Thus, monitor closely for
signs of recovery. Monitor respiration/oxygen saturation when using opioids; be
prepared to administer oxygen.
References: Martyn, 1955; Erickson, 1957; Black et al., 1959; Meyer, 1959;
Youatt and Erickson, 1959; Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele, 1961a; Clifford
et al., 1962; Kroll, 1962; Clarke et al., 1963; Dyson, 1965; Kuntze, 1967;
Pearson et al., 1968; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Seal and
Erickson, 1969; Rogers, 1970; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Miller et al.,
1973; Alford et al., 1974; Beeman et al., 1974; Miller and Will, 1974; Haigh,
1976d; Hugie et al., 1976; Miller and Will, 1976; Rogers et al., 1976; Hugie et
al., 1977; Addison and Kolenosky, 1979; Barnes and Rogers, 1980; Bush et al.,
1980a; Jessup, 1982b; Stewart et al., 1980; Carpenter and Lance, 1983; Lynch et
216
al., 1982; Cook, 1984; Genevois et al., 1984b; Clutton, 1987; Garshelis et al.,
1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Hellgren and Vaughn, 1989;
Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Gibeau and Paquet, 1991; McLaughlin, 1993; Pond and
O’Gara, 1994; Ramsay et al., 1995; White et al., 1996; Caulkett and Cattet, 1997;
Black and Whiteside, 2005; Caulkett, 2007; Cattet et al., 2008; Wolfe et al.,
2008; Radandt, 2009; Ryan et al., 2009; Kreeger et al., 2013; Caulkett and
Fahlman, 2014; Wolfe et al., 2014; 2016; Coltrane et al., 2015
BEAR, BROWN (GRIZZLY), Ursus arctos

Supplemental Drug: One-half of original dose
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.01 mg/kg
dexmedetomidine; antagonize with 0.1 mg/kg atipamezole IV
• 4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 3 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.11
mg/kg yohimbine
• 0.03 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg
Comments: Although bears have been known to arouse spontaneously when
using ketamine-medetomidine, this does not seem to be problematic when using
tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine or tiletamine-zolazepam-dexmedetomidine.
Still, monitor closely for signs of recovery (increased palpebral response,
migration of eyes to a forward stare, increased jaw tone, or tongue contractility).
Fandos Esteruelas et al. (2017) found no differences in responses to tiletamine-
zolazepam-medetomidine or tiletamine-zolazepam-dexmedetomidine, which may
not justify the higher cost and volume of dexmedetomidine. Avoid loud or sharp
noises; try to prevent vocalization of cubs when mother is immobilized.
Recovery from high doses of tiletamine-zolazepam may take several hours. Use
one-half of the recommended tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine dose for bears
caught in culvert traps (Fandos Esteruelas et al., 2017). Doses can be reduced as
much as 75% for hibernating bears (Evans et al., 2012). Do not use opioids on
hibernating bears. Body weights can vary widely depending on geographical
location. Monitor respiration/oxygen saturation when using opioids; be prepared
to administer oxygen.
References: Louw, 1957; Craighead et al., 1960; Jarvis and Morris, 1960;
Heuschele, 1961a; Troyer et al., 1961; Larsen, 1963; Kuntze, 1967; Ericksen,
217
1968; Pearson et al., 1968; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et
al., 1970; Hebert et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Halloran and Pearson, 1972;
Pearson and Halloran, 1972; Alford et al., 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Boever et al.,
1977; Perry, 1977; Bush et al., 1980a; Hebert et al., 1980; Gatesman and
Wiesner, 1982; Lynch et al., 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Carpenter and
Lance, 1983; Genevois et al., 1984b; Duchamps, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Hugues et al., 1986; Röken, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal, 1987; Seal and
Kreeger, 1987; Carr, 1989; Taylor et al., 1989; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka
and Roeken, 1990; Tsubota and Yamamoto, 1991; Pond and O’Gara, 1994;
Mortenson and Bechert, 1996; 2002; Mama et al., 2000; Arnemo et al., 2001a;
2001b; Cattet et al., 2003b; 2003c; 2008; Arnemo, 2006; Caulkett, 2007;
Caulkett and Arnemo, 2007; Radandt, 2009; Fahlman et al., 2010a; 2010b, 2011;
2012; 2014b; Evans et al., 2010; 2012b; 2016; Gandolf et al., 2010; Painer et al.,
2012; Kreeger et al., 2013; Caulkett and Fahlman, 2014; Ozeki et al., 2014;
2015; Teisberg et al., 2014; Fandos Esteruelas et al., 2016; 2017
BEAR, POLAR, Ursus maritimus

Weight: 150–300 (f), 300–800 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
medetomidine; antagonize with 0.24 mg/kg atipamezole
• 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2
mg/kg yohimbine (partial antagonism only)
• 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.15 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.6 mg/kg
atipamezole
• 7 mg/kg ketamine plus 7 mg/kg xylazine (use 3 mg/kg ketamine plus 3 mg/kg
xylazine for cubs of the year)
Comments: Polar bears are subject to hyperthermia and require monitoring.
Spontaneous recovery may occur when using medetomidine combinations (more
likely with ketamine-medatomidine than tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine);
avoid loud or sharp noises; try to prevent vocalization of cubs when mother is
immobilized. Use long needles (i.e., >4 cm) to avoid injection into subcutaneous
fat. Although safe and efficacious, tiletamine-zolazepam alone can result in
prolonged recovery times (>2 hr). If quicker recoveries are required, use the
tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine combination with atipamezole antagonism
(Cattet et al., 1999). The addition of 150 IU of hyaluronidase may improve drug
absorption with improved induction times (Cattet and Obbard, 2010).
218
References: Heck, 1965; Larsen, 1966; Flyger et al., 1967; Kuntze, 1967;
Larsen, 1967; 1971; Lentfer, 1968; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970;
Treimo, 1970; Kistchinski and Uspenski, 1970; Treimo, 1971; Bauditz, 1972;
Robinson and Sedgwick, 1973; Alford et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Eriksen, 1976;
Kuntze, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Patenaude, 1979; Lee et al., 1981; Gatesman
and Wiesner, 1982; Scheinsburg et al., 1982; Taylor et al., 1982; Wiesner et al.,
1982; Haigh et al., 1983; 1984; 1985; Ramsay et al., 1985; Stirling et al., 1985;
1989; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Ramsay and Stirling, 1986; Schobert, 1987;
Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990;
Torgerson, 1990; Williams et al., 1990a; Caulkett et al., 1996c; 1998b; 1999;
Cattet et al., 1997; 1998; 1999a; 1999b; 2003a; Semple et al., 2000; Black and
Whiteside, 2005; Cattet and Obbard, 2010; Thiemann et al., 2013; Caulkett and
Fahlman, 2014; Rode et al., 2014
BEAR, SLOTH, Melurus ursinus

Weight: 55–145 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele, 1961a; Kuntze, 1967; Seal and
Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Nair, 1977; Bush et al., 1980a; Page, 1986;
Schobert, 1987; Black and Whiteside, 2005
BEAR, SPECTACLED, Tremarctos ornatus

Weight: 60–140 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Pistey and Wright, 1961; Graham-Jones,
1964; Kuntze, 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al.,
1970; Bauditz, 1972; Boever et al., 1977; Nair, 1977; Bush et al., 1980a;
Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987; Black and Whiteside, 2005
BEAR, SUN, Ursus malayanus

Weight: 50–73 kg
219
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Kroll, 1962; Seal and Erickson, 1969;
Seal et al., 1970; Pistey and Wright, 1961; Kuntze, 1967; Beck, 1976; Boever et
al., 1977; Bush et al., 1980a; Schobert, 1987; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Onuma,
2003
BEAVER, Castor canadensis

Weight: 12–25 kg
Antagonist: None reported
Alternative Drugs: Isoflurane (see Breck and Gaynor, 2003)
References: Allen, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck,
1972; 1976; Lancia et al., 1978; Jessup et al., 1980; Hoilien and Oates, 1982;
Jessup, 1982b; Wright, 1983; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Eisele et al., 1997; Breck
and Gaynor, 2003
BEAVER, EUROPEAN, Castor fiber

Weight: 18–25 kg
Recommended Drug: 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine plus
0.1 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.25 mg/kg midazolam
Comments: This combination has been used for surgical implantation of radio
transmitters (Ranheim et al., 2004). Anesthetized beavers may develop severe
hypoxemia and supplemental oxygen should be considered.
References: Ranheim et al., 2004
BETTONG, BRUSH-TAILED, Bettongia penicillata

Antagonist: None
References: Holz, 1992
220
BILBY, GREATER, Macrotis lagotis
Antagonist 1 mg/kg atipamezole
Alternative Drugs: Gas (isoflurane, sevoflurane) anesthesia
References: Holz, 2014b;
BINTURONG, Arctictus binturong

Weight: 16–28 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.2
mg/kg butorphanol
• 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.5 mg/kg xylazine
Schobert, 1987; Moresco, 2002; Moresco and Larsen, 2003; 2007; 2014;
Grassman et al., 2006;
BIRDS, GENERAL NONPASSERINE

Weight: < 30 g
Recommended Drug: 0.035 mg/g ketamine
Alternative Drugs: 0.02 mg/g ketamine plus 0.004 mg/g xylazine
Weight: 30–100 g
Recommended Drug 0.025 mg/g ketamine
Weight: 100–200 g
Weight: 200–800 g
221
Weight: 0.8–5 kg
Weight: 5–100 kg
Recommended Drug: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
Comments: Gas (isoflurane, sevoflurane) anesthesia is highly recommended, if
possible. Alfaxalone might be used for induction when using gas anesthesia
(Villaverde-Morcillo et al., 2014). The addition of diazepam/midazolam (1–2
mg/kg) should improve ketamine anesthesia. Midazolam (0.5–2 mg/kg)
intranasally may provide rapid sedation to allow handling of wild birds. Alpha-
chloralose has been used to capture sandhill cranes (Hartup et al., 2014).
References: Borg, 1955; Marsboom et al., 1964; Smith, 1967; Williams and
Phillips, 1972; 1973; Cooper and Frank, 1973; Webster and Hollard, 1973;
Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Boever and Wright, 1975; Jones, 1977b; Amand,
1980; Smith et al., 1980; Neal et al., 1981; Hartsfield, 1982; Samour et al., 1984;
Allen and Oosterhuis, 1986; Freeman, 1986; Linn, 1986; Sedgwick, 1986;
Taylor, 1987; Degernes et al., 1988; Stouffer and Caccamise, 1991; Hochleithner,
1993; Cooke, 1995; Bailey et al., 1999; Belant et al., 1999; Quandt and
Greenacre, 1999; Hayes et al., 2003; Mulcahy et al., 2003; Machin, 2004;
Mulcahy, 2007; Hartup et al., 2014; Heard, 2014; Villaverde-Morcillo et al., 2014
BIRDS, GENERAL PASSERINE (PERCHING)

Weight: < 30 g
• 0.03 mg/g alfaxalone plus 0.0007 mg/g midazolam SC
• 0.03 mg/g alfaxalone plus 0.001 mg/g butorphanol SC
Weight: 30–100 g
222
Weight: 100–200 g
Weight: 200–500 g
Weight: 0.5–1 kg
Comments: The addition of diazepam/midazolam (1 mg/kg) to all ketamine
doses should improve anesthesia.
References: Schafer et al., 1967; Smith, 1967; Peek, 1972; Schafer and
Cunningham, 1972; Williams and Phillips, 1972; Stunkard and Miller, 1974;
Boever and Wright, 1975; Jones, 1977b; Amand, 1980; Krechetov, 1980;
Hartsfield, 1982; Mueller, 1982; Cooper, 1984; Samour et al., 1984; Allen and
Oosterhuis, 1986; Linn, 1986; Sedgwick, 1986; Taylor, 1987; Degernes et al.,
1988; Cyr and Brunet, 1992; Avery, 1993b; Hochleithner, 1993; Day and Roge,
1996; Belant et al., 1999; Perrin et al., 2017
BIRDS, GENERAL PET

Weight: < 100 g
Weight: 100–500 g
Weight: 0.5–3 kg
223
Weight: > 3 kg
Comments: The addition of diazepam/midazolam (1 mg/kg) to all ketamine
doses should improve anesthesia. Gas anesthesia is highly recommended, if
possible (see Hawkins and Pascoe, 2007).
References: Kittle, 1971; Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Boever and Wright, 1975;
Beck, 1976; Boever, 1979; Amand, 1980; Hartsfield. 1982; Cooper, 1984;
Samour et al., 1984; Garver and Jackson, 1985; Linn, 1986; Schobert, 1987;
Taylor, 1987; Heaton and Brauth, 1992; Felkai, 1993; Hochleithner, 1993; Curro,
1998; Quandt and Greenacre, 1999; Sandmeier, 2000; Hawkins and Pascoe, 2007
BISON, AMERICAN, Bison bison

Weight: 350–1,000 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.3 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.14 mg/kg azaperone plus
0.07 mg/kg medetomidine
Antagonist: 4 mg/kg tolazoline plus 0.2 mg/kg naltrexone
Alternative Drugs: 0.01 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.05 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize
with 0.02 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 1.2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.06 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize
with 0.18 mg/kg atipamezole
mg/kg atipamezole
mg/kg yohimbine (calm animals only)
• 2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1.3 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.26 mg/kg
hydromorphone; antagonize with 0.09 mg/kg naltrexone plus 4 mg/kg
tolazoline
• 0.4 mg/kg nalbuphine plus 0.08 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.08 mg/kg
azaperone; antagonize with 0.4 mg/kg azaperone plus 150 mg naltrexone (calm
animals only)
• 0.017 mg/kg thiafentanil; antagonize with 0.5 mg/kg naltrexone
• 0.005 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.07 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.5 mg/kg
Comments: The tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine dose was based on captive
wood bison (Caulkett et al., 1998; 2000).
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968;
1969; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Jones, 1971; Thomas, 1961; Sedgwick and
224
Acosta, 1969; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; Gray et
al., 1974; Hertzog, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Haugen et
al., 1976; Wiesner, 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Thorne, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982;
Carpenter and Lance, 1983; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Hugues et al., 1986; Sedgwick, 1986; Kock and Berger, 1987; Schobert,
1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Berger and Kock, 1988; Renecker et al.,
1992; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Haigh and Gates, 1995; Caulkett et al., 1998a;
2000a; Shury, 1998; Páras et al., 2002; Shury and Caulkett, 2006; Caulkett and
Haigh, 2007c; Shury et al., 2008; Crawford and Beckmen, 2010; Wolfe et al.,
2017
BISON, EUROPEAN, Bison bonasus

Antagonist: 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.02 mg/kg atipamezole
• 1.5 mg carfentanil plus 35 mg xylazine; antagonize with 100 mg naltrexone per
mg carfentanil given plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Jaczewski and Swierzynski, 1955; Piwowarczyk, 1967; Zaniewski,
1967; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Jones, 1971;
Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Kania et al., 1973; 1985; Kania and
Teuchman, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wentges, 1975; Wiesner, 1975;
1977; Krasinski et al., 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; Duchamps, 1985; Wiesner and
von Hegel, 1985; Sedgwick, 1986; Strauss, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka and
Roeken, 1990; Caulkett and Haigh, 2007c; Bouts et al., 2017
BLACKBUCK, Antilope cervicapra

Weight: 32–43 kg
Antagonist: None
antagonize with 1 mg/kg atipamezole
• 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.25 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg
tolazoline (captive animals; Sontakke et al., 2009)
• 3 mg etorphine; antagonize with 6 mg diprenorphine
225
• 1.5 mg carfentanil; antagonize with 1 mg/kg naltrexone
References: Larsen, 1963; Wright, 1963; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968;
1969; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972;
York and Huggins, 1972; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wiesner, 1977; Jones, 1978;
Jessup et al., 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and
von Hegel, 1985; Allen, 1986b; Hugues et al., 1986; Strauss, 1987; Williams and
Riedesel, 1987; Arora, 1988; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Allen et al., 1991; Páras
et al., 2002; Sontakke et al., 2009b
BLESBOK, Damaliscus pygargus

Weight: 60–75 kg
Antagonist: 2 mg diprenorphine per mg etorphine given plus 0.125 mg/kg
yohimbine
Alternative Drugs: 3 mg thiafentanil plus 40 mg azaperone; antagonize with 60
mg naltrexone
• 1.25 mg etorphine plus 15 mg ketamine plus 15 mg xylazine; antagonize with
2.5 mg diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 15 mg fentanyl plus 50 mg azaperone
Comments: If using thiafentanil, 5 mg xylazine or 5 mg detomidine can be
substituted for azaperone. High impact darting systems should not be used.
Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adult male, 15 mg; adult female, 10
mg, subadult, 7.5 mg; neonate, 5 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine
(adults, 50-80 mg).
References: Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Pienaar, 1969b; 1973a; Barkhuizen,
1972; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Harthoorn and Van der Walt,
1974; De Vos, 1975; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Hofmeyr, 1981;
Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Ganhao et al., 1988; Allen et al.,
1991; IWVS, 1992; Snyder et al., 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al.,
2006; Ball, 2007; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Sawicka et al., 2015
BOBCAT, Lynx rufus

226
Antagonist: None
• 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.4 mg/kg
butorphanol;antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole
References: Kroll, 1962; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bailey,
1971; Beck, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Hoilien and Oates,
1982; Jessup, 1982b; Fuller et al., 1985; Kocan et al., 1985; Schobert, 1987; Seal
and Kreeger, 1987; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Beltrán and Tewes, 1995; Gunkel
and Lafortune, 2007; Rockhill et al., 2011; Ramsay, 2014
BONGO, Tragelaphus eurycerus

Recommended Drug: 0.023 mg/kg etorphine
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg carfentanil (males); 1.5 mg carfentanil (females)
• 1.4 mg carfentanil plus 80 mg ketamine plus 20 mg xylazine (total dose,
adults); antagonize with 1.4 mg/kg naltrexone plus 1.5 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Röken, 1975; Gray, 1974; Haigh, 1976b; 1976d; Slee and Walker,
1977; Allen et al, 1991; Miller-Edge and Amsel, 1994; Schumacher et al., 1997;
Mikota et al., 1999; Ball, 2007; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014; Bouts et al., 2017
BONOBO - SEE CHIMPANZEE
BONTEBOK - SEE BLESBOK
BUFFALO, AFRICAN, Syncerus caffer

Recommended Drug: 0.0125 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.25 mg/kg azaperone;
antagonize with
Antagonist: 0.025 mg/kg diprenorphine or 0.125 mg/kg naltrexone
Alternative Drugs: 0.02 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.1 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize
with 0.2 mg/kg naltrexone
227
Comments: Maintain in sternal recumbency. Change body position of large
bulls every 10 minutes to maintain blood flow. Xylazine can induce regurgitation
and possible aspiration pneumonia. The addition of hyaluronidase to the drug
mixture is beneficial. If ambient temperature is >28.5 C, be prepared to cool the
animal with water. Etorphine dose can be reduced to 0.006 mg/kg for captive
buffalo. Long-acting tranquilizer doses: zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg (not to exceed
600 mg total); perphenazine (adult male, 400 mg; adult female, 200 mg;
subadult, 100 mg; calf, 50 mg). Zuclopenthixol gave adequate tranquilization for
three days.
References: Buechner et al., 1960c; 1960d; Harthoorn and Lock, 1961; Talbot
and Talbot, 1962; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Van Niekerk and Pienaar, 1963a;
Condy, 1964; Graham-Jones, 1964; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969a;
1969b; Jones, 1971; 1972; Bauditz, 1972; Harthoorn, 1972a; 1973a; 1973b;
1974; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Woodford et al., 1972; York and Huggins,
1972; Young and Whyte, 1973; Eltringham, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Manton and
Jones, 1974; De Vos, 1975; 1985; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975;
Smuts, 1975; York, 1975; Drager et al., 1976; Haigh, 1976d; Hattingh et al.,
1984; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Schobert, 1987; Kock, R., et al., 1989; Allen et
al., 1991; Janssen et al., 1991; IWVS, 1992; Bengis, 1993; Kock, 2001; Kock,
M., et al., 2006; Curro, 2007; Oosthuizen at al., 2009; Kock and Burroughs,
2012; Napier and Armstrong, 2014
BUFFALO, ASIAN WATER, Bubalus bubalis

Comments: Although effective, the etorphine-xylazine doses may still result in
long induction times (> 20 min). Standing sedation might be achieved using
detomidine and butorphanol (Bouts et al., 2017).
References: McMahon and Bradshaw, 2008; Bouts et al., 2017
BURRO - SEE ASS, WILD
BUSH BABY - SEE GALAGO
BUSHBUCK, Tragelaphus scriptus
228
Weight: 24–42 (f), 30–77 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 2 mg etorphine plus 60 mg azaperone (males), total
dose; 1.5 mg etorphine plus 40 mg azaperone (females), total dose
Supplemental Drug: 1 mg etorphine
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg thiafentanil plus 60 mg azaperone (males), antagonize
with 30 mg naltrexone; 1.5 mg thiafentanil plus 40 mg azaperone (females),
antagonize with 15 mg naltrexone
• 30 mg fentanyl plus 60 mg azaperone (males); 15 mg fentanyl plus 40 mg
azaperone (females)
Comments: If captured by net first, immobilization can be achieved by
administering 0.5 mg etorphine IV. Avoid high-impact darting systems.
References: Ebedes, 1962; Bauditz, 1972; Pienaar, 1973a; Röken, 1975; Smuts,
1975; Haigh, 1976d; Schobert, 1987; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock et
al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
BUSH PIG, AFRICAN, Potamochoerus porcus

Weight: 46–130 kg
Supplemental Drug 1 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Antagonist: None
Comments: Do not use etorphine in bush pigs.
References: Van Rensburg, 1993; Kock, M., et al., 2006
BUZZARD, COMMON - SEE HAWKS, GENERAL
CAIMAN - SEE CROCODILIANS, GENERAL
CAMEL, BACTRIAN, Camelus bactrianus

Recommended Drug: 4.4 mg etorphine plus 10 mg/kg butorphanol plus 15 mg
detomidine
Antagonist: 200 mg naltrexone plus 25 mg atipamezole
• 1.5 mg/kg xylazine
229
References: Gates, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Jones, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg,
1972; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Custer et al., 1977; Held and Paddleford, 1982;
Wiesner et al., 1982; Higgins and Kock, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Allen, 1986b; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Mama, 2007; Bouts
et al., 2017; Mama and Walzer, 2014
CAMEL, DROMEDARY, Camelus dromedarius

Comments: Although early reports suggested that opioids might be
contraindicated in camels, further investigations using thiafentanil or butorphanol
combinations should be conducted.
References: Metcalfe, et al., 1968; Bhargava et al., 1969; Hime and Jones,
1970; Bauditz, 1972; Dennig, 1972; Gates, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972;
Khamis et al., 1973; Alford et al., 1974; Rosborough et al., 1974; Hertzog, 1975;
Mehren and Rapley, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; Schels and
Nowrouzian, 1977; Peshin et al., 1980; 1992; Wiesner et al., 1982; Higgins and
Kock, 1984; Jacobson and Kollias, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; White,
1986; White et al., 1987; Dioloi, 1992; Peshin et al., 1992; Singh et al., 1994;
Bonath, 1995; deMaar et al., 1998; Al Busadah, 2001; El Maghraby and Al
Qudah, 2005; Mama, 2007; Boardman et al., 2014a
CAPYBARA, Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris

Weight: 27–79 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 15 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg acepromazine
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Szabuniewicz et al.,
1978; Stoskopf, 1979; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985
CARACAL, Felis caracal

Weight: 13–19 kg
230
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Ebedes, 1973b; Genevois et al., 1984b; Gray et
al., 1974; Schobert, 1987; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Kock, M., et al.,
2006; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007
CARIBOU, Rangifer tarandus

Weight: 80–318 kg
Antagonist: 1 mg/kg atipamezole
Alternative Drugs: 0.06 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.3 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize
• 6 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg
yohimbine
• 5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.06 mg/kg idazoxan or 0.2 mg/kg
yohimbine (calm animals only)
Comments: Anecdotal evidence suggests that xylazine (and perhaps any alpha-2
adrenoceptor agonist) should not be used on bulls in rut.
References: Bergerud et al., 1964; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969;
Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Des Meules et al., 1971; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and
Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; 1978; Laisher, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Hertzog,
1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; 1978c; Wiesner, 1977; Jarofke,
1980; Fuller and Keith, 1981; Fong, 1982; Patenaude, 1982a; Thorne, 1982;
Wiesner et al., 1982; Carpenter and Lance, 1983; Valkenburg et al., 1983; Jones,
1984; Röken, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Doherty and
Tweedie, 1989; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka, 1989d; Barnett and Lewis, 1990;
Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Tyler et al., 1990; Caulkett et al., 1996a; Ranheim et
al., 1997; Arnemo and Ranheim, 1999; Soveri et al., 1999; Ranheim, 1999;
Valkenburg et al., 1999; Ryeng et al., 2001a; 2001b; 2002; Caulkett and Arnemo,
2007; 2014; Caulkett and Haigh, 2007a; Arnemo and Aanes, 2009, Risling et al.,
2011; Arnemo et al., 2011; Evans et al., 2013; Lian et al., 2016
CASSOWARY, DOUBLE-WATTLED, Casuarius casuarius

Weight: 40–85 kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg etorphine plus 200 mg ketamine
231
Supplemental Drug: 2 mg etorphine plus 100 mg ketamine
Antagonist: 20 mg diprenorphine
• 0.5 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 2.5 mg/kg atipamezole (provides
heavy sedation, not anesthesia)
References: Beck, 1976; Ensley, 1984; Stoskopf et al., 1982; Westcott and
Reid, 2002; Siegal-Willot, 2007; 2014; Campbell et al., 2014
CAT, ASIAN GOLDEN, Felis temmincki

Weight: 12–15 kg
Boever et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Grassman et al.,
2004; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Ramsay, 2014
CAT, BLACK-FOOTED, Felis nigripes

Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Kock, M., et al., 2006 ; Gunkel and Lafortune,
2007
CAT, FERAL DOMESTIC, Felis catus

Weight: 4–8 kg
Antagonist: None
References: McGregor et al., 2016
CAT, FISHING, Felis viverrina

Weight: 7.7–14 kg
232
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Dolensek, 1971; Beck,
1972; 1976; Gray et al., 1974; Jessup et al., 1980; Genevois et al., 1984b;
Schobert, 1987; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007
CAT, FLAT-HEADED, Felis planiceps

Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1972; Jessup et al., 1980
CAT, GEOFFREY, Felis geoffroyi

Weight: 3–7 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987; Gunkel and
Lafortune, 2007
CAT, JUNGLE, Felis chaus

Weight: 4–16 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Graham-Jones, 1964; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970;
Gray et al., 1974; Boever et al., 1977; Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987;
Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007
CAT, LEOPARD, Prionailurus bengalensis

Weight: 2–5 kg
233
References: Grassman et al., 2004; Fernando et al., 2013; Ramsay, 2014
CAT, LITTLE SPOTTED, Leopardus tigrinus

Weight: 1.5–3 kg
Recommended Drug: 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg/kg S-ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
Comments: Although no antagonist was reported with the S-ketamine-
dexmedetomidine dose, it is assumed that atipamezole would be effective.
References: Juvenal et al., 2008; Motta Lima et al., 2016
CAT, MARBLED, Felis marmorata

Weight: 1.4–5 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Hime,
1974; Beck, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987;
Grassman et al., 2004; Ramsay, 2014
CAT, PALLAS, Otocolobus manul

Weight: 3–7 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine plus
0.15 mg/kg butorphanol; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole
References: Gray et al., 1974; Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987; Ramsay,
2014
CAT, SPOTTED, Felis tigrina

234
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970
CAT, WILD, Felis sylvestris

Weight: 3–8 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Wiesner, 1977; Genevois et al.,
1984b; Schobert, 1987; Kock, M., et al., 2006
CATTLE, FERAL, Bos taurus

Recommended Drug: 1 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1 mg/kg ketamine
plus 0.06 mg/kg detomidine
Supplemental Drug: One-half of the original dose
Alternative Drugs: 3.6 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.6 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize
with 2 mg/kg tolazoline (or 0.05 mg/kg atipamezole)
• 0.08 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.24 mg/kg atipamezole
• 0.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg tolazoline (or 0.05 mg/kg
atipamezole)
• 0.01 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.3 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.02 mg/kg
diprenorphine plus 0.03 mg/kg atipamezole
• 0.03 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.1 mg/kg acepromazine; antagonize with 0.06
mg/kg diprenorphine
naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine or 2 mg/kg tolazoline
Comments: Resedation may occur with the xylazine or medetomidine doses and
administration of additional atipamezole SC should be considered. The
medetomidine or xylazine only doses should probably be used only on calm
cattle. The tiletamine-zolazepam-ketamine-detomidine dose was used on calves,
but probably can be extrapolated to adults. The ketamine-xylazine dose was used
on Australian cattle, which experienced no mortalities on the day of capture, but
rose to 7% mortality 14 days post capture (Hampton et al., 2016b). Tolazoline
should not be administered IV.
References: Arnemo and SØ li, 1993; 1995b ; Re et al., 2011; Napier and
Armstrong, 2014; Hampton et al., 2016b; 2016c
235
CAVY, PATAGONIAN, Dolichatis patagonum
Weight: 9–16 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Kock et al., 1989
CETACEANS, GENERAL
Recommended Drug: 2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam (IV or IM)
antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole Ramsay, 2014; IV
• 0.2 mg/kg butorphanol IM; antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone (captive
animals only)
Comments: Cetaceans are rarely chemically restrained. Many procedures can be
accomplished by combining sedation, physical restraint, and local anesthesia.
References: Blyde and Vogelnest, 2008; Dold and Ridgway, 2007; 2014
CHAMOIS, NORTHERN, Rupricapra rupricapra

Weight: 24–50 kg
• 0.05 mg/kg fentanyl plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg
naloxone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Boch et al., 1961; Bauditz, 1972; Wiesner, 1977; Clarke and
Henderson, 1979; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; Duchamps, 1985; Jalanka
and Roeken, 1990; Moran et al., 1994; Walzer et al., 1996; Caulkett and Haigh,
2007b; Dematteis et al., 2009; Mentaberre et al., 2010; Caulkett and Walzer,
2014
CHAMOIS, SOUTHERN, Rupricapra pyrenaica

Weight: 10–37 kg
236
Supplemental Drug: 0.05 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.12 mg/kg xylazine
References: Gentile et al., 2015
CHEETAH, Acinonyx jubatu

Weight: 35–72 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.22 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.016 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
plus 0.18 mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 0.1 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125
mg/kg atipamezole
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.02 mg/kg dexmedetomidine; antagonize with 0.1
mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: If reversals appear abnormally long (> 20 min) when using
ketamine-medetomidine, consider increasing the atipamezole dose to 0.5 mg/kg.
Partial antagonism of tiletamine-zolazepam may be achieved with 0.03 mg/kg
flumazenil or 0.1 mg/kg sarmazenil (see Walzer and Huber, 2002). In a few
cases, cheetah have stopped breathing 60-90 minutes after given tiletamine-
zolazepam and they do not respond to doxapram (Kock, M., et al., 2006).
Perphenazine enanthate (3 mg/kg) has been used as a long-acting tranquilizer in
captive cheetah (Huber et al., 2001). Ketamine-dexmedetomidine offers only a
slight improvement over ketamine-medetomidine which may not justify the
increased cost of dexmedetomidine. However, a combination of
dexmedetomidine-butorphanol-midazolam provided safe and effective anesthesia
in captive cheetahs (Colbum et al., 2017).
References: Young, 1966; Ericksen, 1968; Pienaar et al., 1969; Seal and
Erickson, 1969; Ebedes, 1970; 1973b; Seal et al., 1970; Dolensek, 1971; Bauditz,
1972; Beck, 1972; 1976; York and Huggins, 1972; Holmes and Ngethe, 1973;
Smuts et al., 1973; York, 1973; Alford et al., 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Hime,
1974; Wentges, 1975; Boever et al., 1977; Nair, 1977; Smeller and Bush, 1977;
Wiesner, 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Button et al., 1981; Genevois et al., 1984b;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987; Kock, R., et al., 1989; Barnett and
Lewis, 1990; IWVS, 1992; Klein and Stover, 1993; McKenzie and Burroughs,
1993; Deem et al., 1998; Rogers, 1998; Walzer and Huber, 1999; 2002; Huber et
al., 1999; 2001; Lewandowski et al., 2002; Lafortune et al., 2005; Kock, M., et
al., 2006; Stegmann and Jago, 2006; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Sanchez et al.,
237
2008; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ramsay, 2014; Colbum et al., 2017;
Stagegaard et al., 2017
CHILLA - SEE FOX, SOUTH AMERICAN
CHIMPANZEE, Pan troglodytes

Weight: 35–70 kg
• 6 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.06 mg/kg detomidine
Comments: Good induction and relaxation with ketamine/medetomidine.
Human laryngeal mask airways can be used on chimps when using gas
anesthesia (Johnson et al., 2010).
References: Heuschele, 1959; Wallach et al., 1960; Marsboom et al., 1962;
1963; Larsen, 1963; Coetzee, 1964; Ericksen, 1968; Wallach et al., 1967;
Wallach, 1968; 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Beck, 1972; Beck and
Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Bush et al., 1977; Vercruysse and Mortelmans,
1978; Jessup et al., 1980; April et al., 1982; Hugues et al., 1986; Robinson and
Lambert, 1986; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Hess et al., 1987; Röken, 1987;
Schobert, 1987; Kock, R. et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Lewis, 1993;
Kearns et al., 1996; 1998; 1999; 2000; Horne et al., 1997; 1998; Adams et al.,
2003; Hunter et al., 2004; Kock, M. et al., 2006; Masters et al., 2007; Sleeman,
2007; Johnson et al., 2010; Naples et al., 2010; Melis et al., 2012; Hyeroba et al.,
2013; Cerveny and Sleeman, 2014
CHINCHILLA, Chinchilla spp.

Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Schulz and Fowler, 1974; Morgan et al., 1981;
Genevois et al., 1984a; Schobert, 1987
238
CHITAL - SEE DEER, AXIS
CHOUSINGHA - SEE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE
CIVET, AFRICAN PALM, Nandinia binotata

Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Genevois et al.,
1984b; Schobert, 1987
CIVET, AFRICAN, Civettictis civetta

Weight: 7–20 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Darting of free-ranging civets is not recommended because they can
easily become lost before the drug takes effect (McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993).
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993
CIVET, BANDED PALM, Hemigalus derbyanus

Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987
CIVET, BROWN PALM, Paradoxurus jerdoni

References: Mudappa and Chellam, 2001
CIVET, LESSER ORIENTAL, Viverricula indica
239
Weight: 2–4 kg
Antagonist: None
Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987
CIVET, MALAGASY, Fossa fossa

Weight: 1.5–2 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987
CIVET, MASKED PALM, Paguma larvata

Weight: 3.6–5 kg
Antagonist: None
Schobert, 1987
CIVET, ORIENTAL, Viverra zibetha

Weight: 5–11 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Moresco and Larsen,
2014
CIVET, PALM, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus

Antagonist: None
240
References: Kroll, 1962; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al.,
1974; Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987
COATIMUNDI, Nasua spp.

Weight: 3–6 kg
Comments: Keep separate from other coatis for 24 hours after immobilization,
if possible.
References: Graham-Jones, 1964; Dyson, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal
et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Georoff et
al., 2004; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007; 2014; Amorin Conforti, 2017
COUGAR - SEE LION, MOUNTAIN
COYOTE, Canis latrans

Weight: 7–18 kg
• 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize with 0.15 mg/kg
yohimbine
• 0.12 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.4 mg/kg atipamezole (trapped
animals only)
Comments: If using xylazine, wait at least 45 min after last ketamine injection
before administering yohimbine.
References: Kroll, 1962; Balser, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al.,
1970; Bailey, 1971; Gray et al., 1974; Ramsden et al., 1976; Baer et al., 1978;
Mulder, 1978a; Cornely, 1979; Hallett et al., 1979; Jessup et al., 1980; Hoilien
and Oates, 1982; Jessup, 1982b; Genevois et al., 1984b; Kreeger and Seal,
1986b; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Servin et al., 1990; Servin and
Huxley, 1992; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014;
Baldwin et al., 2008
COYPU - SEE NUTRIA
241
CROCODILIANS, GENERAL
Comments: Expect prolonged induction times (20-30 min) when using either
cyclohexane drug combination. Paralytic agents such as succinylcholine (0.3–5
mg/kg), gallamine (1–2 mg/kg), or atracurium may be more effective in
crocodiles than other drugs. See Kock, M., et al. (2006) or Kock and Burroughs
(2012) for precise gallamine and neostigmine doses. Decrease the dose of
gallamine as size of crocodile increases (see Blake, 1993; Kock, M., et al., 2006).
Gallamine should be used with caution in American alligators. Propofol (5–10
mg/kg IV) followed by inhalation anesthesia may be preferred if the animal can
be initially physically restrained for IV administration. Pole syringes are safe and
effective means of drug delivery, although darts also can be used. Sites of
injection are the legs, the side of the tail just behind the hind legs, or the large
jaw muscles. Epinephrine (0.1 mg/kg IM) has been shown to significantly reduce
recovery time in American alligators anesthetized with isoflurane.
References: Brisbin, 1966; Wallach and Hoessle, 1970; Calderwood, 1971;
Klide and Klein, 1971; Loveridge and Blake, 1972; 1987; Woodford, 1972;
Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Beck, 1976; Haigh, 1976d; Jones, 1977b; Terpin et
al., 1978; Loveridge, 1979; Messel et al., 1980; Morgan-Davies, 1980; Lee,
1981; Jacobson, 1984; Spiegel et al., 1984a; 1984b; Idowu and Akinrinmade,
1985; Whitaker and Andrews, 1989; Bonath et al., 1990; Clyde et al., 1990;
1994; Bennett, 1991; Bonath et al., 1991; Johnson, 1991; Flamand et al., 1992;
Haager and Reynolds, 1992; Blake, 1993; Page, 1993; Lloyd et al., 1994;
Fleming, 1996; Heaton-Jones, 1996; Smith et al., 1998; Lloyd, 1999; Heaton-
Jones et al., 2002; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Fleming, 2007; 2014; Kock and
Burroughs, 2012; Olsson and Phalen, 2012; 2013; Gatson et al., 2017
CRUSTACEANS (CRABS, LOBSTER, CRAYFISH)

Recommended Drug: See Mosley and Lewbart (2014) for invertebrate
immobilization drugs and techniques
References: Sedgwick, 1986; Mosley and Lewbart, 2014
CULPEO - SEE FOX, SOUTH AMERICAN
CUSCUS, Phalanger spp.

Weight 1–5 kg
242
Antagonist: None
References: Salas and Stephens, 2004
DASYURIDS, GENERAL
Recommended Drug: Isoflurane: 5% induction, 2% maintenance; oxygen 200
ml/kg/min
Antagonist: Oxygen, 200 ml/kg/min
Comments: In Tasmanian devils immobilized with tiletamine-zolazepam,
relaxation is variable with hypersalivation and constant limb and jaw movements
sometimes occurring; recoveries can also be prolonged (> 6 hr).
DEER, AXIS, Axis axis

Weight: 40–110 kg
• 3 mg fentanyl plus 24 mg azaperone plus 30 mg xylazine; antagonize with 10
mg naloxone per mg fentanyl given plus 2 mg/kg tolazoline
• 3 mg etorphine plus 50 mg xylazine antagonize with 2 mg diprenorphine per
mg etorphine given plus 2 mg/kg tolazoline
• 3 mg/kg xylazine (calm animals only); antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Lower doses of ketamine-xylazine can be used on captive axis deer
(Sontakke et al., 2007).
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961; Heuschele, 1961a; Kroll,
1962; Bauditz, 1972; Jones, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Sutherland and Hodgkin,
1974; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Nair, 1977; Presidente et al., 1978c; Keep,
1979; Jessup et al., 1980; Singh and Singh, 1982; Arora et al., 1983; Jones, 1984;
Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Karesh et al., 1986; Röken, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987;
Arora, 1988; Franzmann and Lance, 1988; Van Mourik et al., 1988; Jalanka and
Roeken, 1990; Arnemo et al., 1993c; Haigh et al., 1993; Páras et al., 2002;
243
Smith, K. et al., 2005; 2006; Sontakke et al., 2007; Saravanan et al., 2013;
Caulkett and Arnemo, 2014
DEER, BLACK-TAILED - SEE DEER, MULE
DEER, BROCKET, Mazama spp.

Weight: 8–25 kg
Recommended Drug: 1 mg etorphine plus 5 mg ketamine plus 5 mg xylazine
Supplemental Drug: 15 mg ketamine IV, if possible
Antagonist: 2 mg diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Alternative Drugs: 7 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.3 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.5 mg/kg
midazolam; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Snyder et al., 1992; Caulkett and Arnemo, 2014
DEER, BROW-ANTLERED, Cervus eldi

Weight 75–150 kg
Alternative Drugs: 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.3 mg/kg xylazine;
antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
mg/kg diprenorphine
References: Bush et al., 1992; Klein et al., 1996
DEER, CHINESE WATER, Hydropotes inermis

Weight: 11–30 kg
Alternative Drugs: 3 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.04 mg/kg dexmedetomidine;
mg/kg diprenorphine
References: Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Jones, 1978; 1984; Seal and Bush,
1987; Hastings et al., 1989; Kock et al., 1989; Bouts et al., 2011
244
DEER, ELD’S - SEE DEER, BROW-ANTLERED
DEER, FALLOW, Dama dama

Weight: 40–100 kg
Supplemental Drug: One half of the original dose
0.5 mg/kg atipamezole; give 1/2 dose IV, 1/2 IM
• 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg
yohimbine
• 0.02 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 2 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine;
antagonize with 1 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.1 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: No entirely satisfactory combination of drugs has been found for
the immobilization of fallow deer; be prepared for less-than-satisfactory
immobilizations. However, an unpublished report had good results "every time"
by adding 2 ml of 100 mg/ml xylazine to one vial of tiletamine-zolazepam and
administering this mixture to adult deer. Xylazine alone gives unpredictable
results. It has been shown that longer needle length (i.e., 40 mm) reduces flight
time and distance (Bergvall et al., 2015).
References: Pistey and Wright, 1959; Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele,
1961a; 1961b; Thomas, 1961; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969;
Eriksen, 1970; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Honich,
1970; Klide and Klein, 1971; Mulling and Henning, 1971; Bauditz, 1972; Fessel,
1972; Jones, 1972; 1978; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Chapman, 1973; Kilde and
Klein, 1973; York and Huggins, 1972; Scanlon, 1973; Woolf et al., 1973; Alford
et al., 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Harrington, 1974; Done et al., 1975; Hertzog,
1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Geiger, 1976; Haigh, 1976d; 1977; Wiesner,
1977; Presidente et al., 1978b; Keep, 1979; Pertz and Sundberg, 1978; Jarofke,
1980; Jessup, et al., 1980; Schulz and Dingeldein, 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982;
1984; Jones, 1984; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Duchamps, 1985; Kock and
Pearce, 1985; Pearce et al., 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Hugues et al.,
1986; Röken, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Williams and
Riedesel, 1987; Sancken and Fischer, 1988; Van Mourik et al., 1988; Kock et al.,
1989; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Stewart and English,
1990; Allen et al., 1991; Tung et al., 1993; Fernandez-Moran and Peinado, 1996;
245
Galka et al., 1999; Fernandez-Moran et al., 2000; Páras et al., 2002; Haefele et
al., 2005; Caulkett and Haigh, 2007a; Jennings, 2007; Lohe et al., 2008; Caulkett
and Arnemo, 2014; Bergvall et al., 2015; Costa et al., 2017; Lapid et al., 2017
DEER, HIMALAYAN MUSK, Moschus chrysogasters

Weight: 7–17 kg
References: Green, 1986; Kattel and Alldredge, 1991
DEER, HOG, Axis porcinus

Weight: 27–110 kg
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine
(calm deer only)
References: Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg,
1972; Presidente et al., 1978b; Keep, 1979; Jarofke, 1980; Singh and Singh,
1982; Jones, 1984; Dhungel, 1985 Allen et al., 1991; Arnemo et al., 2005a;
DEER, MARSH, Blastocerus dichotomus

Weight: 80–150 kg
Recommended Drug: 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.5
mg/kg midazolam
References: Caulkett and Arnemo, 2014
DEER, MULE, Odocoileus hemionus

Weight: 75–135 kg
Alternative Drugs: 4.4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2.2 mg/kg xylazine;
antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine (or 2 mg/kg tolazoline)
246
yohimbine (or 2 mg/kg tolazoline)
• 0.6 butorphanol plus 0.4 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.2 mg/kg medetomidine (Bush
et al., 2012)
• 0.2 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.2 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.5 mg/kg alfaxalone;
antagonize with 1 mg/kg atipamezole
• 3 mg etorphine plus 30 mg xylazine; antagonize with 6 mg diprenorphine plus
• 0.15 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg
• 3 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine or 2 mg/kg tolazoline
(calm deer only)
Comments: Deer immobilized with etorphine may run long distances and/or
have an extended period (10+ min) of hyperactivity before recumbency. This
hyperactivity can result in hyperthermia. All opioid agents can result in
respiratory depression. When using ketamine-xylazine or tiletamine-zolazepam-
xylazine for highly excited deer, the xylazine dose can be increased up to the
dose of ketamine or tiletamine-zolazepam given (i.e., 7 mg/kg or 4.4 mg/kg,
respectively). An effective standard dose for most adult mule deer is 1.5 ml of
200 mg/ml ketamine (i.e., 300 mg ketamine) plus 0.5 ml of 20 mg/ml
medetomidine (i.e., 10 mg medetomidine). This will fit nicely in a 2 ml dart.
Antagonize the medetomidine with 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole.
References: Heuschele, 1959; 1961a; 1961b; Jarvis and Morris, 1960;
Anderson, 1961; Boyd, 1962; Cowan et al., 1962; Kroll, 1962; Merriam, 1962;
Nordan et al., 1962; Pearson et al., 1963; Denney, 1965; Dyson, 1965; Siglin,
1965; Wolff et al., 1965; Kitchen, 1966; Miller, 1968; Day, 1969; Heck and
Rivenburg, 1972; Dean et al., 1973; Gray et al., 1974; Rapley and Mehren, 1975;
Haigh, 1976d; Richter, 1977; Wiesner, 1977; Trindle and Lewis, 1978; Jarofke,
1980; Lange, 1982; Jessup et al., 1980; 1982a; 1983; 1984; 1985a; Thorne, 1982;
Carpenter and Lance, 1983; Jacobsen, 1983; Gullett, 1984; Krausman et al.,
1984; Seidel and Strauss, 1984; Renecker and Olsen, 1985; Krausman et al.,
1986; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987;
Franzmann and Lance, 1988; Greene, 1988; DelGiudice et al., 1989; Smits et al.,
1989; Caulkett et al., 1995; 1996b; 2000b; Wolfe et al., 2004; Caulkett and
Haigh, 2007a; Mortenson and Robison, 2011; Casady and Allen, 2013; Caulkett
and Arnemo, 2014; Wolfe and Miller, 2016; Mathieu et al., 2017
DEER, PÉRE DAVID’S, Elaphurus davidianus

247
diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine (calm deer only)
References: Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; 1978; Rapley and
Mehren, 1975; Smeller et al., 1976; Wiesner, 1977; Jarofke, 1980; Bush, 1982;
Jacobson and Kollias, 1984; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; Jacobson and
Kollias, 1984; Jones, 1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Seal and Bush, 1987; Kock
et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Bush et al., 1992; Lu et al., 1992
DEER, RED, Cervus elaphus hippelaphus

Weight: 60–180 kg
Alternative Drugs: 2.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2.5 mg/kg xylazine;
antagonize with 2 mg/kg tolazoline
• 3 mg/kg ketamine plus 3 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg tolazoline
• 0.21 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1.7 mg/kg azaperone
• 3 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize with 2 mg/kg tolazoline (calm deer only)
• 0.08 mg/kg medetomidine, antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg atipamezole (calm or
captive deer only)
References: Schloeth et al., 1960; Boch et al., 1961; Thomas, 1961; Jewell et
al., 1965; Jewell and Lowe, 1965; Taylor and Magnussen, 1965; Eriksen, 1968b;
Eriksen, 1970; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Honich, 1970; Mulling and Henning,
1971; Bauditz, 1972; Fessel. 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972;
1978; Woolf et al., 1973; Fletcher, 1974; 1986; McAllum, 1977; Wiesner, 1977;
Presidente et al., 1978b; Keep, 1979; Jarofke, 1980; Van Reenen, 1982; Wiesner
et al., 1982; 1984; Dickson et al., 1983; Simpson et al., 1983; Jones, 1984;
MacKintosh and Van Reenen, 1984a; 1984b; Duchamps, 1985; Kock and Pearce,
1985; McKelvey and Simpson, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Sedgwick,
1986; Röken, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Cross et al., 1988; Koubek and Mrlik,
248
1988; Van Mourik et al., 1988; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990;
Diverio et al., 1993; 1996; Haigh and Hudson, 1993; Zomborszky et al., 1993;
Arnemo et al., 1994b; Wolkers et al., 1994; Wiesner, 1998; Janovsky et al., 2000;
Walsh and Wilson, 2002; Johnson et al., 2005; Woodbury et al., 2005; Caulkett
and Haigh, 2007a; Auer et al., 2010; Caulkett and Arnemo, 2014; Sente et al.,
2014
DEER, ROE, Capreolus capreolus

Weight: 15–50 kg
• 0.002 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg
diprenorphine per mg etorphine given plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 0.06 mg carfentanil; antagonize with 6 mg/kg naltrexone
References: Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Marma, 1970; Mulling and Henning,
1971; Blazhis et al., 1972; Fessel, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Rapley and
Mehren, 1975; Schultze, 1976; Wiesner, 1977; Keep, 1979; Jarofke, 1980;
Wiesner et al., 1982; Jones, 1984; Seidel and Strauss, 1984; Duchamps, 1985;
Röken, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Allen et al., 1991;
Montané et al., 2003; Mentaberre, et al., 2009; Morellet et al., 2009
DEER, RUSA - SEE SAMBAR, SUNDA
DEER, SIKA, Cervus nippon

Weight: 40–80 kg
• 0.05 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.2 mg/kg acepromazine; antagonize with 0.1 mg/kg
diprenorphine
• 0.01 mg/kg carfentanil; antagonize with 1 mg/kg naltrexone
249
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele, 1961a; Thomas, 1961; Seal
and Erickson, 1969; Eriksen, 1970; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Göltenboth and
Klös, 1970; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones,
1972; 1978; 1984; York and Huggins, 1972; Woolf et al., 1973; Gray et al., 1974;
Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Wiesner, 1977; Paponov, 1978; Keep,
1979; Jarofke, 1980; Arora et al., 1983; Jacobson and Kollias, 1984; Silvestris
and Heck, 1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Zabarain, 1985; Allen, 1986b; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Strauss,
1987; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Allen et al., 1991; Tung et al., 1993; Tsuruga et
al., 1999; Páras et al., 2002; Suzuki et al., 2001
DEER, SWAMP - SEE BARASINGHA
DEER, TIMOR - SEE SAMBAR, SUNDA
DEER, WHITE-TAILED, Odocoileus virginianus

Weight: 60–150 kg
Recommended Drug: 4.4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2.2 mg/kg xylazine
Antagonist: 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine or 2 mg/kg tolazoline
Alternative Drugs: 7.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.5 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize
with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine (or 2 mg/kg tolazoline)
• 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.5 mg/kg
atipamezole
• 2.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg
xylazine; antagonize with 4 mg/kg tolazoline
medetomidine; antagonize with 1.2 mg/kg naltrexone plus 1 mg/kg
atipamezole (Siegal-Willot et al., 2009)
• 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.07
• 0.1 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg
naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine (or 2 mg/kg tolazoline)
Comments: When using ketamine-xylazine or tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine
for highly excited deer, the xylazine dose can be increased up to the dose of
ketamine or tiletamine-zolazepam given (i.e., 7.5 mg/kg or 4.4 mg/kg,
respectively). All opioid agents can result in respiratory depression. When using
xylazine alone, young deer (< 1 yr) may require higher doses (i.e., 6 mg/kg;
250
Bubenick, 1982). Immobilization with xylazine alone is unreliable, particularly
when the animal is excited or has been chased. Long-acting tranquilizers (0.3
mg/kg azaperone plus 1 mg/kg zuclopenthixol) have been effective for
translocating deer (see Read and McCorkell, 2002). See Mich et al. (2008) and
Miller et al. (2009) for alternative BAM doses to Siegal-Willot et al. (2009). A
combination of 0.5 mg/kg alfaxalone plus 0.2 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.15 mg/kg
medetomidine appeared promising for immobilization in captive deer, but this
combination needs validation on free-ranging deer (Pon et al., 2016).
References: Severinghaus, 1950; Hall et al., 1953; Jenkins et al., 1955;
Crockford et al., 1957a; 1957b; Feurt et al., 1958; Jarvis and Morris, 1960;
Montgomery, 1961; Cowan et al., 1962; Nordan et al., 1962; Green, 1963; Murry
and Dennett, 1963; Murray, 1964; 1965; Thomas and Marburger, 1964; Behrend,
1965; Dyson, 1965; Kitchen, 1966; Fletch et al., 1967; Hawkins et al., 1967;
1968; Montgomery and Hawkins, 1967; Thomas et al., 1967; Day, 1969b;
Liscinsky et al., 1969; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Short, 1969; Allen, 1970;
Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Seal et al., 1970; 1972; Woolf, 1970; 1974; Bauditz,
1972; Beck, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; York and Huggins, 1972; Dean et
al., 1973; Presidente et al., 1973; 1978a; 1978b; Presnell et al., 1973; Woolf et
al., 1973; Gray et al., 1974; Scanlon and Mirarchi, 1974; Wesson et al., 1974;
1976; 1979a; 1979b; Hertzog, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Roughton, 1975;
Haigh, 1976d; Jacobsen et al., 1976; Scanlon et al., 1977; Wiesner, 1977; Jones,
1978; 1984; Presidente and Draisma, 1978; Gibson et al., 1979; 1980a; 1980b;
1982; Hawkins et al., 1979; Jarofke, 1980; Kocan et al., 1980; 1981; Mautz et al.,
1980; Kopf et al., 1981a; 1981b; Bubenik, 1982; Jensen, 1982; Nielsen, 1982;
Thorne, 1982; Carpenter and Lance, 1983; Jensen, et al., 1983; Samuelson, 1983;
Chao et al., 1984; Hsu and Shulaw, 1984; Mech et al., 1984; 1985; Silvestris and
Heck, 1984; Scanlon and Brunjak, 1984; Warren et al., 1984; Renecker and
Olsen, 1985; Scanlon and Vaughan, 1985; Zabarain, 1985; Van Der Eems and
Brown, 1986; Kreeger et al., 1986a; 1986b; 1987b; DelGiudice et al., 1986;
2001; 2005; Schobert, 1987; 1988; Seal and Bush, 1987; Strauss, 1987; Williams
and Riedesel, 1987; Dew, 1988; Diehl, 1988; Green, 1988; Bubenik and Brown,
1989; Smits and Haigh, 1989; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken,
1990; Schultz et al., 1991; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Wallingford et al., 1996;
Kilpatrick et al., 1996; 1997; Schwartz et al., 1997; Ballard et al., 1998;
Kilpatrick and Spohr, 1999; Murray et al., 2000; Haulton et al., 2001; Páras et al.,
2002; Read and McCorkell, 2002; Miller et al., 2003; 2004; Posner et al., 2005;
Millspaugh et al., 2005; Storms et al., 2004; 2005; 2006; Caulkett and Haigh,
2007a; Muller et al., 2007; 2012a; 2012b; Mich et al., 2008; Miller et al., 2009;
Siegal-Willot et al., 2009; Shury et al., 2010; Boesch et al., 2011; Monteith et al.,
2012; Duquette et al., 2013; Caulkett and Arnemo, 2014; Dechen Quinn et al.,
2014; Fahlman et al., 2014a; Pon et al., 2016
251
DEGU, Octodon degus
Weight: 170–300 g
Recommended Drug: 40 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg diazepam
Supplemental Drug: 20 mg/kg ketamine only
Antagonist: None
References: Stoskopf, 1979
DEVIL, TASMANIAN, Sarcophilus harrisii

Antagonist: None
• 3 mg/kg alfaxalone
• Isoflurane: 5% induction, 2% maintenance; oxygen 200 ml/kg/min
References: Denny, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Smeller et al., 1977; Schobert,
1987; Bush et al., 1990; Pemberton and Gales, 1991; Holz, 1992; 2008; 2014b
DHOLE, Cuon alpinus

Weight: 15–24 kg
References: Böer et al., 2002; Grassman et al., 2006; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007;
2014; Muliya et al., 2016
DIK-DIK, Madoqua kirki

Weight: 3–7 kg
Recommended Drug: 4 mg fentanyl plus 5 mg azaperone
Supplemental Drug: 1.5 mg fentanyl
Antagonist: 0.2 mg/kg naloxone
252
• 0.2 mg/kg fentanyl plus 0.4 mg/kg xylazine
Comments: Monitor for respiratory depression when using opioids.
References: Hofmeyr, 1981; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock et al.,
2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
DINGO, Canis lupus dingo

Weight: 12–15 kg
• 0.04 mg/kg etorphine plus 1 mg/kg promazine, antagonize with 0.08 mg/kg
diprenorphine
before administering yohimbine. Expect prolonged recoveries with tiletamine-
zolazepam (up to 8 hr). Helicopter darting required higher doses (8 mg/kg
ketamine plus 4 mg/kg xylazine; Thomson, 1992).
References: Heuschele, 1961a; 1961b; Wentges, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; Green,
1976; Hess and Knakal, 1985; Thomson, 1992; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014;
Hulst, 2008
DOG, BUSH, Speothos venaticus

Weight: 5–7 kg
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970
DOG, AFRICAN HUNTING, Lycaon pictus

Weight: 17–36 kg
253
• 0.1 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.04 mg/kg
naloxone and 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
• 2 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Monitor anesthetized animals for hyperthermia. If reversals appear
abnormally long (> 20 min) when using ketamine-medetomidine, consider
increasing the atipamezole dose to 0.5 mg/kg. The fentanyl-xylazine dose is
highly recommended by Van Heerden (1993) for immobilizing free-ranging adult
animals. Vocalization may occur with fentanyl immobilization
1974; Ebedes and Grobler, 1979; Van Heerden and de Vos, 1981; Genevois et al.,
1984b; Schobert, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Van Heerden et al., 1991a; 1991b;
Raath et al., 1993; 1995; Vahala, 1993; Van Heerden, 1993; Osofsky et al., 1995;
1996; Devilliers et al., 1997; Woodroffe, 2001; Fleming et al., 2006; Kock, M., et
al., 2006; Ward et al., 2006; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014; Kock and
Burroughs, 2012
DOG, FERAL DOMESTIC, Canis lupus familiaris

Weight: 5–50 kg
References: Ortega and Otter, 1967; McWade, 1982
DOG, RACCOON, Nyctereutes procyonoides

Weight: 5–8.5 kg
• 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg promazine
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.5 mg/kg butorphanol;
Comments: Monitor body temperature for hypo/hyperthermia during periods of
extreme ambient temperatures.
254
Schobert, 1987; Arnemo et al., 1993a; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
DOG, SMALL-EARED, Atelocynus microtis

Weight: 9–10 kg
Alternative Drugs: 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg promazine
References: Seal et al., 1970; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
DOLPHIN, BOTTLENOSED, Tursiops truncatus

Recommended Drug: Isoflurane (induce at 2%)
Supplemental Drug: 0.5% isoflurane
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg/kg meperidine plus 0.1 mg/kg midazolam
References: Ridgway and McCormick, 1967; Ridgway et al., 1975;
Meshcherskii et al., 1978; Joseph and Cornell, 1988; Linnehan and MacMillan,
1991; Reynolds, 1992; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Dold and Ridgway, 2007;
Blyde and Vogelnest, 2008
DOUROUCOULIS, Aotus spp.

Weight: 0.6–1 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Bush et al., 1977
DRAGON, KOMODO, Varanus komodoensis

Weight: 11–55 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 12 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg midazolam
References: Spelman et al., 1996
DUCK, MALLARD, Anas platyrhynchos

Weight: 1–1.3 kg
255
Alternative Drugs: gas (isoflurane, sevoflurane) anesthesia
• 40 mg/kg alpha-choralose given orally
Comments: Oral administration of immobilizing drugs is generally an
ineffective method of capturing birds, but may be employed when no other
alternatives exist. Be prepared for extreme variability of effects, ranging from
little or no sedation to relatively high mortality.
References: Crider et al., 1968; Crider and McDaniel, 1968; Cline and
Greenwood, 1972; Krapu, 1976; Gordon, 1977; Camburn and Stead, 1978;
Hofman and Weaver, 1980; Schobert, 1987; Rotella and Ratti, 1990; Machin and
Caulkett, 1996; 1998a; 1998b; Mulcahy, 2007
DUCK, MUSCOVY, Cairina moschata

Weight: 1.1–4 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Ducks may be sensitive to dose; insure accurate body weight.
References: Crider et al., 1968; Schobert, 1987
DUCK, WOOD, Aix sponsa

Weight 0.9–1.1 kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg propofol IV
Antagonist: None
Comments: Alternatively, ducks can be anesthetized with methoxyflurane.
References: Hepp and Manlove, 2001
DUGONG - SEE MANATEE
DUIKER, BLACK, Cephalophorus niger

Weight: 20–40 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.02 mg/kg etorphine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
yohimbine
256
Alternative Drugs: 0.026 mg/kg carfentanil; antagonize with 2.6 mg/kg
naltrexone
References: Haigh, 1976d; Frahm, 1999
DUIKER, BLUE, Cephalophorus monticola

Weight: 3.5–9 kg
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg fentanyl plus 5 mg azaperone; antagonize with 0.2
mg/kg naloxone
mg/kg yohimbine
References: IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Bailey et al., 1995; Frahm, 1999;
Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
DUIKER, COMMON (GRAY), Silivicapra grimmia

Weight: 12–25 kg
Alternative Drugs: 1 mg etorphine plus 2 mg xylazine; antagonize with 2 mg
• 1 mg thiafentanil plus 20 mg azaperone; antagonize with 15 mg naltrexone
Comments: Monitor for respiratory depression when using opioids. Long-acting
tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adult male, 15 mg; adult female, 10 mg);
zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults, 20-40 mg).
257
References: Wilson, 1967; Haigh, 1976d; Hofmeyr, 1981; Schobert, 1987;
IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Nicholls et al., 1996; Frahm, 1999; Kock, 2001;
Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
DUIKER, JENTINK’S, Cephalophorus jentinki

Weight: 20–40 kg
yohimbine
References: Haigh, 1976d
DUIKER, MAXWELL’S, Cephalophorus maxwelli

Weight: 10–15 kg
yohimbine
References: Bauditz, 1972; Haigh, 1976d; Schobert, 1987; Frahm, 1999
DUIKER, RED, Cephalophorus natalensis

Weight: 20–40 kg
mg/kg yohimbine
References: IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Frahm, 1999; Kock et el., 2006;
Kock and Burroughs, 2012
258
DUIKER, RED-FLANKED, Cephalophorus rufilatus
Weight: 20–40 kg
yohimbine
References: Young and Whyte, 1973; Haigh, 1976d
DUIKER, YELLOW-BACK, Cephalophorus sylvicultor

Weight: 45–80 kg
yohimbine
References: Haigh, 1976d
DUIKER, ZEBRA, Cephalophorus zebra

Weight: 20–40 kg
yohimbine
References: Haigh, 1976d; Frahm, 1999
EAGLE, BALD, Haliaetus leucocephalus

Weight: 3–4 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Schobert, 1987; Aguilar et al., 1996; Redig et al., 2014
EAGLE, GOLDEN, Aguila chrysaetos

Weight: 3.5–5 kg
259
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: Sevoflurane, 7% or isoflurane, 4%
References: Haupert and Lindeen, 1974; Frank and Cooper, 1974; Beck, 1976,
Clutton, 1986; Joyner et al., 2006; Redig et al., 2014
ECHIDNA, Tachyglossus aculeatus

Weight: 2.5–6 kg
• Isoflurane
References: Denny, 1974; Shima et al., 1993; Holz, 2007a; 2014a; Middleton,
2008
EEL, EUROPEAN, Anguilla anguilla

Weight: 3–7 kg
Recommended Drug: Immerse in 3.375 ml/L eugenol
Alternative Drugs: Immerse in 0.05 ml/L clove oil
Antagonist: Immerse in clean water
References: Altun et al., 2006
ELAND, Taurotragus oryx

with 0.04 mg/kg diprenorphine
yohimbine
Comments: Prone to excessive running during induction with opioids,
particularly if underdosed; monitor for hyperthermia. Opioids may increase
260
probability of regurgitation. The addition of hyaluronidase (1,500-3,000 IU) is
recommended (Kock et al., 2006). Semi-immobilized animals can be aggressive
towards humans. Yohimbine must be given to antagonize xylazine, if given.
Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults, 20 mg; subadult, 10 mg);
zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults, 100 mg; subadults, 50 mg).
References: Pistey and Wright, 1959; Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961;
Larsen, 1963; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Wright, 1963; Bigalke, 1965; Hirst et
al., 1965; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Wallach et al., 1967; Keep and Keep, 1968;
Wallach, 1968; 1969; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969b; 1973a; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970;
Harthoorn, 1971; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; York
and Huggins, 1972; Abbott, 1973; Smuts, 1973; Woolf et al., 1973; Young and
Whyte, 1973; Drevemo and Karstad, 1974; Manton and Jones, 1974; De Vos,
1975; Hertzog, 1975; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Grootenhuis et al., 1976; Haigh,
1976d; Jones, 1977; Slee and Walker, 1977; Hofmeyr, 1981; Jensen, 1982;
Janssen and Oosterhuis, 1984; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Sedgwick, 1986;
Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Ganhao et al., 1988; Allen et al.,
1991; Janssen et al., 1991; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, 2001; Pye et
al., 2001; Páras et al., 2002; Cole et al., 2005; 2006; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Ball,
2007; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014
ELAND, GIANT (LORD DERBY) - See Eland
ELEPHANT, AFRICAN, Loxodonta africana

Weight: 2,000–4,000 (f), 4,000–6,000 (m) kg
Supplemental Drug: One-third of the original dose
Antagonist: 0.009 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.03 mg/kg naltrexone
Alternative Drugs: 0.003 mg/kg thiafentanil; antagonize with 0.06 mg/kg
naltrexone
• 1.14 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.14 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.13 mg/kg
yohimbine
Comments: Hyaluronidase should be added (1,000-3,000 IU) to hasten
induction. Tranquilizers need not be added to opioids because they may prolong
recovery. However, azaperone (50 mg in an adult bull) should probably be given
IV after the animal has become immobilized to decrease the high mean arterial
blood pressure apparently caused by opioids which can result in lung edema and
capillary bleeding (see Raath, 1993). Dart needles should be ≥ 60 mm in length
and 3 mm in diameter. Avoid shoulder shots which may strike the ear or the dart
may be reached and pulled out by the trunk. Place immobilized elephant in
lateral recumbency; do not allow animal to remain in sternal recumbency. Insure
261
that breathing through the trunk is unimpaired. Supplemental oxygen is highly
recommended (see Horne et al., 2001). Younger and older animals are the most
sensitive to etorphine. Monitor respirations closely. Butorphanol at 5 mg
increments can be used to improve respiratory rate (Kock and Burroughs, 2012).
Body temperature ranges from 37–39.9º C (96.3–99.5º F), but may decline
during immobilization to 35º C (95º F). Agitated or aggressive animals may
require higher doses of recommended drug. Be sure to flush all dart wounds with
antimicrobial solution to prevent abscesses. The mother of a calf to be
immobilized must also be immobilized because she will not leave it. Standing
sedation might be achieved in captive animals using 0.01 mg/kg medetomidine
and 0.03 mg/kg butorphanol (Lüders et al., 2016).
References: Harthoorn, 1960; 1963d; 1965a; 1972a; 1973a; 1973b; 1974; 1976;
Harthoorn et al., 1961; Harthoorn and Luck, 1962; Pienaar, 1963; 1967b; 1969a;
1969b; Harthoorn and Bligh, 1965; Somers, 1965; Pienaar et al., 1966a; 1966b;
Ericksen, 1968; Pienaar, 1968a; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Wallach and Anderson,
1968; Lietsch, 1969; Woodford et al., 1972; Young, 1972; Alford et al., 1974;
Elder and Rogers, 1974; Eltringham, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; De Vos, 1975;
1985a; Ebedes, 1975b; Röken, 1975; Smuts, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Silberman,
1977; Haigh et al., 1979; Fowler, 1981b; Wiesner et al., 1982; Tamas and Geiser,
1983; Dunlop et al., 1984; Hattingh et al., 1984; Jacobson and Kollias, 1984;
Bengis et al., 1985; Jacobson et al., 1985; 1986; 1987; 1988; Trembath, 1985;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Allen, 1986a; 1986b; Heard et al., 1986; 1988;
Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Kock, R. et al., 1989; 1993; Welsch
et al., 1989; Janssen et al., 1991; IWVS, 1992; Raath, 1993; Still, 1993; Hattingh
et al., 1994a; 1994b; Osofsky, 1995; 1997; Schumacher et al., 1996; Still et al.,
1996; Raath, 1999; Horne et al., 2001; Ramsay, 2000; Neiffer et al., 2005; Kock,
M., et al., 2006; Horne and Loomis, 2007; 2014; Kock and Burroughs, 2012;
Lüders et al., 2016
ELEPHANT, ASIAN, Elaphus maximus

Weight: 2,300–3,700 kg (f), 3,700–4,500 (m) kg
Supplemental Drug: 2 mg etorphine, as needed to maintain immobilization
Comments: Xylazine (0.1 mg/kg) or medetomidine (0.005 mg/kg) are capable
of producing profound sedation (see Bongso, 1979; Schmidt, 1975; 1983; Sarma
et al., 2002; 2004). Hyaluronidase may be added (4,500 IU) to hasten induction.
Immobilized elephants suffer fewer respiratory problems when in lateral, as
opposed to sternal, recumbency. Body temperature ranges from 37–39.9½ C
(96.3–99.5½ F), but may decline during immobilization to 35½ C (95½ F).
262
Standing sedation might also be achieved using detomidine and butorphanol
(Bouts et al., 2017).
References Kodituwakku et al., 1961; Larsen, 1963; Wallach, 1969; Gray and
Nettashinghe, 1970; Jainudeen, 1970; Jainudeen et al., 1971; Fowler, 1973;
1981b; Fowler and Hart, 1973; Alford et al., 1974; Schmidt, 1975a; 1975b; 1985;
Jainudeen and Khan, 1977; Bongso et al., 1978; Bongso 1979; 1980;
Muraleedharan et al., 1979; Jarofke, 1981a; 1981b; Byron et al., 1985; Lateur
and Stolk, 1986; Sale, et al., 1986; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Kock et al., 1993;
Johnsingh et al., 1993; Silva and Kuruwita, 1993; Page, 1994; Schmitt et al.,
1996; Fowler et al., 1999; Fowler et al., 2000; Dangolla et al., 2004; Sarma et al.,
2002; 2004; Saravanan et al., 2013; Bouts et al., 2017
ELK, NORTH AMERICAN, Cervus canadensis

Recommended Drug: 46 mg butorphanol plus 30 mg azaperone plus 18 mg
medetomidine (BAM) total adult dose
Antagonist: 25 mg atipamezole plus 600 mg tolazoline total dose
diprenorphine plus 2 mg/kg tolazoline
atipamezole
• 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.4 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2
mg/kg tolazoline
• 0.1 mg/kg sufentanil plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 1 mg/kg
• 80 mg nalbuphine plus 20 mg medetomidine plus 20 mg azaperone total dose;
antagonize with 50 mg naltrexone plus 600 mg tolazoline plus 100 mg
atipamezole (administered 5 minutes after naltrexone-tolazoline)*
• 0.04 mg/kg thiafentanil; antagonize with 1 mg/kg naltrexone
• 2 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize with 2 mg/kg tolazoline (calm or captive elk
only)
Comments: Monitor elk carefully for overheating or bloat. Underdosing with
etorphine can cause hyperexcitability; use a minimum of 0.02 mg/kg etorphine.
For highly excited elk, the carfentanil dose can be increased to 0.013 mg/kg; the
xylazine dose remains the same (i.e., 0.1 mg/kg). Long-acting tranquilizers have
been used successfully to reduce stress in wild-caught elk (Read et al., 2000a;
263
2000b). Once immobilized, the addition of a small amount of naloxone (2 mg
naloxone per mg carfentanil given) may improve oxygenation (Moresco et al.,
2001); however, monitor the animal closely for spontaneous recovery. Walter et
al. (2005) used tiletamine-zolazepam plus xylazine in transmitter darts.
Yohimbine at 0.125 mg/kg can be substituted for 2 mg/kg tolazoline. The BAM
total dose is approximately 0.17 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.11 mg/kg azaperone
plus 0.07 mg/kg medetomidine (Wolfe et al., 2014c). *Doses based on limited
data on captive elk (Wolfe et al., 2014a).
References: Post, 1959; Heuschele, 1961a; Thomas, 1961; Flook et al., 1962;
Larsen, 1963; Harper, 1964; 1965; Denney, 1965; 1966; Day, 1969; Seal and
Erickson, 1969; Sedgwick and Acosta, 1969; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Seal et
al., 1970; Woolf and Swart, 1970; Guinness et al., 1971; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and
Rivenburg, 1972; Thurmon et al., 1972; York and Huggins, 1972; Woolf et al.,
1973; Gray et al., 1974; Woolf, 1974; Coggins, 1975; Hertzog, 1975; Pedersen
and Pedersen, 1975; Pedersen and Thomas, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975;
Wentges, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; 1977; Farnsworth and Stowe, 1976; Haigh,
1976d; 1990b; 1991; 1993; Varland, 1976; Magonigle et al., 1977; Keep, 1979;
Jarofke, 1980; Jessup et al., 1980; 1985b; Amstrup et al., 1982; Hebert et al.,
1982; Thorne, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Carpenter and Lance, 1983;
Jones, 1984; Meulman et al., 1984; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Stanley et al.,
1984; 1988; 1989; Bailey et al., 1985; Olsen and Renecker, 1985; Rolfe and
Haigh, 1985; Renecker and Olsen, 1986; Sedgwick, 1986; Haigh, 1987;
Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Franzmann and Lance, 1988;
McCorquodale et al., 1988; Greene, 1988; Golightly and Hofstra, 1989; Jalanka
and Roeken, 1990; Starke, 1991; Renecker et al., 1992; Haigh and Hudson, 1993;
McJames et al., 1993; Smith et al., 1993; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Millspaugh et
al., 1995; Miller et al., 1996; Moresco et al., 2000; 2001; Read et al., 2000a;
2000b; 2001; Cattet et al., 2004; Walter et al., 2005; Paterson et al., 2006; 2009;
Caulkett and Haigh, 2007a; Rosatte, 2007; Kreeger et al., 2010; 2011; Caulkett
and Arnemo, 2014; Wolfe et al., 2014a; 2014b; 2014c
ELK, ROOSEVELT, Cervus canadensis roosevelti

Weight: 265–284 (f), 318–499 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg etorphine plus 20 mg acepromazine
Comments: Roosevelt elk appear to require a higher dose of etorphine
compared to North American elk (Hebert et al., 1982).
References: Harper, 1965; Thorne, 1982; Hebert et al., 1982; Carpenter and
Lance, 1983; Schaefer et al., 2009
264
ELK, TULE, Cervus canadensis nannodes
Alternative Drugs: 0.02 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.24 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize
with 2 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Alford et al., 1974; Hebert et al., 1982; Thorne, 1982; Carpenter
and Lance, 1983; Greene, 1988
EMU, Dromaius novaehollandiae

Weight: 40–55 kg
Antagonist: None
• 0.18 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 5
mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Xylazine use should be avoided in very sick birds. The thiafentanil-
medetomidine dose was used successfully to immobilize captive emu which were
subsequently placed on isoflurane; monitor respiration and oxygen
concentrations carefully if using thiafentanil (Cushing and McClean, 2010). Also
see Ostrich for additional comments
References: Beck, 1972; 1976; Schobert, 1987; Matthews, 1993; Jensen et al.,
1994; Siegal-Willot, 2007; 2014; Cushing and McClean, 2010
ERMINE, Mustela erminea

Weight: 50–365 g
Recommended Drug: 0.005 mg/g ketamine plus 0.0001 mg/g medetomidine
Antagonist: 0.0005 mg/g atipamezole; give 1/2 dose IV, 1/2 IM
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Genevois et al., 1984b;
Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Belant, 1992; Kollias and
Abou-Madi, 2007
ESEL - SEE ASS, WILD
FALCON, PEREGRINE, Falco peregrinus
265
Recommended Drug: 30 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.2 mg/kg diazepam, IV
Supplemental Drug: 5 mg/kg ketamine, IV
Antagonist: None
References: Borzio, 1973; Beck, 1976; Redig and Duke, 1976
FALCON, PRAIRIE, Falco mexicanus

Antagonist: None
FANALOKA - SEE FOSSA
FERRET, BLACK-FOOTED, Mustela nigripes

Alternative Drugs: 35 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/kg diazepam
References: Thorne et al., 1985; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Gaynor et al., 1997;
Kreeger et al., 1998; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
FERRET, Mustela putorius

References: Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Carpenter
and Hillman, 1978; Garver and Jackson, 1985; Moreland and Glaser, 1985;
Schobert, 1987; Payton and Pick, 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Marini et al.,
1994; Gaynor et al., 1997; Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2003; Kollias and Abou-
Madi, 2007
266
FISH, GENERAL
Recommended Drug: 50-100 mg tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) per liter
(1,000 ml) water buffered to pH 7.0-7.5
Antagonist: Place fish in clean water (no anesthetic)
Alternative Drugs: 60–200 mg/L isoeugenol
Comments: Use higher dose rates for smaller fish and lower dose rates for
larger fish. The longer the fish is immersed in the anesthetic solution, the longer
the duration of effect. The isoeugenol dose was developed for koi, but may be
applicable to other fish (Gladden et al., 2008; Silbernagel and Yochem, 2016). A
good discussion of fish anesthesia along with species-specific doses can be found
in Mylniczenko et al. (2014a; 2014b). Propofol or ketamine-xylazine may be
considered for larger fish (see Miller, S. M. et al., 2005; Al-Hamdani et al.,
2010). Although alfaxalone might be contraindicated (Bailey et al., 2014), it
appeared to work satisfactorily in koi (Minter et al., 2014).
References: McFarland and Klontz, 1969; Wedemeyer, 1970; Houston et al.,
1971; Jolly et al., 1972; Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Sylvester, 1975; Smit et al.,
1979; Smit and Hattingh, 1979; Genevois et al., 1983a; Cooper, 1984; Sedgwick,
1986; Harvey et al., 1988; Akhari and Dehghani, 1993; Brown, 1993;
Malmstrom et al., 1993; Williams et al., 1993; Harms and Bakal, 1994; Sylvia et
al., 1994; Redman et al., 1998; Sladky et al., 1999a; 2001; Harms, 1999; Ross
and Ross, 1999; Chittick et al., 2000a; Fleming et al., 2003; Hansen et al., 2003;
Iversen et al., 2003; Pirhonen and Schreck, 2003; Small, 2003; Bressler and Ron,
2004; Davis and Griffin, 2004; Williams et al., 2004; Miller et al., 2005;
Roubach et al., 2005; Velisek et al., 2005; Guenette et al., 2007; Neiffer, 2007;
Gladden et al., 2008; Altun et al., 2009; Neiffer and Stamper, 2009; Weber et al.,
2009; Zahl et al., 2009; Al-Hamdani et al., 2010; Bircan-Yildrim et al., 2010;
Carter et al., 2011; DiMarco et al., 2011; Yamanaka et al., 2011; Posner et al.,
2013; Bailey et al., 2014; Minter et al., 2014; Mylniczenko et al., 2014a; 2014b;
Oda et al., 2014; Wargo Rub et al., 2014; Bugman et al., 2016; Silbernagel and
Yochem, 2016; Balko et al., 2017
FISHER, Martes pennanti

References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Jessup et al., 1980;
Jessup, 1982b; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Belant, 1991; Schwantje et al., 1998;
267
Mitcheltree et al., 1999; Dzialak et al., 2001; 2002; Dzialak and Serfass, 2003;
Belant, 2007; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
FOX, ARCTIC, Alopex lagopus

Weight: 2.5–9 kg
Comments: Lower doses of tiletamine-zolazepam (e.g., 5 mg/kg) may be
effective on calm animals.
References: Heuschele, 1959; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970;
Jalanka, 1987; Röken, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Barnett and Lewis, 1990;
Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Aguirre et al., 1998; 2000; Fuglei et al., 2002;
Samelius et al., 2003; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FOX, BAT-EARED, Otocyon megalotis

Weight: 3–5.3 kg
Alternative Drugs: 8 mg/kg ketamine and 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; McKenzie and
Burroughs, 1993; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FOX, CAPE, Vulpes chama

Weight: 4 kg
Alternative Drugs: 8 mg/kg ketamine and 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
Comments: Use lightweight darts at low power settings.
References: McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007
FOX, CRAB-EATING, Cerdocyon thous

Weight: 6–7 kg
268
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Curi and Talamoni,
2006; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FOX, FENNEC, Vulpes zerda

Weight: 1–1.5 kg
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Boever et al., 1977;
Schobert, 1987; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007
FOX, FLYING - SEE BATS, GENERAL
FOX, GRAY, Urocyon cinereoargenteus

Weight: 2.5–7 kg
References: Kroll, 1962; Murry and Dennett, 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969;
Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Brooks and Morris, 1979; Jessup et al., 1980;
Jessup, 1982b; Hoilien and Oates, 1982; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987;
Servin and Huxley, 1992; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FOX, HOARY, Lycalopex (Pseudalopex) vetulus

Weight: 3–4 kg
References: Pesutti et al., 2001; Curi and Talamoni, 2006; Larsen and Kreeger,
2007; 2014
FOX, INDIAN (BENGAL), Vulpes bengalensis

Weight: 1-4 kg
269
References: Belsare and Vanak, 2013
FOX, KIT, Vulpes macrotis

Weight: 3 kg
Jessup, 1982b; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FOX, PALE, Vulpes pallida

Supplemental Drug: 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Kreeger, 1992; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FOX, PAMPAS, Lycalopex (Pseudalopex) gymnocerus

Weight: 2.4–8 kg
References: Luengos Vidal et al., 2014
FOX, RED, Vulpes vulpes

Weight: 4.1–4.5 (f), 4.5–5.4 (m) kg
• 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize with 0.15 mg/kg
yohimbine
• 25 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg midazolam
270
• 0.01 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.57 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.45 mg/kg
midazolam; antagonize with 0.1 mg/kg atipamezole
• 0.15 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.4 mg/kg atipamezole (trapped
animals only)
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Seal et al.,
1970; Gray et al., 1974; Ramsden et al., 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Brooks and
Morris, 1979; Jessup et al., 1980; Jessup, 1982b; Hoilien and Oates, 1982;
Genevois et al., 1984b; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987; Seal and
Kreeger, 1987; Kreeger et al., 1989b; 1990a; 1990b; 1990c; Travaini et al., 1992;
Travaini and Delibes, 1994; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014; Baldwin et al.,
2008; Bertelsen and Villadsen, 2009; Shilo et al., 2010; Liptovszky and Szilasi,
2017
FOX, SOUTH AMERICAN, Pseudalopex spp.

Weight: 8–13 kg
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Larsen and Kreeger,
2007; 2014; Acosta-Jamett et al., 2010
FOX, SWIFT, Vulpes velox

Weight: 1.8–3 kg
Jessup, 1982b; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Telesco and Sovada, 2002; Larsen and
Kreeger, 2007; 2014
FROGS - SEE AMPHIBIANS, GENERAL
271
GALAGO, Galago senegalensis
Weight: 120–300 g
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; 1976; Gray et al., 1974; Schobert,
1987; Williams and Junge, 2007
GALAGO, THICK-TAILED, Otolemur crassicaudatus

Weight: 0.6–2 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Also known as greater bush baby.
1974; Burroughs, 1993c; Williams and Junge, 2007
GAUR, Bos gaurus

Recommended Drug: 0.015 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.2 mg/kg xylazine
Antagonist: 0.15 mg/kg naltrexone plus 2 mg/kg tolazoline
Alternative Drugs: 0.02 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.2 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.08
mg/kg acepromazine; antagonize with 0.02 mg/kg diprenorphine
naltrexone 0.1 mg/kg yohimbine
• 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine (calm animals)
References: Bauditz, 1972; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; Wiesner
et al., 1982; Conroy, 1986; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Armstrong, 1981; Allen
et al., 1991; Wilson, et al. 1993; Curro, 2007; Napier et al., 2011; Napier and
Armstrong, 2014
GAZELLE, DAMA, Gazella dama

Weight: 20–60 kg
Recommended Drug: 2.4 mg etorphine
Antagonist: 5.8 mg diprenorphine
272
naltrexone
• 4 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine (calm animals
only)
Comments: Prone to excessive running during induction with carfentanil;
monitor for hyperthermia. A lower carfentanil dose (0.018 mg/kg) may be
suitable for captive animals.
References: Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Röken, 1975; Jensen,
1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Wallace and Bush, 1987; Jacobson and Lukas, 1988; Allen et al., 1991;
Schumacher et al., 1995; Schumacher et al., 1997a; West, 2007
GAZELLE, DORCAS, Gazella dorcas

Weight: 20–60 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.5 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1.56 mg/kg azaperone
Antagonist: 1 mg/kg naltrexone
monitor for hyperthermia.
References: Gray et al., 1974; Wiesner et al., 1982; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Schobert, 1987; Greth et al., 1993; West, 2007
GAZELLE, GRANT’S, Gazella granti

Weight: 20–60 kg
Antagonist: None
naltrexone
References: Talbot and Lamprey, 1961; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Gray et al.,
1974; Jensen, 1982; Schobert, 1987; West, 2007
GAZELLE, MOUNTAIN, Gazella gazella

Weight: 20 kg
273
Recommended Drug: 2.5 mg etorphine
References: Baharav and Tadmor, 1981; Wiesner et al., 1982; Furley, 1986;
Greth et al., 1993; Rietjkerk and Delima, 1994; Rietjkerk et al., 1994; Foster,
1999; West, 2007
GAZELLE, PERSIAN, Gazella subgutturosa

Weight: 20–60 kg
Recommended Drug 10 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
Antagonist 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine or 2 mg/kg tolazoline
Alternative Drugs 0.5 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1.56 mg/kg azaperone
References: York and Huggins, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Rapley and Mehren,
1975; Schobert, 1987; Allen et al., 1991; Greth et al., 1993; Foster, 1999;
Yaralioglu-Gurgoze et al., 2005; West, 2007; Martin-Jurado et al., 2011
GAZELLE, SLENDER-HORNED, Gazella leptoceros

Weight: 20–60 kg
Antagonist: None
naltrexone
References: Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987; Allen et al., 1991
GAZELLE, SOEMMERINGS, Gazella soemmerringi
274
Weight: 20–60 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.5 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1.56 mg/kg azaperone
naltrexone
References: Schobert, 1987; Greth et al., 1993; West, 2007
GAZELLE, THOMSON’S, Gazella thomsonii

Weight: 20–27 kg
Recommended Drug: 1.5 mg etorphine plus 10 mg ketamine plus 10 mg
xylazine
yohimbine
• 1.2 mg carfentanil (males); 1 mg carfentanil (females); antagonize with 120 mg
naltrexone (both sexes)
References: Kroll, 1962; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Bauditz, 1972; Jones, 1972;
1978; Gray et al., 1974; Haigh, 1976d; Schobert, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Allen
et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 1992; Greth et al., 1993; Chittick et al., 2002a; West,
2007
GEMSBOK, Oryx gazella

Antagonist: 0.3 mg/kg mg naltrexone
Alternative Drugs: 0.04 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine plus
1 mg/kg ketamine; antagonize with 1.2 mg/kg mg naltrexone plus 0.16 mg/kg
atipamezole
275
• 0.03 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.04 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize with 0.06 mg/kg
diprenorphine (or 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone)
• 3.5 mg etorphine plus 50 mg ketamine plus 50 mg xylazine; antagonize with 7
mg/kg yohimbine
• 0.02 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.1 mg/kg xylazine; 2 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125
mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Gemsbok are profoundly sensitive to xylazine; antagonism is
essential. Azaperone (100 mg) or detomidine (10 mg) may be substituted for
xylazine. Hyaluronidase (1,500-3,000 IU) may be added to dart to increase drug
absorption. Semi-immobilized animals may show aggression towards humans;
when immobilized restrain horns at all times. Once down, 100 mg ketamine IV
may improve immobilization. Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol
(adults, not to exceed 20 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults,
100-200 mg).
References: Heuschele, 1961a; Ebedes, 1962; 1966b; 1967; 1969; 1975a;
Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Lanphear, 1963; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969b; 1973a; Bauditz,
1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; York and Huggins, 1972; Lyon
and Dinning, 1973; Smuts, 1973; Young and Whyte, 1973; Gray et al., 1974; De
Vos, 1975; Hertzog, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; Haigh,
1976d; De Vos 1978; Jessup et al., 1980; Hofmeyr, 1981; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner
et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Sedgwick,
1986; Schobert, 1987; Kock, R., et al., 1989; Allen et al., 1991; Berry, 1992;
IWVS, 1992; Snyder et al., 1992; Majonica and Bonath, 1993; Burroughs,
1993d; Grobler et al., 2001; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kilgallon et al., 2010; Kock
and Burroughs, 2012
GENET, Genetta spp.

Weight: 1–3 kg
Antagonist: None
Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987; Maddock, 1989; Fuller et al., 1990;
McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Palomares, 1993; Kock, M., et al., 2006
GERBILS, GENERAL
276
Weight: 30–200 g
Recommended Drug: 0.044 mg/g ketamine plus 0.006 mg/g xylazine
• 0.05 mg/g ketamine plus 0.005 mg/g diazepam
• 0.075 mg/g ketamine plus 0.003 mg/g acepromazine
• 0.005 mg/g tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Beck, 1976; Lightfoote and Molinari, 1978; Flecknell et al., 1983;
Genevois et al., 1984a; Garver and Jackson, 1985
GERENUK, Litocranius walleri

Weight: 28–52 kg
References: Ball, 2007
GIBBON, GRAY (BORNEAN), Hylobates muelleri

Weight: 2–4 kg
medetomidine
Supplemental Drug: 0.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Fahlman et al., 2006
GIBBON, SIAMANG, Hylobates syndactylus

Weight: 8–13 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Kroll, 1962; Gray et al., 1974; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987
GIBBON, WHITE-CHEEKED (CRESTED), Hylobates concolor

Weight: 4–8 kg
277
Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987
GIBBON, WHITE-HANDED (LAR), Hylobates lar

Weight: 4–8 kg
References: Kroll, 1962; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck,
1972; 1976; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Jessup et al., 1980; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka
and Roeken, 1990; Mortenson, 1994; Ølberg, 2007
GIRAFFE, Giraffa camelopardalis

Recommended Drug: 20 mg thiafentanil (males); 14 mg thiafentanil (females)
Supplemental Drug: 5 mg thiafentanil
Antagonist: 200 mg naltrexone IM (males); 140 mg (females)
Alternative Drugs: 16 mg etorphine (bull), 12 mg etorphine (cow), 8 mg
etorphine (young); antagonize with 32 mg (bull), 24 mg (cow), 16 mg (young)
diprenorphine; or 10 mg naltrexone for every mg etorphine given
• 1,200 mg ketamine plus 70 mg medetomidine (adult male); 900 mg ketamine
plus 50 mg medetomidine (adult female); 500 mg ketamine plus 20 mg
medetomidine (subadult); antagonize with 5 mg atipamezole for every mg
medetomidine given (captive animals; Lamberski et al., 2004)
• 0.007 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.016 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.5 mg/kg
ketamine; antagonize with 30 mg naltrexone per mg thiafentanil given plus 5
mg atipamezole for every mg medetomidine given (free-ranging, ground darted
animals only; Citino and Bush, 2007)
• 8 mg carfentanil plus 100 mg xylazine plus 10 mg atropine; antagonize with
800 mg naltrexone plus 0.05 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Immobilization mortality can be as high as 35% in giraffes. The
current capture philosophy for giraffes is to dose high and quickly antagonize
(i.e., within 5 min) after physical restraint has been achieved. If possible, a
physical restraining device should be used in preference to, or in conjunction
with, chemical immobilization. Subadult doses are generally one-half of the adult
dose. The main complications are vomiting-regurgitation, respiratory depression,
cardiac emergencies, self-induced trauma, and capture myopathy. Do not attempt
278
immobilization without expert consultation and thorough familiarity with the
literature (e.g., Morkel, 1993b; Kock et al., 2006; Citino and Bush, 2007; Kock
and Burroughs, 2012) and always work with someone with experience. Support
the head and neck with a board or ladder so that the head is above the rumen and
nose is pointed down to drain any fluids. Blood pressure must be maintained in
order to perfuse the brain. Opioids cause profound respiratory depression.
Capture must not be attempted if ambient temperature is >25½ C (77½ F).
Hyaluronidase (2,000-5,000 IU) can be added to the drug mixture to increase
absorption. In general, antagonists should be given IM, rather than IV, to achieve
a more controlled recovery. Noninvasive anesthetic monitoring should be
interpreted with caution (Bertelsen et al., 2017). Long-acting tranquilizer doses:
haloperidol (adult male, 30 mg; adult female, 20 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg;
perphenazine (adult male, 100 mg; subadults, 150 mg). Standing sedation might
be achieved using detomidine and butorphanol (Bouts et al., 2017).
References: Goetz, 1955; Buechner et al., 1960a; 1960c; Harthoorn, 1960;
1963a; 1965a; 1973a; 1973b; Harthoorn and Lock, 1961; Talbot and Lamprey,
1961; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Larsen, 1963; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Van
Niekerk and Pienaar, 1963a; 1969a; Pienaar and Fairall, 1963; Wright, 1963;
Graham-Jones, 1964; Harthoorn and Bligh, 1965; Hirst et al., 1965; Hirst, 1966;
Pienaar et al., 1966a; Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Williamson and
Wallach, 1968; 1969; Sedgwick and Acosta, 1969; York and Kidder, 1971;
Harthoorn, 1972a; Jones, 1972; Langman, 1973; Alford et al., 1974; De Vos,
1975; Hertzog, 1975; Mehren and Rapley, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975;
Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Bush, 1976; Bush et al., 1976; 1980; 2001; Haigh,
1976d; Wiesner et al., 1982; Citino et al., 1984; Meltzer et al., 1985; Savage,
1985; Hugues et al., 1986; Sedgwick, 1986; Bush and De Vos, 1987; Calle and
Bornmann, 1988; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1989; Geiser et al., 1992; Morkel,
1992b; IWVS, 1992; Morkel, 1993b; Kato and Seino, 1996; Fischer et al., 1997;
Vogelnest and Ralph, 1997; Lamberski et al., 2004; Citino et al., 2006; Kock, M.,
et al., 2006; Citino and Bush, 2007; 2014; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Bertelsen
et al., 2017; Bouts et al., 2017
GLIDER, SUGAR, Petaruus breviceps

Weight: 90–130 g
Antagonist: None
• Isoflurane; induction 5%; maintenance 2%; oxygen 200 ml/kg/min
279
Comments: Caution: Holz (1992) reported 100% mortality (n = 3) in squirrel
gliders (Petaurus norfolcensis ) given 10 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Bush et al., 1990; Holz, 1992; 2007b; 2014b; Johnson and
Hemsley, 2008
GNU - SEE WILDEBEEST
GOAT, FERAL, Capra hircus

Weight: 20–80 kg
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Rudge and
Joblin, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Merilan, 1986; Schobert, 1987; Sleeman and
Ramsay, 1995; Sleeman et al., 1997a; Mutlow et al., 2004
GOAT, MOUNTAIN, Oreamnos americanus

Weight: 46–140 kg
Recommended Drug: 4 mg etorphine plus 30 mg xylazine
antagonize with 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole; give 1/2 dose IV, 1/2 IM (captive
animals)
• 0.1 mg/kg thiafentanil; antagonize with 2.5 mg/kg naltrexone
• 5 mg/kg xylazine (trapped animals only; see Haviernick et al., 1998)
References: Hebert and Cowan, 1971; McKean and Magonigle, 1978; Jessup et
al., 1980; Thorne, 1982; Carpenter and Lance, 1983; Côté et al., 1998;
Haviernick et al., 1998; Jessup, 1999; Caulkett and Haigh, 2007b
GOOSE, CANADA, Branta canadensis

280
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: Gas anesthesia
References: Crider and McDaniel, 1966; 1967; 1968; Crider et al., 1968;
Krapu, 1976; Belant and Seamans, 1997
GOOSE, EGYPTIAN, Alopechen aegyptiacus

Antagonist: None
References: Schobert, 1987
GOOSE, LESSER MAGELLAN, Chlorphaga picta

Antagonist: None
GOOSE, WHITE-FRONTED, Anserini albiforns frontalis

Antagonist: None
GORILLA, Gorilla gorilla

Weight: 70–140 (f), 135–275 (m) kg
Comments: Oral ketamine and detomidine have been used with partial success
in captive gorillas (Miller et al., 2000). When using ketamine-medetomidine,
allow 10 minutes to elapse after administration to avoid sudden arousal.
Recoveries can be quite sudden, with or without atipamezole; monitor depth of
anesthesia closely.
281
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Marsboom et al., 1962; 1963; Seal et al.,
1970a; 1970b; Beck, 1972; Bush et al., 1971; 1977; Beck and Dresner, 1972;
Gray et al., 1974; Vercruysse and Mortelmans, 1978; Jessup et al., 1980; Ludders
et al., 1982; Cook and Clarke, 1984; 1985; Hess and Knakal, 1985; Robinson and
Lambert, 1986; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Horne et al., 1997;
Sleeman et al., 1998; 2000; Vogelnest, 1998; Miller et al., 2000; Raphael et al.,
2001; Hunter et al., 2004; Masters et al., 2007; Sleeman, 2007; Cerveny and
Sleeman, 2014
GOSHAWK, Accipiter gentilis

Antagonist: None
References: Borzio, 1973; Beck, 1976; Lumeij, 1986
GRISON, LESSER, Galictis cuja

Antagonist: None given
References: Luengos Vidal et al., 2016
GRIVET, Cercopithecus aethiops

Weight: 5–9 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1976; Schobert, 1987
GRYSBOK, Raphicerus melanotis

Weight: 7–16 kg
Supplemental Drug: 2.5 mg/kg fentanyl
282
mg/kg yohimbine
References: Burroughs, 1993d; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
GRYSBOK, SHARPE’S, Raphicerus sharpei

Weight: 7–16 kg
mg/kg yohimbine
References: Burroughs, 1993d; Kock et el., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
GUANACO, Lama guanicoe

mg/kg butorphanol; antagonize with 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole plus 3 mg/kg
naltrexone
• 8 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.2 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.35 mg/kg midazolam;
Comments: Although Jones (1977a) stated that the use of opioids was
contraindicated, the use of butorphanol combined with ketamine and
medetomidine (Georoff et al., 2010) provided excellent immobilization in captive
animals.
References: Larsen, 1963; Bauditz, 1972; Beck, 1972; Jones, 1972; Hertzog,
1975; Haigh, 1976d; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; De Lamo and Garrido, 1983;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990;
283
Sarno et al., 1996; Karesh et al., 1998; Georoff et al., 2010; Mama and Walzer,
2014
GUEMAL - SEE HUEMEL
GUENONS - SEE MONKEY (GUENON)
GUINEA PIG, Cavia spp.

Antagonist: None
References: Love, 1970; Rubright and Thayer, 1970; Weisbroth and Fudens,
1972; Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Hughes et al., 1975; Mulder et al., 1979; Gilroy
and Varga, 1980; Genevois et al., 1984a; Garver and Jackson, 1985; Henke et al.,
1996
GUINEAFOWL, Numida meleagris

Weight: 3–5 kg
Recommended Drug: 15 mg/kg ketamine plus 2.5 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.3
mg/kg midazolam
References: Teare, 1987; Ajadi, et al. 2009
GYRFALCON, Falco rusticolus

Antagonist: None
HAMSTERS, GENERAL
Weight: 112–908 g
284
Alternative Drugs: 0.01 mg/g tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Hughes et al., 1975; Mulder et al., 1979; Genevois et al., 1984a;
Garver and Jackson, 1985; Forsyth et al., 1992
HARE, EUROPEAN BROWN, Lepus europaeus

Weight: 3–5 kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.25 mg/kg acepromazine plus
0.0125 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
Supplemental Drug: 6 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.15 mg/kg acepromazine plus
0.0075 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
References: Gerritsmann et al., 2012; Pia Pasolini et al., 2013
HARTEBEEST, Alcelaphus buselaphus

Recommended Drug: 6 mg etorphine plus 80 mg azaperone (bull); 5 mg
etorphine plus 70 mg azaperone (cow)
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg thiafentanil; antagonize with 100 mg naltrexone
Comments: Difficult to immobilize, often struggle against recumbency and
continue to run. Once down, ketamine (50 mg IV) can be given to help manage
the animal. Medetomidine (5 mg) or xylazine (10 mg) may be substituted for
azaperone, but azaperone works well in this species. Long-acting tranquilizer
doses: haloperidol (adult male, 30 mg; adult female, 20 mg; subadult, 10 mg);
zuclopenthixol (adults, 100 mg); perphenazine (adults, 100 mg).
References: Buechner et al., 1960a; 1960c; Lanphear, 1963; Bigalke, 1965;
Pienaar et al., 1966a; Pienaar, 1969b; 1973a; Harthoorn, 1971; Bartmann, 1972;
Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Kok, 1973; Hirst et al., 1965; De Vos,
1975; Röken, 1975; Grootenhuis et al., 1976; Haigh, 1976d; Slee and Walker,
1977; Hofmeyr, 1981; Kupper et al., 1981; Jensen, 1982; Ganhao et al., 1988;
Berry, 1992; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and
Burroughs, 2012
HARTEBEEST, LICHTENSTEIN'S, Sigmoceros lichtensteinii
285
Recommended Drug: 0.02 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.008 mg/kg medetomidine
plus 1 mg/kg ketamine
Supplemental Drug: repeat full dose if not down in 15 minuntes
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg etorphine plus 80 mg azaperone; antagonize with 10
mg diprenorphine or 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone
• 5 mg thiafentanil plus 80 mg azaperone; antagonize with 50 naltrexone
Comments: Once down, ketamine (50 mg IV) can be given to help manage the
animal.
References: Citino et al., 2002; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs,
2012
HAWK, BROAD-WINGED, Buteo platypterus

Antagonist: None
References: Mattingly, 1972; Redig and Duke, 1976; Freed and Baker, 1980;
1989; Jessup et al., 1980
HAWK, RED-SHOULDERED, Buteo lineatus

Recommended Drug: 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg acepromazine
Antagonist: None
References: Jessup et al., 1980
HAWK, RED-TAILED, Buteo jamaicensis

Alternative Drugs: 35 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.5 mg/kg diazepam, IV
286
• 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg acepromazine
• Isoflurane
Comments: Tiletamine-zolazepam in these hawks caused copious salivation and
less than satisfactory immobilization (Kreeger et al., 1993).
References: Kittle, 1972; Mattingly, 1972; Borzio, 1973; Frank and Cooper,
1974; Haupert and Lindeen, 1974; Cooper and Redig, 1975; Beck, 1976; Redig
and Duke, 1976; Kollias and McLeish, 1978; Freed and Baker, 1980; 1989;
Jessup et al., 1980; Degernes et al., 1988; Fitzgerald, 1993; Kreeger et al., 1993;
Hawkins et al., 2003
HAWK, ROUGH-LEGGED, Buteo lagopus

Weight: 700 g
Recommended Drug: 0.03 mg/g ketamine plus 0.0012 mg/g diazepam IV
Supplemental Drug: 0.005 mg/g ketamine IV
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 0.02 mg/g ketamine plus 0.002 mg/g acepromazine
References: Redig and Duke, 1976
HAWKS, GENERAL
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine
Comments: Tiletamine-zolazepam in some hawks may cause copious salivation
and less than satisfactory immobilization. Oral tiletamine-zolazepam in baits
might be effective in hawks (Janovsky et al., 2002)
References: Redig and Duke, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Amand, 1982a;
Janovsky et al., 2002; Kilic and Pasa, 2009; Redig et al., 2014
HEDGEHOG, Erinaceus europaeus

Recommended Drug: 2 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.1
mg/kg fentanyl
Antagonist: 1 mg/kg atipamezole plus 0.16 mg/kg naloxone
287
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize
with 1 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Expect prolonged recoveries with tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka
and Roeken, 1990; Arnemo and SØ li, 1995a; Heard, 2007a
HERON, GREEN, Butorides virescens

Weight: 100 g
Antagonist: None
References: Kittle, 1972; Schobert, 1987
HIPPOPOTAMUS, Hippopotamus amphibius

Weight: 1,000–2,000 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.12 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.1 mg/kg azaperone plus
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg etorphine plus 200 mg azaperone plus 250 mg
succinylcholine (adult); antagonize with 200 mg naltrexone
• 5 mg etorphine plus 200 mg azaperone (adult); antagonize with 12 mg
diprenorphine
atipamezole
Comments: Hippos are very difficult to chemically immobilize; physical
capture (boma) is preferred. Mortalities can be as high as 35% when using
opioids. Butorphanol-azaperone-medetomidine (BAM) is the drug combination
of choice. If necessary, a second dart with 1 mg/kg ketamine can be given with
the BAM dose for additional anesthesia and safety (Miller et al., 2014). Induction
times can be prolonged (30–60 min) if drug is not administered intramuscularly.
Inject in the neck just caudal to ear. Estimate drug doses carefully; etorphine is
not tolerated well by hippos, respiratory arrest can occur even at low doses -
minimize immobilization time if at all possible (preferably less than 30 min.).
Administer doxapram (400 mg) for severe respiratory depression (Kock, M., et
al., 2006). Etorphine and acepromazine mixtures and fentanyl and azaperone
mixtures have caused side effects such as sweating, salivation, and muscular
hypertonicity. Use long darts (7–10 cm) with side ports to avoid plugging.
Hippos are very sensitive to diazepam; good sedation can be obtained using 10
mg increments. The BAM dose resulted in 8 minute induction times (but can be
288
as long as 20 minutes) and appeared to be safer than other protocols (Fleming et
al., 2010; Kock and Burroughs, 2012).
References: Buechner et al., 1960c; 1960d; Harthoorn, 1960; 1963d; 1965a;
1972a; 1973a; 1973b; Harthoorn and Lock, 1961; Buck et al., 1963; Van Niekerk
et al., 1963a; 1963b; Van Niekerk and Pienaar, 1963a; Pienaar et al., 1966a;
Pienaar, 1967a; 1969a; 1969b; Jones, 1972; York and Huggins, 1972; York,
1973b; Alford et al., 1974; Haigh, 1976d; Reed, 1978; Stoskopf and Bishop,
1978; Wiesner et al., 1982; Jarofke and Klos, 1983; Pearce et al., 1985; Wiesner
and von Hegel, 1985; Sedgwick, 1986; IWVS, 1992; Ramsay et al., 1998;
Loomis and Ramsay, 1999; Kock, 2001; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Miller, 2007;
Fleming et al., 2010; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Stalder et al., 2012; Miller et
al., 2014
HIPPOPOTAMUS, PYGMY, Choeropsis liberiensis

Recommended Drug: 2.5 mg etorphine plus 125 mg xylazine
Supplemental Drug: 1.5 mg etorphine
Alternative Drugs: 0.2 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.035 mg/kg medetomidine;
• 0.15 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.07 mg/kg detomidine and 0.9 mg/kg ketamine;
mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: See comments on Hippopotamus above. Supplemental oxygen is
probably mandatory regardless of drug regimen used.
References: Jones, 1972; Wiesner et al., 1982; Pearce et al., 1985; Weston et
al., 1996; Miller, 2007; Bouts, 2011; Miller et al., 2014
HIROLA, Beatragus hunteri

Weight: 80–118 kg
Recommended Drug: 5 mg etorphine (males); 3 mg etorphine
(females)Supplemental Drug: One-half original dose
Comments: Atipamezole 2 mg may be added to the etorphine.
References: Kock and Burroughs, 2012
HOG, EUROPEAN WILD, Sus scrofa

289
• 4.4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2.2 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.15
mg/kg yohimbine
• 0.4 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.125 mg/kg detomidine (or 0.07 mg/kg
medetomidine) plus 0.4 mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 5 mg/kg naltrexone
plus 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole
mg/kg diprenorphine
Comments: Hogs can overheat readily, particularly when using etorphine or
xylazine. The tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine doses were used only on
juveniles (Enqvist et al., 2000).
References: Zurowski and Sakowicz, 1965; Austin and Peoples, 1967; Henry
and Matschke, 1968; 1972; Matschke and Henry, 1969a; 1969b; Seal et al., 1970;
Vertessen, 1970; Jones, 1972; Alford et al., 1974; Wood et al., 1977; Jessup et al.,
1980; Baber and Coblentz, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Macek, 1987; Strauss, 1987; Bonath et al., 1992; Siemon et al., 1992;
Wolkers et al., 1994; Walzer, 1995; Gabor et al., 1997; Sweitzer et al., 1997;
Calle and Morris, 1999; Enqvist et al., 2000; Arnemo, 2004a; Padilla and Ko,
2007; Fenati et al., 2008; Angel Barasona et al., 2013; Padilla and Ko, 2014
HOG, FERAL - SEE HOG, EUROPEAN WILD
HORSE, FERAL, Equus ferus caballus

Recommended Drug 5.5 mg etorphine plus 1,300 mg xylazine plus 7.5 mg
atropine
• 2.3 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine; no antagonist given
naltrexone
290
Comments: Yohimbine must be administered to horses receiving xylazine. A 6-
ml dose comprised of 1500 mg powdered ketamine plus 100 mg medetomidine
(40 mg/ml) was effective for helicopter darting (Hampton et al., 2016).
References: Alford et al., 1974; Jones, 1978; Borchard, 1980; Jessup et al.,
1980; 1985b; Berger et al., 1983; Seal et al., 1985a; Plotka et al., 1987; Matthews
and Meyers, 1993; Shaw et al., 1995; Linklater et al., 1998; Rosu et al., 2014;
Zabek et al., 2015; Hampton et al., 2016a
HORSE, PRZEWALSKI, Equus ferus prezwalskii

Recommended Drug: 0.008 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.033 mg/kg detomidine
plus 0.033 mg/kg butorphanol
Antagonist: 0.16 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.04 mg/kg atipamezole IV
antagonize with 0.4 mg/kg atipamezole; give 1/2 dose IV, 1/2 IM
• 0.09 butorphanol plus 0.08 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.07 mg/kg medetomidine
(Bush et al., 2012)
Comments: These horses are difficult animals to immobilize. No ideal drug
combination has yet been determined. Be prepared for ataxia and especially
hyperthermia. Have cooling water available. Muscle relaxation is notoriously
poor, even when midazolam/diazepam is employed. Split opioid antagonists
equally IV and IM to reduce renarcotization. Standing sedation might be
achieved using detomidine and butorphanol (Bouts et al., 2017).
References: Larsen, 1963; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Alford et
al., 1974; Jones, 1976; 1978; Oosterhuis, 1979; Wright, 1981; Wiesner et al.,
1982; Janssen and Oosterhuis, 1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Wiesner and von
Hegel, 1985; Kuttner and Wiesner, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Allen,
1990a; 1992a; Morris, 1992; Wiesner, 1993; Matthews et al., 1995; Walzer, 2007;
2014; Walzer et al., 2009; Bouts et al., 2017
HUEMUL, Hippocamelus bisculus

Weight: 45–85 kg
References: Gonzales-Acuna et al., 2009
291
HUTIA, HISPANOLIA, Plagiodontia aedium
Weight: 1–1.3 kg
Antagonist: None
HYENA, BROWN, Hyaena brunnea

Weight: 37–47.5 kg
Antagonist: None
atipamezole
midazolam; antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.25 mg/kg
atipamezole
Comments: The long coat of the brown hyena may lead to overestimation of
weight and interfere with accurate dart placement.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Ebedes, 1973b;
Wiesner, 1977; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993;
Kock, M., et al., 2006; Hahn et al., 2007; 2014; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
HYENA, SPOTTED, Crocuta crocuta

Weight: 40–86 kg
Antagonist: None
midazolam; antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.25 mg/kg
292
atipamezole
Comments: Respiratory depression can occur with etorphine and xylazine
References: Heuschele, 1961a; Kroll, 1962; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Ericksen,
1968; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Pienaar et al., 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Ebedes,
1973b; Smuts, 1973b; Young and Whyte, 1973; Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976;
Whately, 1979; Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987; Van Jaarsveld, 1988;
Stander and Gasawy, 1991; IWVS, 1992; Van Jaarsveld and Skinner, 1992;
McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Hahn et al., 2007; Kock
and Burroughs, 2012
HYENA, STRIPED, Hyaena hyaena

Weight: 25–55 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Larsen, 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Göltenboth and Klös,
1970; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Nair, 1977; Genevois et al., 1984b; Hahn
et al., 2007
HYRAX, ROCK, Procavia capensis

Weight: 3.5–4 kg
Recommended Drug: Isoflurane or sevoflurane
References Horne and Loomis, 2007
IBEX, ALPINE, Capra ibex

Weight: 35–150 kg
293
Comments: Monitor for hyperthermia and respiratory depression.
References: Boch et al., 1961; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck
and Rivenburg, 1972; Mehren and Rapley, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975;
Wentges, 1975; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Duchamps, 1985; De
Meneghi et al., 1987; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Allen
et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 1992; Escos and alados, 1993; Peinado et al., 1993;
Caulkett and Haigh, 2007b; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014; Brivio et al., 2015
IBEX, IBERIAN (SPANISH), Capra pyrenaica

Weight: 25–55 kg
Comments: Monitor for hyperthermia and respiratory depression.
References: Casas-Diáz et al., 2011; 2012
IBEX, NUBIAN, Capra nubiana

Weight: 30-50 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.1 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.1 mg/kg midazolam plus
Antagonist: 0.5 mg/kg atipamezole*
Comments: This dose was based on captive ibex. *Lapid and Shilo-Benjamini
(2015) used only atipamezole as the antagonist, but naltrexone could probably be
safely used to antagonize butorphanol if faster recoveries were desired.
References: Lapid and Benjamini, 2015
IGUANA, Iguana iguana

Antagonist: None
294
• 2 mg/kg butorphanol (induction); maintain on sevoflurane or isoflurane (see
Mosley et al., 2004 or HernandezDivers et al., 2005)
• 10 mg/kg propofol (intraosseous)
References: Cooper, 1971; Beck, 1972; 1976; Gray et al., 1974; Jessup et al.,
1980; Schobert, 1987; Smith et al., 1997; Bennett et al., 1998a; 1998b; Vienet,
2001; Hernandez-Divers et al., 2003; 2005; Mosley, 2003a; 2003b; 2004;
vonDegerfeld, 2004; Barter et al., 2006; Bertelsen and Sauer, 2011
IMPALA, Aepyceros melampus

Weight: 30–60 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.04 mg/kg thiafentanil
mg/kg butorphanol; antagonize with 0.8 mg/kg atipamezole and 1 mg/kg
naltrexone
• 2.5 mg etorphine plus 30 mg azaperone; antagonize with 5 mg diprenorphine
• 2 mg etorphine plus 2.2 mg medetomidine; antagonize with 40 mg naltrexone
plus 11 mg atipamezole
• 1.2 mg thiafentanil plus 2 mg medetomidine; antagonize with 12 mg
naltrexone plus 10 mg atipamezole
medetomidine (BAM); antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.15 mg/kg
atipamezole
atipamezole
Comments: Monitor for respiratory depression when opioids are used. Impala
are small, so accurate dart placement is critical to avoid injury. Impala often
move into brush after being struck, making location difficult. The BAM dose has
not been confirmed in controlled studies, but its use suggests that it might be
safer in this species. Avoid highly stressful situations (e.g., awake restraint).
Butorphanol boluses of 1 mg butorphanol per mg of opioid given may ameliorate
apnea (Zeiler and Meyer, 2017c). Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol
(adult male, 20 mg; adult female, 15 mg, subadult, 10 mg; neonate, 5 mg);
zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine, 2-5 mg/kg; pipothiazine, 2 mg/kg.
295
References: Talbot and Lamprey, 1961; Kroll, 1962; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a;
1963b; Van Niekerk and Pienaar, 1963a; Pienaar and Fairall, 1963; Graham-
Jones, 1964; Harthoorn and Bligh, 1965; Hirst et al., 1965; Pienaar et al., 1966a;
Ables, 1969; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969b; 1973a; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg,
1972; Jones, 1972; 1978; York and Huggins, 1972; Hofmeyr and de Bruine,
1973; Smuts, 1973a; Smuts et al., 1973; Young and Whyte, 1973; Drevemo and
Harstad, 1974; De Vos, 1975; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Grootenhuis et al., 1976;
Haigh, 1976d; Murray et al., 1971; Hofmeyr, 1981; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984;
1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel,
1987; Cheney and Hattingh, 1988; Hattingh et al., 1988; Gandini et al., 1989;
Knox, et al., 1989, 1990, 1991; Raath and Knox, 1989; Allen et al., 1991;
Janssen et al., 1991; IWVS, 1992; Janssen et al., 1993; Burroughs, 1993d;
Vahala, 1994; Phillips et al., 1998; Páras et al., 2002; Bush et al., 2004b; Kock,
M., et al., 2006; Ball, 2007; Meyer et al., 2008; 2010; Kock and Burroughs,
2012; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014; Perrin et al., 2015; Zeiler et al., 2015; Gerlach et
al., 2017; Zeiler and Meyer, 2017a; 2017b; 2017c
INVERTEBRATES, GENERAL
Comments: Immobilization drugs and techniques for a variety of invertebrates
can be found in the references below.
References: Gunkel and Lewbart, 2007; Cooper 2011; Lewbart, 2011; Minter et
al., 2013; Gjeltema et al., 2014; Mosley and Lewbart, 2014
JACKAL, BLACK-BACKED, Canis mesomelas

Weight: 7–13.5 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.09 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.5 mg/kg midazolam;
References: Young, 1966; Rowe-Rowe and Green, 1980; IWVS, 1992;
McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Kaunda, 2001; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014;
Kock and Burroughs, 2012
JACKAL, GOLDEN, Canis aureus

Weight: 7–15 kg
296
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Genevois et al., 1984b;
Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014; King et al., 2008; Muliya et al., 2016
JACKAL, SIDE STRIPED, Canis adustus

Weight: 6.5–14 kg
References: IWVS, 1992; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Larsen and Kreeger,
2007; 2014; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
JACKAL, SIMIEN, Canis simensis

Weight: 10–18 kg
Recommended Drug 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Boever et al., 1977; Sillero-Zubiri, 1996; Larsen and Kreeger,
2007; 2014
JAGUAR, Panthera onca

Weight: 64–114 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.07 mg/kg medetomidine
297
References: Larsen, 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz,
1972; Gray et al., 1974; Hime, 1974; Beck, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Wiesner,
1977; Genevois et al., 1984b; Arora et al., 1983; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Gonzales and McDonnel, 1986; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal
and Kreeger, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and
Roeken, 1990; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Ramsay, 2014
JAGUARUNDI, Puma yagouaroundi

Weight: 4.5–9 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Dyson, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Genevois
et al., 1984b; Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Gunkel
and Lafortune, 2007
JAVELINA - SEE PECCARY
298
KANGAROO, BENNETT’S TREE, Dendrolagus bennettianus
Weight: 6.7–10 kg
References: Shima et al., 1993; Holz, 2014b
KANGAROO, EASTERN GREY, Macropus giganteus

Weight: 30–66 kg
Comments: Give atipamezole >30 min after the last ketamine dose when using
ketamine-medetomidine.
References: Larsen, 1963; Wellington, 1972; Denny, 1974; Finnie, 1976; Bush
et al., 1990; Shima et al., 1993; Pye and Booth, 1998; Holz, 2007b; 2014b;
Vogelnest and Portas, 2008; Roberts et al., 2010
KANGAROO, RED, Macropus rufus

Weight: 20–85 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Heuschele, 1961; Larsen, 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et
al., 1970; Denny, 1973; 1974; Wilson, 1974; 1976; Beck, 1976; Finnie, 1976;
1986; Wilson, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Smeller et al., 1977; Wiesner, 1977;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987; Bush et al., 1990; Shima et al.,
1993; Holz, 2007b; 2014b; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008
KANGAROO, TREE, Dendrolagus matschiei

Weight: 6.7–10 kg
299
Antagonist: None
Comments: Sometimes referred to as Goodfellows’ tree kangaroo
References: Smeller et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987; Bush et al., 1990; Shima et
al., 1993; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008
KANGAROO, WESTERN GREY, Macropus fuliginosus

Weight: 30–50 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Mayberry et al. (2014) reported that only 5 mg/kg tiletamine-
zolazepam was effective.
References: Watson and Way, 1973; Denny, 1974; Finnie, 1976; Arnold et al.,
1986; Bush et al., 1990; Holz, 2007b; 2014b; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008;
Mayberry et al., 2014
KESTREL, AMERICAN, Falco sparverius

Antagonist: None
References: Redig and Duke, 1976; Camburn and Stead, 1978; Freed and
Baker, 1989
KHULAN, Equus hemionus

Recommended Drug 4.4 mg etorphine plus 10 mg butorphanol plus 10 mg
detomidine
Alternative Drugs: 3 mg etorphine antagonize with 6 mg diprenorphine
• 2.45 mg etorphine plus 10 mg acepromazine plus 10 mg butorphanol plus 10
mg detomidine total dose
300
References: Lanphear, 1963; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck
and Rivenburg, 1972; Hertzog, 1975; Jones, 1976; Oosterhuis, 1979; Wiesner et
al., 1982; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Allen, 1990a; Walzer, 2007; 2014;
Gerritsmann et al., 2016
KIANG, Equus kiang

Recommended Drug: 0.012 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.05 mg/kg acepromazine
Antagonist: 0.025 mg/kg diprenorphine
References: Walzer, 2007; 2014; Bouts et al., 2017
KINKAJOU, Potus flavus

References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Gray et al.,
1974; Genevois et al., 1984b; Hugues et al., 1986; Schobert, 1987; Fournier et
al., 1998; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007; 2014
KLIPSPRINGER, Oreotragus oreotragus

Weight: 8–14 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.1 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 1 mg/kg azaperone
Alternative Drugs: 0.6 mg/kg fentanyl plus 2.5 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize
mg/kg atipamezole
301
Comments: Monitor for respiratory depression when using opioids. Fentanyl is
superior to etorphine. Klipspringer are sensitive to capture myopathy. Long-
acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults, 5 mg).
References: IWVS, 1992; Kock, 2001; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and
Burroughs, 2012
KOALA, Phascolarctos cinereus

Weight: 4–15 kg
• 7 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam IM (or 2.5 mg/kg IV)
with 2 mg atipamezole IV
• Isoflurane (3.5–5% induction)
Comments: Monitor heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and
thermoregulation carefully when using medetomidine.
References: Robinson, 1981; Wildt et al., 1988; Bush et al., 1990; Holz, 1992;
2007b; 2014b; Shima et al., 1993; Lynch and Martin, 2003; Blanshard and
Bodley, 2008
KOB, UGANDA, Kobus kob

Weight: 60–100 kg
with 0.1 mg diprenorphine
• 2.1 mg carfentanil (males); 1.5 mg carfentanil (females); plus 5 mg xylazine
(both sexes); antagonize with 1 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Buechner et al., 1960a; 1960b; 1960c; 1960d; Harthoorn, 1960;
Talbot and Lamprey, 1961; Bauditz, 1972; Röken, 1975; Küpper et al., 1981;
Hugues et al., 1986; Wanzie, 1986; Okaeme et al., 1988; Allen et al., 1991;
Caulkett et al., 2006; Ball, 2007; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ball and Hofmeyr,
2014
302
KUDU, GREATER, Tragelaphus strepsiceros
with 0.1 mg/kg diprenorphine
Comments: Prone to excessive running during induction with opioids; monitor
for hyperthermia. When darting from helicopter, consider increasing the dose by
20% (Kock et al., 2006). A muscle relaxant (xylazine, etc.) is essential to prevent
capture myopathy. Hyaluronidase (1,500-3,000 IU) may be added to the drug
mixture to hasten induction. Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults,
20 mg; subadult, 10 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adult male,
200 mg; adult female, 100 mg; subadult, 50 mg).
References: Heuschele, 1959; Lanphear, 1963; Bigalke, 1965; Harthoorn and
Bligh, 1965; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Pienaar, 1969b; 1973a; Wallach et al., 1967;
Hime and Jones, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972;
1978; York and Huggins, 1972; Smuts, 1973; 1975; Young and Whyte, 1973; De
Vos, 1975; Röken, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; York, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Hofmeyr,
1981; Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Hess and Knakal, 1985;
Schobert, 1987; Kock, R., et al., 1989; Allen et al., 1991; Janssen et al., 1991;
IWVS, 1992; Snyder et al., 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Ball,
KUDU, LESSER, Tragelaphus imberbis

Weight: 60–105 kg
Antagonist: 0.12 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 1 mg/kg atipamezole
for hyperthermia. When darting from helicopter, consider increasing the dose by
20% (Kock et al., 2006). A muscle relaxant (xylazine, etc.) is essential to prevent
capture myopathy.
303
LANGUR, HANUMAN (INDIAN), Semnopithecus entellus
Weight: 10–23.6 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Singh and
Singh, 1982; Schobert, 1987; Jayathangaraj et al., 2008
LECHWE, Kobus leche

Weight: 80–125 kg
with 2 mg diprenorphine for every mg etorphine given
• 1.5 mg etorphine plus 30 mg ketamine plus 30 mg xylazine; antagonize with 3
• 0.018 mg/kg carfentanil; antagonize with 2 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg
yohimbine
Comments: Prone to excessive running during induction; monitor for
hyperthermia. Also prone to sudden rear leg kicking when immobilized.
References: Kock et al., 1989; Allen et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 1992;
Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
LECHWE, NILE, Kobus megaceros

Weight: 50–125 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.2 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.2 mg/kg detomidine plus 0.3
mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 0.6 mg/kg atipamezole (captive animals)
Comments: Prone to excessive running during induction; monitor for
hyperthermia. Also prone to sudden rear leg kicking when immobilized.
References: Allen et al., 1991; Clippinger et al., 1998; Laricchiuta et al., 2012
LEMMING, Lemmus lemmus

Weight: 40–112 g
Recommended Drug: 0.003 mg/g medetomidine
304
Supplemental Drug: 0.0015 mg/g medetomidine
Antagonist: 0.015 mg/g atipamezole
References: Love, 1970; Genevois et al., 1984a; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990
LEMUR, BLACK, Eulemur macaco

Weight: 2–3 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.02 mg/kg dexmedetomidine plus
0.4 mg/kg butorphanol; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole plus 1 mg/kg
naltrexone
• 0.3 mg/kg midazolam plus 0.02 mg/kg dexmedetomidine plus 0.4 mg/kg
butorphanol; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole plus 1 mg/kg naltrexone
References: Beck, 1972; Eads, 1976; Hugues et al., 1986; Schobert, 1987;
Williams and Junge, 2007; 2014
LEMUR, RING-TAILED, Lemur catta

Supplemental Drug: 10 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Antagonist: None
• 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.02 mg/kg dexmedetomidine plus 0.4 mg/kg
Comments: Young lemurs (< 5 yr) may require an initial dose of 30 mg/kg
tiletamine-zolazepam (see Larsen et al., 2011).
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck and Dresner,
1972; Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Schobert, 1987; Strauss, 1987; Williams et
al., 2003; Williams and Junge, 2007; 2014; Larsen et al., 2011
LEMUR, RUFFED, Varecia variegata

305
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.02 mg/kg dexmedetomidine plus
0.4 mg/kg butorphanol; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole plus 1 mg/kg
naltrexone
References: Beck, 1976; Williams and Junge, 2014
LEOPARD, Panthera pardus

Weight: 50–90 kg
Comments: Leopards tend to fight rather than flee; always use caution when
approaching. If reversals appear abnormally long (> 20 min) when using
ketamine-medetomidine, consider increasing the atipamezole dose to 0.5 mg/kg.
Trapping before darting should be considered (see Kock et al., 2006). Long-
acting tranquilizer doses: zuclopenthixol (adult male, 70 mg; adult female, 50
mg).
References: Kroll, 1962; Young, 1966; Ericksen, 1968; Bennett and Tillotson,
1969; Pienaar et al., 1969; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Ebedes, 1970; 1973b;
Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Seal et al., 1970; Mathews, 1971; Bauditz, 1972;
Beck, 1972; 1976; Holmes and Ngethe, 1973; Smuts et al., 1973; Foster, 1974;
Gray et al., 1974; Hime, 1974; Seidensticker et al., 1974; Wentges, 1975;
Wiesner, 1975; Bertram and King, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; King et al., 1977;
Kuntze, 1977; Nair, 1977; Wiesner, 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Genevois et al.,
1984b; Pathak et al., 1985; Singh and Singh, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Hugues et al., 1986; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Barnett
and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; IWVS, 1992; Rogers, 1992;
McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Sabapara, 1995; Singh et al., 1995; Kock, M., et
al., 2006; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Sontakke et al., 2009; Belsare et al.,
2010; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ramsay, 2014;
LEOPARD, CLOUDED, Neofelis nebulosa

Weight: 10–20 kg
306
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Beck,
1972; 1976; Hime, 1974; Boever et al., 1977; Nair, 1977; Jessup et al., 1980;
Schobert, 1987; Grassman et al., 2004; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Ramsay,
2014
LEOPARD, SUNDA CLOUDED, Neofelis diardi

Weight: 12–20 kg
References: Najera et al., 2017
LEOPARD, SNOW, Panthera uncia

Weight: 25–75 kg
Comments: The tiletamine-zolazepam-medetomidine dose was used on foot-
snared leopards. Higher doses might be required for unrestrained animals
(Johansson et al., 2013).
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Dolensek, 1971; Beck,
1972; 1976; Wentges, 1975; Boever et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Fanton et al.,
1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Jalanka, 1987; 1989b; 1989c; Röken, 1987;
Schobert, 1987; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jackson et al., 1990; Jalanka and
Roeken, 1990; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Johansson et al., 2013; Ramsay,
2014
LINSANG, BANDED, Prionodon linsang

307
Antagonist: None
Genevois et al., 1984b; Schobert, 1987
LION, Panthera leo

yohimbine
medetomidine (BAM); antagonize with 0.18 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.35 mg/kg
atipamezole
midazolam (BMM); antagonize with 0.7 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.25 mg/kg
atipamezole plus 0.003 mg/kg flumazenil
Comments: Maintain vigilance for other members of the pride when working
with an immobilized lion. When using medetomidine, constantly monitor depth
of anesthesia as time goes on; animals can wake up suddenly when stimulated. If
reversals appear abnormally long (> 20 min) when using ketamine-
medetomidine, consider increasing the atipamezole dose to 0.5 mg/kg.
Hyaluronidase (1,250 IU) was added to the BMM mixture (Wenger et al., 2010).
Long-acting tranquilizer doses: zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg.
References: Heuschele, 1959; 1961a; Pistey and Wright, 1959; Clifford et al.,
1960; 1962; Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961; Harthoorn and Campbell,
1962; Campbell and Harthoorn, 1963; Larsen, 1963; Graham-Jones, 1964;
Young, 1966; Wallach et al., 1967; Ericksen, 1968; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Bennett
and Tillotson, 1969; Pienaar et al., 1969; Krahwinkel, 1970; Seal et al., 1970;
Ebedes, 1970; 1973b; Gass, 1970; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Krahwinkel,
1970; Bennet et al., 1971; Harthoorn et al., 1971; Bauditz, 1972; Beck, 1972;
1976; York and Huggins, 1972; Holmes and Ngethe, 1973; Smuts et al., 1973;
York, 1973; Young and Whyte, 1973; Alford et al., 1974; Eltringham, 1974; Gray
et al., 1974; Hime, 1974; Wentges, 1975; Bertram, 1976; Bertram and King,
1976; Boever et al., 1977; King et al., 1977; Kuntze, 1977; Nair, 1977; Wiesner,
1977; Bush et al., 1978; Jessup et al., 1980; Arora et al., 1983; Genevois et al.,
1984b; Herbst et al., 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Hugues et al., 1986;
308
Gonzales and McDonnel, 1986; Van Wyk and Berry, 1986; Röken, 1987;
Schobert, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken,
1990; Joubert and Stander, 1990; Stander and Morkel, 1991; Chandrasekara
Pillai, 1992; Quandt, 1992; Rogers, 1992; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993;
Tomizawa et al., 1997; Ofri et al., 1998; Bengis and Keet, 2000; Stegmann et al.,
2000; Epstein et al., 2002; Fahlman et al., 2005a; Jacquier et al., 2006; Kock, M.,
et al., 2006; Das and Vasanth, 2007; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Larsson et al.,
2008; Sontakke et al., 2009; Wenger et al., 2010a; 2010b; Fyumagwa et al., 2012;
Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ramsay, 2014; Semjonov et al., 2017
LION, MOUNTAIN, Puma concolor

Weight: 30–75 kg
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1 mg/kg xylazine;
yohimbine
References: Heuschele, 1959; Graham-Jones, 1964; Hornocker et al., 1965;
Young, 1966; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Seal et al.,
1970; Bauditz, 1972; Hornocker and Wiles, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Hime, 1974;
Beck, 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Kuntze, 1977; Wiesner, 1977; Jessup et al.,
1980; Jessup, 1982b; Genevois et al., 1984b; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Gonzales and McDonnel, 1986; Logan et al., 1986; Logan et al., 1987; Schobert,
1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Davis et al., 1996; Taylor
et al., 1998; Schumacher et al., 1999; Wolfe and Miller, 2005; Gunkel and
Lafortune, 2007; Lescano et al., 2014; Ramsay, 2014
LIZARD, REALLY BIG, Tyrannosaurus rex

Weight: 6,000–6,800 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.002 mg/kg carfentanil
Supplemental Drug: If not down in 5 min, run for your life
References: Koepp, 1997
LIZARDS/SKINKS, GENERAL
309
Antagonist: None
References: Brazenor and Kaye, 1953; Cooper, 1974; Beck, 1976; Wang et al.,
1977; Throckmorton, 1981; Amand, 1982b; Garver and Jackson, 1985;
Ogunranti, 1987; Arena et al., 1988; Johnson, 1991; Page, 1993; Spelman et al.,
1996; Bertelsen, 2007
LLAMA, Lama glama

Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.4 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.04
mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: The dose for captive, calm llamas can be reduced to 1 mg/kg
ketamine plus 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.25 mg/kg
atipamezole.
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Kroll, 1962; Seal and Erickson, 1969;
Seal et al., 1970; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg,
1972; Beck, 1972; 1976; York and Huggins, 1972; Rapley and Mehren, 1975;
Jones, 1977a; Slee and Walker, 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982;
Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Gavier et al., 1986;
Hugues et al., 1986; Riebold et al., 1986; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990: Duke et al.,
1997; Waldridge et al., 1997; Páras et al., 2002; Arnemo, 2005; Mama, 2007;
Abrahamsen, 2009; Mama and Walzer, 2014
LORIS, SLOW, Nycticebus coucang

Weight: 0.4–2 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Schulz and Silverman,
1973; Beck, 1976
LYNX, EUROPEAN, Lynx lynx

Weight: 8–38 kg
310
Comments: The ketamine-medetomidine dose can be reduced by 50% for
captive lynx. Arnemo et al. (1999) used 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.08 mg/kg
medetomidine on lynx kittens (4-5 weeks old).
References: Heuschele, 1961; Wiesner, 1977; Oen, 1980; Wiesner and von
Hegel, 1985; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Arnemo et al., 1999; Schöne et al.,
2002; Ryser et al., 2005; Arnemo, 2006; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007
LYNX, IBERIAN, Lynx pardina

Weight: 10–12 kg
References: Ferreras et al., 1994; Gomez-Villamandos et al., 2007; Gunkel and
Lafortune, 2007
LYNX, Lynx canadensis

Antagonist: None
References: Heuschele, 1961b; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970;
Berrie, 1972; Jessup, 1982b; Duchamps, 1985; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Poole et
al., 1993; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007
MACAQUE, BARBARY, Macaca sylvanus

Weight: 6–15 kg
311
References: Bauditz, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987;
Ølberg, 2007
MACAQUE, BONNET, Macaca radiata

Weight: 5–15 kg
References: Beck, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Jessup et
al., 1980; Schobert, 1987
MACAQUE, CRAB-EATING (CYNOMOLGUS), Macaca fascicularis

Weight: 5–15 kg
• 20 mg/kg ketamine
References: Graham-Jones, 1964; Beck, 1972; 1976; Beck and Dresner, 1972;
Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Vercruysse and Mortelmans, 1978; Jessup et al.,
1980; Castro et al., 1981; Schobert, 1987; Kim et al., 2005; Fahlman et al., 2006;
Ølberg, 2007
MACAQUE, JAPANESE, Macaca fuscata

Weight: 5–15 kg
• 0.06 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.3 mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 0.25
mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: The medetomidine-midazolam combination should probably be
used on captive animals only; this combination provided deep sedation with
rapid reversal (Kimura et al., 2007).
312
References: Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Miyabe et
al., 2001; Kimura et al., 2007; Ølberg, 2007
MACAQUE, LION-TAIL, Macaca silenus

Weight: 5–15 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Eads, 1976; Bush et al., 1977;
Jessup et al., 1980; Singh and Singh, 1982; Schobert, 1987; Smith, J. et al., 2005;
Ølberg, 2007
MACAQUE, PIG-TAIL, Macaca nemestrina

Weight: 5–15 kg
References: Heuschele, 1961a; 1961b; Larsen, 1963; Field et al., 1966; Seal et
al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Crittal and Smith,
1972; Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Bush et al., 1977; Jessup et al, 1980;
Schobert, 1987; Fahlman et al., 2006; Ølberg, 2007
MACAQUE, RHESUS, Macaca mulatta

Weight: 9–12 kg
Alternative Drugs: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg xylazine
• 0.005 mg/kg fentanyl plus 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine plus 0.25 mg/kg
References: Marsboom et al., 1963; Ericksen, 1968; Seal and Erickson, 1969;
Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Alford et
al., 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Ferin et al., 1976; Channing et al., 1977;
Banknieder et al., 1978; Cohen and Bree, 1978; Naccarato and Hunter, 1979;
Jessup et al., 1980; Puri et al., 1981; Porter, 1982a; 1982b; Fuller et al., 1984;
Hess and Knakal, 1985; Hess et al., 1987; Schobert, 1987; Pulley et al., 2004;
Ølberg, 2007; Votava et al., 2011
313
MACAQUE, STUMP-TAILED, Macaca arctoides
Weight: 5–15 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1972; 1976; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974;
Eads, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Schobert, 1987
MACAQUE, TOQUE, Macaca sinica

Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987
MANATEE, Trichechus manatus

Recommended Drug: 0.08 mg/kg diazepam for intubation preceding isoflurane
anesthesia
Antagonist: None
References: Walsh and Bossart, 1999; Chittick and Walsh, 2007; Woods et al.,
2008; Nolan and Walsh, 2014
MANDRILL, Mandrillus sphinx

Weight: 20–54 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Schobert,
1987
MANGABEY, BLACK, Lophocebus aterrimus

Weight: 4–11 kg
314
MANGABEY, GRAY-CHEEKED, Cercocebus albigena
Weight: 5–20 kg
Antagonist: None
MANGABEY, SOOTY, Cercocebus torquatis

Weight: 5–20 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Marsboom et al., 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970;
Field et al., 1966; Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974;
Schobert, 1987
MARA - SEE CAVY
MARGAY, Felis tiedii

Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Hime, 1974; Beck,
1976; Seal and Kreeger, 1987
MARKHOR, Capra falconeri

Weight: 80–100 kg
mg/kg diprenorphine
Comments: Rapid, smooth induction (< 5 min) and antagonism (< 10 min) with
ketamine/medetomidine.
315
References: Wiesner, 1975; 1977; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984;
Jalanka, 1987; 1988; 1989a; Barnett and Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990;
Allen et al., 1991; Snyder et al., 1992; Caulkett and Haigh, 2007b; Caulkett and
Walzer, 2014
MARMOSET, COTTON TOP-SEE TAMARIN, COTTON HEADED
MARMOSET, GOLDEN - SEE TAMARIN, GOLDEN LION
MARMOSET, BLACK-TUFTED, Callithrix penicillata

Weight: 230–453 g
Recommended Drug: 0.01 mg/g ketamine plus 0.001 mg/g midazolam
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 0.012 mg/g alphaxalone
• 0.01 mg/g ketamine plus 0.0005 mg/g xylazine
References: Furtado et al., 2010; Bakker et al., 2013; Silva et al., 2014
MARMOSET, COMMON, Callithrix jacchus

Weight: 230–453 g
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 0.005 mg/g ketamine plus 0.0001 mg/g medetomidine
• 0.01 mg/g ketamine plus 0.001 mg/g midazolam
• 0.012 mg/g alfaxalone
References: Gray et al., 1974; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Ølberg, 2007;
Furtado et al., 2010; Konoike et al., 2017
MARMOT, ALPINE, Marmota marmota

Weight: 1–4 kg
Recommended Drug: 20 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 10 mg/kg xylazine
Supplemental Drug: 10 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 5 mg/kg xylazine (or
isoflurane)
Antagonist: 2 mg/kg tolazoline
2 mg/kg tolazoline
316
• 70 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 2 mg/kg
atipamezole
Comments: Doses listed are for late summer or autumn use; doses may be
decreased earlier in the year or for minor procedures (see Beiglböck and Zenker,
2003). Hypothermia was observed for all drug combinations.
References: Beiglböck and Zenker, 2003
MARMOT, YELLOW-BELLIED, Marmota flaviventris

Weight: 2–5 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Frase and Van Vuren, 1989
MARTEN, PINE, Martes americana/martes

References: Jonkel and Weckworth, 1963; Birnbaum et al., 1969; Seal and
Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Mech, 1974; Wilson, 1976; More, 1977; Jessup
et al., 1980; Herman et al., 1982; Jessup, 1982b; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Belant, 1992; 2005; Arnemo
et al., 1994c; Flynn and Schumacher, 1994; Bull et al., 1996; Potvin et al., 1999;
Desmarchelier et al., 2007; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007; 2014; Mortenson and
Moriarty, 2015; Spriggs et al., 2017
MARTEN, YELLOW-THROATED, Martes flavigula

Weight: 2–3 kg
Antagonist: None published
References: Grassman et al., 2006
MEERKAT, Suricata suricata
317
Recommended Drug: Sevoflurane; 6.5% for induction, 4% for maintenance
References: Strike et al., 2017
MINK, Mustela vison

Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine
References: Fuhrman and Stuhr, 1941; Sandelien, 1966; Graham et al., 1967;
Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; 1976; Gray et al., 1974;
Ramsden et al., 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Jepsen et al., 1981;
Hoilien and Oates, 1982; Jessup, 1982b; Wright, 1983; Genevois et al., 1984b;
Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Arnemo and
SØ li, 1992; Lariviere et al., 2000; 2001; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
MINK, EUROPEAN, Mustela lutreola

Comments: Monitor for hypothermia
References: Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2003; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
MONGOOSE, AFRICAN WATER, Atilax paludinosus

Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Genevois et al., 1984b;
Schobert, 1987; Maddock, 1989
MONGOOSE, BLACK-LEGGED, Bdeogale spp.

Weight: 0.9–3 kg
318
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Schobert, 1987
MONGOOSE, Herpestes spp.

Weight: 0.4–4 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beltrán et al., 1985;
Maddock, 1989; Palomares and Delibes, 1992; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993
MONGOOSE, MALAGASY RING-TAILED, Galidia elegans

Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Genevois et al., 1984b
MONKEY, AFRICAN GREEN - SEE MONKEY (GUENON), GREEN
MONKEY, ALLEN’S, Allenopithecus nigroviridis

Weight: 3.5–6 kg
Antagonist: None
MONKEY (GUENON), BLACK-CHEEKED, Cercopithecus ascanius

References: Jones and Bush, 1988
MONKEY (GUENON), BLUE, Cercopithecus mitis
319
Weight: 6–12 kg
MONKEY, CAPUCHIN, Cebus spp.

References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; Beck and
Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Schobert, 1987;
Crofoot et al., 2009; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY, COLOBUS, Colobus spp.

Antagonist: None
References: Kroll, 1962; Gray et al., 1974; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987;
Carpenter, 1998; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY (GUENON), DEBRAZZA’S, Cercopithecus neglectus

Antagonist: None
References: Schobert, 1987; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY (GUENON), DIANA, Cercopithecus diana

Weight: 3–6 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Eads, 1976; Schobert, 1987
320
MONKEY (GUENON), GREEN, Chlorocebus sabaeus
Weight: 3–7 kg
References: Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Bush
et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Schobert, 1987; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY (GUENON), GRIVET, Cercopithecus aethiops

Weight: 5–9 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Beck and Dresner, 1972
MONKEY, HOWLER, Alouatta spp.

Weight: 4–10 kg
References: Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987; Glander et al., 1991;
Agoramoorthy and Rudran, 1994; Vie and Thoisy, 1996; Vie et al., 1998; Larsen
et al., 1999; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY (GUENON), LESSER WHITE-NOSED, Cercopithecus petaurista

Weight: 4–8 kg
MONKEY (GUENON), MONA), Cercopithecus mona

Weight: 3–6 kg
321
Antagonist: None
MONKEY, NIGHT (DOUROUCOULIS), Aotus trivirgatus

Weight: 0.6–1 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Jessup et al., 1980; Ølberg,
2007
MONKEY, PATAS, Erythrocebus patus

Weight: 4–13 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; 1976; Beck
and Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Bush et al., 1977; Jessup et al.,
1980; Schobert, 1987; Kalema-Zikusoka et al., 2003; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY, PROBOSCIS, Nasalis larvatus

Weight: 7–11 (f), 16–22.5 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
References: Heuschele, 1961; Beck, 1976
MONKEY, SPIDER, Ateles spp.

Weight: 4–6 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961; Kroll, 1962; Wallach et
al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Beck, 1976;
Gray et al., 1974; Eads, 1976; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987; Karesh et al.,
1998; Karesh et al., 1998a; Ølberg, 2007
322
MONKEY, SQUIRREL, Saimiri spp.
Antagonist: None
References: Marsboom et al., 1963; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Seal and Erickson,
1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974;
Eads, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Schobert, 1987; Ølberg, 2007
MONKEY (GUENON), SYKES, Cercopithecus albogularis

Weight: 3–6 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Beck, 1976; Schobert, 1987
MONKEY (GUENON), WHITE-NOSED, Cercopithecus nictitans

Weight: 2–8 kg
Antagonist: None
MONKEY, WOOLY, Lagothrix spp.

Antagonist: None
References: Wallach et al., 1967; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Beck, 1972; 1976; Gray
et al., 1974; Jessup et al., 1980; Schobert, 1987
MOOSE, Alces alces

Recommended Drug: 7.5 mg etorphine (adults) total dose; 3.75 mg etorphine
(calves) total dose
323
Alternative Drugs: 0.03 mg/kg thiafentanil; antagonize with 0.6 mg/kg
naltrexone
• 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.3 mg/kg
atipamezole
• 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 2
mg/kg tolazoline
• 0.1 mg/kg sufentanil plus 0.25 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.6 mg/kg
Comments: The addition of xylazine to carfentanil decreases muscle rigidity
caused by using carfentanil alone, but xylazine increases the probability of
aspiration pneumonia (Kreeger, 2000). Problems were also observed by Arnemo
(unpubl. data) when using etorphine-xylazine and, thus, the addition of xylazine
to opioids is not recommended unless there are overriding considerations.
Increased mortality and complications have been observed when underdosing
with etorphine.
References: Pimlott and Carberry, 1958; Rausch and Ritcey, 1961; Bergerud et
al., 1964; Nielson and Shaw, 1967; Houston, 1969; 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Alford
et al., 1974; Franzmann and Arneson, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Roussel and
Pichette, 1974; Franzmann et al., 1975; 1982; 1984; 1987; Roussel and
Patenaude, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; 1977; Haigh, 1976d;
Haigh et al., 1977; Gasaway et al., 1978; Joyal et al., 1978; Haigh, 1979; Smith
and Franzmann, 1979; Jarofke, 1980; Jones, 1978; 1984; Jessup et al., 1980;
Ballard and Tobey, 1981; Lynch and Hanson, 1981; Franzmann, 1982; Thorne,
1982; Schwab et al., 1984; Wiesner et al., 1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Röken,
1985; Seal et al., 1985b; Sedgwick, 1986; Schmitt and Dalton, 1987; Sandegren
et al., 1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987;
Franzmann and Lance, 1988; Schmitt and Aho, 1988; Doherty and Tweedie,
1989; Stanley et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Schwartz et al., 1991;
Arnemo et al., 1994a; 2003; 2004; Garner and Addison, 1994a; 1994b; McJames
et al., 1994; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Schwartz et al., 1997; Delvaux et al., 1999;
Kreeger, 2000; Roffe et al., 2001; Kreeger et al., 2005; Caulkett and Haigh,
2007a; Haga et al., 2009; Neumann et al., 2011; Evans et al., 2012a; Kreeger and
Kellie, 2012; Caulkett and Arnemo, 2014; Lian et al., 2014; Lowe and Aderman,
2014; Wolfe and Miller, 2016
MOUFLON, Ovis orientalis

Weight: 20–32 kg
324
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg etorphine; antagonize with 2 mg diprenorphine per mg
etorphine given
Comments: Also see Urial
References: Honich, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; York
and Huggins, 1972; Boever and Paluch, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; York, 1975;
Wiesner, 1977; Jessup, et al., 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Duchamps, 1985;
Hugues et al., 1986; Macek, 1987; Röken, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Barnett and
Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Allen et al., 1991; Caulkett and Haigh,
2007b; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014
MOUSE, BRUSH-TAILED MARSUPIAL, Phascogale tapoatafa

Weight: 110–135 g
Antagonist: None
MOUSE, GENERAL
Weight: 5–110 g
Alternative Drugs: Gas anesthesia
• 0.05 mg/g ketamine plus 0.001 mg/g medetomidine
• 0.0003 mg/g medetomidine plus 0.004 mg/g midazolam plus 0.005 mg/g
butorphanol
Comments: Mice can be effectively anesthetized using a jar and cotton swabs
soaked in ether or methoxyflurane; monitor closely and remove as soon as the
animal becomes unconscious.
References: Weisbroth and Fudens, 1972; Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Hughes et
al., 1975; Mulder, 1978b; Baumgardner and Dewsbury, 1979; Genevois et al.,
1984a; Garver and Jackson, 1985; Hahn et al., 2005; Heard, 2007d; Kawai et al.,
2011
325
MUNTJAC, Muntiacus muntjak
Weight: 14–28 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.007 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.05 mg/kg xylazine;
antagonize with 0.7 mg/kg naltexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Cooper et al., 1984; Seidel and Strauss,
1984; Jensen, 1982; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Arora et al., 1983; Wiesner and
von Hegel, 1985; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987
MUNTJAC, REEVES, Muntiacus reevesi

Weight: 14–28 kg
• 0.06 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.025 mg/kg acepromazine; antagonize with 2 mg
diprenorphine per mg etorphine given
References: Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; 1984; Beck, 1976; Seidel
and Strauss, 1984; Cooper et al., 1986; Seal and Bush, 1987; Kock et al., 1989;
Bush et al., 1992
MUSKOX, Ovibos moschatus

Antagonist: 20 mg naltrexone plus 0.01 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Muskoxen easily overheat in warm weather. It is best to capture
them on cool days or during the coolest part of the day.
References: Jones, 1971a; 1971b; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972;
Jonkel et al., 1975; Seidel, 1979; Patenaude, 1982b; Wiesner et al., 1982;
Reynolds and Garner, 1983; Clausen et al., 1984; Dieterich, 1984; White et al.,
1985; Jingfors and Gunn, 1989; Kock et al., 1989; Clausen, 1994; Blix et al.,
2011; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014; Lian at al., 2017
326
MUSKRAT, Ondatra zibethicus
Supplemental Drug: 25 mg/kg ketamine plus 2.5 mg/kg xylazine
Alternative Drugs: Gas anesthesia such as methoxyflurane or isoflurane
References: Hoilien and Oates, 1982; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Blanchette,
1989; Lacki et al., 1989; Belant, 1995; 1996; Sleeman et al., 1997b
NILGAI, Boselaphus tragocamelus

Recommended Drug: 6 mg etorphine
Antagonist 2 mg diprenorphine per mg etorphine given
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg carfentanil (males); 3 mg carfentanil (females);
antagonize with 100 mg naltrexone or naloxone per mg carfentanil given
• 3 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg yohimbine (calm animals only)
for hyperthermia.
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele, 1961a; Wright, 1963;
Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; York and
Huggins, 1972; Hertzog, 1975; Mehren and Rapley, 1975; Rapley and Mehren,
1975; York, 1975; Jessup et al., 1980; Singh and Singh, 1982; Wiesner et al.,
1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Althouse et al., 1987; Arora, 1988; Kock et al.,
1989; Allen et al., 1991; Páras et al., 2002; Saravanan et al., 2013
NUMBAT, Myrmecobius fasciatus

Recommended Drug: Isoflurane: 5% induction, 2% maintenance
Antagonist: Oxygen
References: Vitali and Monaghan, 2008
NUTRIA, Myocastor coypus

Weight: 5–10 kg
Antagonist: None
327
References: Murry and Dennett, 1963; Van Foreest, 1980; Seal and Kreeger,
1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Bó et al., 1994
NYALA, Tragelaphus angasi

Weight: 60–110 kg
with 2 mg diprenorphine per mg etorphine given plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
mg diprenorphine per mg etorphine given plus 0.15 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Nyala are prone to capture myopathy. Use careful dart placement to
avoid trauma in small- to medium-sized animals. Hyaluronidase (1,500-3,000
IU) may be added to hasten induction. Long-acting tranquilizer doses:
haloperidol (adult male, 15 mg; adult female, 10 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg;
perphenazine (adults, 100-150 mg). The use of zuclopenthixol significantly
reduces mortalities.
References: Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Pienaar, 1973a; Gray et
al., 1974; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Haigh, 1976d;
Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Schobert, 1987; Kock, R., et al.,
1989; Flamand and Rogers, 1992; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Cooper et al.,
2005; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Ball, 2007; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ball and
Hofmeyr, 2014
NYALA, MOUNTAIN, Tragelaphus buxtoni

Recommended Drug: 12 mg thiafentanil plus 40 mg xylazine (males); 8 mg
thiafentanil plus 30 mg xylazine (females)
Supplemental Drug: One-half original dose
Antagonist: 120 mg naltrexone plus 4 mg atipamezole (males); 80 mg
naltrexone plus 3 mg atipamezole (females)
diprenorphine plus 3 mg atipamezole (males); 4 mg etorphine plus 20 mg
xylazine; antagonize with 5 mg diprenorphine plus 3 mg atipamezole (females)
328
OCELOT, Felis pardalis
Antagonist: None
References: Larsen, 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Hime,
1974; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Crawshaw and
Quigley, 1989; Beltrán and Tewes, 1995; Shindle and Tewes, 2000; Selmi et al.,
2004a; Ramsay, 2014
OKAPI, Okapia johnstoni

Supplemental Drug 3 mg/kg ketamine
mg/kg butorphanol
Comments: Okapi can be difficult to immobilize; complications secondary to
anesthesia are the most significant single cause of death.
References: Mortelmans, 1978; Raphael, 1999; Citino and Bush, 2007; 2014;
Citino and Lukas, 2010
OLINGO, Bassaricyon gabbii

Antagonist: None
2007; 2014
ONAGER, Equus onager

329
References: Walzer, 2007; 2014; Bouts et al., 2017
ONCILLA - CAT, LITTLE SPOTTED
OPOSSUM, NORTH AMERICAN, Didelphis virginianus

Weight: 2–5.5 kg
atipamezole
References: Mosby and Cantner, 1956; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al.,
1970; Feldman and Self, 1971; Beck, 1972; 1976; Haupert and Lindeen, 1974;
Hughes et al., 1975; Smeller et al., 1977; Hoilien and Oates, 1982; Scott and
Kolata, 1982; Wright, 1983; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Stoskopf et al., 1999; Holz,
2007b; 2014b
ORANGUTAN, Pongo pygmaeus

Weight: 30–50 (f), 50–70 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 6.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine
atipamezole
Comments: Use 1 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.02 mg/kg medetomidine
on captive orangs (Fahlman et al., 2006).
References: Kroll, 1962; Wallach et al., 1967; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1972;
Beck and Dresner, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Bush et al., 1977; Vercruysse and
Mortelmans, 1978; Jessup et al., 1980; Robinson and Lambert, 1986; Göltenboth
and Klös, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Andau et al., 1994; Hunter et
al., 2004; Fahlman et al., 2006; Masters et al., 2007; Sleeman, 2007; Cerveny and
Sleeman, 2014
330
ORIBI, Ourebia ourebi
Weight: 8–15 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.1 mg/kg etorphine plus 2 mg/kg azaperone
Supplemental Drug: 0.05 mg/kg etorphine
Alternative Drugs: 0.8 mg/kg fentanyl plus 2 mg/kg azaperone
• 1 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 20 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize with 25 mg
naltrexone
References: Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Pienaar and Van Niekerk, 1963; Viljoen,
1981; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs,
2012
ORYX, ARABIAN, Oryx leucoryx

Weight: 80–120 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.05 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.05 mg/kg medetomidine
Antagonist: 0.1 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.025 mg/kg atipamezole
• 3 mg carfentanil plus 5 mg xylazine; antagonize with 3 mg/kg naltexone plus
• 0.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.09 mg/kg atipamezole or 0.125 mg/kg
yohimbine (calm animals only)
• 0.06 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.25 mg/kg atipamezole (calm
animals only)
References: Graham-Jones, 1964; Machado et al., 1983; Kock et al., 1989;
Allen et al., 1991; Bush et al., 1992; Greth et al., 1993; Ancrenaz, 1994;
Ancrenaz et al., 1995; 1996; Flamand, 1999; Ball, 2007; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014
ORYX, SCIMITAR-HORNED, Oryx dammah

331
• 3 mg carfentanil plus 10 mg xylazine (males); 2.5 mg carfentanil (females);
antagonize with 3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
only)
References: Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Rapley and Mehren,
1975; Röken, 1975; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Kock et al., 1989; Allen et al.,
1991; Majonica and Bonath, 1993; Páras et al., 2002; Ball, 2007; Ball and
Hofmeyr, 2014
OSTRICH, Struthio camelus

Recommended Drug: 3.6 mg etorphine plus 25 mg acepromazine plus 200 mg
xylazine
Antagonist: 7.6 mg diprenorphine plus 20 mg yohimbine
Alternative Drugs 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
• 3 mg carfentanil plus 150 mg xylazine; antagonize with 300 mg naltrexone
plus 20 mg yohimbine
Comments: Ostriches have thin skin; use low-impact darts. They are also highly
susceptible to complications and capture myopathy if pursued or handled
roughly. Avoid capture at temperatures > 28½ C (82.4½ F). Upon induction and
recovery, ostriches may thrash with their head and neck, resulting in injury;
underdosing tends to exacerbate this head thrashing. Attempt to immobilize and
restrain the bird as quickly as possible. Do not approach birds until fully
recumbent because this may stimulate them to rise and prolong induction.
Ostriches have a thick (50 mm) layer of fat under the skin in the abdominal
region which can slow down drug absorption if injected in this site. The primary
targets are the muscle masses of the legs and back. Tiletamine-zolazepam or
ketamine may result in prolonged and/or rough recoveries; diazepam (1 mg/kg)
may be given IV as soon as the animal attempts to rise to smooth recovery. If
diprenorphine is used to antagonize opioid anesthesia, monitor for 24 hours for
renarcotization. Xylazine should be avoided in very sick birds.
References: Harthoorn, 1971; Blackshaw and Wakeman, 1972; York and
Huggins, 1972; Robinson and Fairfield, 1974; Beck, 1976; Stoskopf et al., 1982;
Gandini et al., 1986; Schobert, 1987; Samour et al., 1990; Van Heerden and
332
Keffen, 1991; Cornick and Jensen, 1992; IWVS, 1992; Raath et al., 1992;
Keffen, 1993; Matthews, 1993; Jensen et al., 1994; Ostrowski and Ancrenaz,
1995; Burroughs, 1996; Lin and Ko, 1997; Lin et al., 1997; Langan et al., 2000;
Stegman, 2000; Kock, M. et al., 2006; Siegal-Willot, 2007; 2014
OTTER, AMERICAN RIVER, Lontra canadensis

Weight: 7–9 kg
Alternative Drugs 4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
• 7.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.5 mg/kg xylazine
Boever et al., 1977; Kane, 1979; Jessup et al., 1980; Jenkins and Gorman, 1981;
Jessup, 1982b; Elmore et al., 1985; Genevois et al., 1984b; Hoover, 1984; 1985;
Hoover et al., 1984; Woolf et al., 1984; Elmore et al., 1985; Hoover and Jones,
1986; Erickson and McCullough, 1987; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Schobert,
1987; Spelman et al., 1993a; 1993b; 1994; 1997a; 1997b; Spelman, 1999; Muller
et al., 2005; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007; 2014; Belfiore 2008
OTTER, ASIAN SMALL-CLAWED, Aonyx cinerea

Weight: 1–5 kg
• 0.2 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.015 mg/kg dexmedetomidine plus 0.15 mg/kg
midazolam; antagonize with 0.1 mg/kg naloxone plus 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole
plus 0.06 mg/kg flumazenil
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Kane,
1979; Lindsay and Lloyd, 1991; Spelman, 1999; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007;
2014; Fiorello et al., 2011
OTTER, CLAWLESS, Aonyx capensis

Weight: 13–34 kg
333
Antagonist: None
References: McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007;
2014
OTTER, EUROPEAN, Lutra lutra

Weight: 3–14 kg
References: Holmes, 1974; Jenkins and Gorman, 1981; Reuther, 1983; Reuther
and Brandes, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Kuiken, 1988; Arnemo, 1989;
1990; Spelman, 1999; Fernandez-Moran et al., 2001; 2002; 2004; Kollias and
Abou-Madi, 2007
OTTER, GIANT, Pteronura brasiiensis

Weight: 22–30 kg
References: Bauquier, et al., 2010
OTTER, MARINE, Lontra felina

Weight: 3–4 kg
References: Soto-Azat et al., 2006
OTTER, SEA, Enhydra lutris

Weight: 15–32 (f), 22–45 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 0.3 mg/kg fentanyl plus 0.1 mg/kg diazepam
334
Alternative Drugs: 0.2 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1 mg/kg xylazine, antagonize with
0.2 mg/kg naloxone and 0.15 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Avoid overheating by monitoring rectal temperature.
References: Stullken and Kirkpatrick, 1955; Williams, 1978; 1990; Williams
and Kocher, 1978; Jessup et al., 1980; Williams et al., 1981; 1990a; 1990b; 1992;
Jessup, 1982b; Joseph et al., 1987; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987;
Sawyer and Williams, 1996; Spelman, 1999; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Monson
et al., 2002; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
OTTER, SPOTTED-NECKED, Lutra maculicollis

Weight: 3–14 kg
Antagonist: None
References: McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
OWL, BARN, Tyto alba

Weight: 600–800 g
Antagonist: None
References: Camburn and Stead, 1978; Schobert, 1987; Mama et al., 1996
OWL, BARRED, Strix varia

Weight: 500–900 g
Recommended Drug: 0.01 mg/g ketamine plus 0.001 mg/g diazepam, IV
Supplemental Drug: 0.005 mg/g ketamine, IV
Antagonist: None
References: Mattingly, 1972; Redig and Duke, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Freed
and Baker, 1989
OWL, GREAT HORNED, Bubo virgianus

335
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 25 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.2 mg/kg diazepam, IV
References: Mattingly, 1972; Borzio, 1973; Frank and Cooper, 1974; Redig and
Duke, 1976; Jessup et al., 1980; Redig et al., 1984; Freed and Baker, 1989;
Kreeger et al., 1993; Hawkins et al., 2003
OWL, SCREECH, Otus asio

Weight: 150–300 g
Antagonist: None
References: Kittle, 1972; Mattingly, 1972; Borzio, 1973; Beck, 1976; Jessup et
al., 1980; Kreeger et al., 1993
OWL, SNOWY, Nyctea scandiaca

Antagonist: None
References: Redig and Duke, 1976
OWLS, GENERAL
Recommended Drug: 20 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg acepromazine
Antagonist: None
References: Borzio, 1973; Camburn and Stead, 1978; Amand, 1982a; Redig et
al., 2014
PACA, Agouti paca

Weight: 6–10 kg
Recommended Drug: 25 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.125 mg/kg acepromazine
Antagonist: None
References: Pachaly and Werner, 1998
336
PACARANA, Dinomys branickii
Weight: 10–15 kg
PADEMELON, RED-LEGGED, Thylogale stigmatica

Weight: 2–12 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Shima et al., 1993
PANDA, GIANT, Ailuropoda melanoleuca

Weight: 75–160 kg
dexmedetomidine
References: Graham-Jones, 1964; Schaller et al., 1985; Fan et al., 1987;
Schobert, 1987; Yu and Yu, 1987; Qiu, 1990; Zhu and Wang, 1992; Mainka and
He, 1993; Jin et al., 2016
PANDA, LESSER, Ailurus fulgens

Weight: 3–6 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Custer et al., 1978; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka and
Roeken, 1990; Chakraborty, 1993
PANGOLIN, Manis tetradactyla
337
Weight: 2–2.5 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Robinson, 1983; IWVS,
1992; Langan, 2007
PARROTS, GENERALARROTS, GENERAL

Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1976; Amand, 1982a; Schobert, 1987
PECCARY, CHACOAN, Catagonus wagneri

Weight: 30–45 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.3 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.07 mg/kg medetomidine plus
0.3 mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.35 mg/kg
atipamezole
Antagonist: None
References: Allen, 1992b; Sutherland-Smith et al., 2004; Padilla and Ko, 2007;
2014
PECCARY, COLLARED, Tayassu tajacu

Weight: 15–35 kg
Recommended Drug: 4.4 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 2.2 mg/kg xylazine
midazolam; antagonize with 3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole
References: Kroll, 1962; Dyson, 1965; Jewell et al., 1965; Day, 1969; Seal et
al., 1970; Jones, 1972; Gray et al., 1974; Gallagher et al., 1985; Hellgren et al.,
1985; Schobert, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Gabor et al., 1997; Páras et al., 2002;
Selmi et al., 2003; Padilla and Ko, 2007; 2014
338
PECCARY, WHITE-LIPPED, Tayassu pecari
Weight: 20–50 kg
Recommended Drug: 1.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.14 mg/kg
butorphanol
Alternative Drugs: 1.25 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 1.25 mg/kg xylazine
midazolam; antagonize with 3 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole
References: Selmi et al., 2003; Padilla and Ko, 2007; 2014
PENGUIN, KING, Aptenodytes patagonicus

Weight: 12–14 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Thil and Groscolas, 2002
PIG, WILD - SEE HOG, EUROPEAN WILD
PLATYPUS, DUCK-BILLED, Orinthorhynchus anatinus

Weight: 0.2–2 kg
Recommended Drug: Isoflurane; 5% induction with 1 L/min oxygen
Alternative Drugs: 1 mg/kg diazepam
References: Holz, 2007a; 2014a; Booth and Connolly, 2008
POLECAT - SEE FERRET
PORCUPINE, BRAZILIAN, Coendou prehensilis

Weight: 1–5 kg
0.3 mg/kg midazolam
Antagonist: None
References: Calvi and del Rio do Valle, 2011
PORCUPINE, CAPE, Hystrix africaeustralis
339
Weight: 12–18 kg
References: Van Aarde, 1985
PORCUPINE, CRESTED, Hystrix cristata

Weight: 9–15 kg
Comments: Porcupines require high doses for complete immobilization. The
recommended dose may only heavily sedate the animal and additional ketamine
may be required for surgery or other manipulations.
References: Beck, 1976; Stoskopf, 1979; Pigozzi, 1987; Massolo et al., 2003
PORCUPINE, INDIA CRESTED, Hystrix indica

Weight: 10–30 kg
References: Bose et al., 1982; Alkon, 1984
PORCUPINE, NORTH AMERICAN, Erethizon dorsatum

Weight: 3.5–11 kg
Comments: The tail muscles are the optimal injection site for porcupines (see
Morin and Berteaux. 2003)
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Hale et al., 1994;
Griesemer et al., 1999; Morin and Berteaux. 2003
340
PORCUPINE, SPINY TREE, Sphiggurus spinosus
0.3 mg/kg midazolam
Antagonist: None
References: Calvi and del Rio do Valle, 2011
PORCUPINE, WHITE-TAILEDs, Hystrix leucura

Weight: 1–5 kg
References: Stalder et al., 2013
POSSUM, BRUSH-TAIL, Trichosurus vulpecula

Weight: 1.3–5 kg
Antagonist: None
atipamezole
• Isoflurane; induction 5%; maintenance 2%; oxygen 200 ml/kg/min
Comments: Morgan et al. (2012) found only 5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam to
be effective.
References: Denny, 1974; Smeller et al., 1977; Shima et al., 1993; Viggers and
Lindenmayer, 1995; Holz, 2007b; Johnson and Hemsley, 2008; Morgan et al.,
2012; Holz, 2014b
POSSUM, MOUNTAIN PYGMY, Burramys parvus

Weight: 30–60 g
Antagonist: None
References: Holz, 1992; 2014b
341
POSSUM, RINGTAIL, Pseudocheirus peregrinus
Weight: 0.7–1 kg
Antagonist: None
atipamezole
References: Bush et al., 1990; Holz, 1992; 2014b; Salas and Stephens, 2004
POTOROO, Potorous spp.

Antagonist: None
References: Bush et al., 1990
POTOROO, LONG-NOSED, Potorous tridactylus

Antagonist: None
References: Alford et al., 1974; Finnie, 1976; Smeller et al., 1977; Ludders and
Ojerio, 1980; Schobert, 1987
PRAIRIE DOG, BLACK-TAILED, Cynomys ludovicianus

Recommended Drug: 30 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg diazepam
Antagonist: None
References: Roslyn et al., 1979; Stoskopf, 1979
PRONGHORN, Antilocapra americana

Weight: 40–50 kg
342
Alternative Drugs: 0.1 mg/kg thiafentanil; antagonize with 2 mg/kg naltrexone
atipamezole
• 0.75 butorphanol plus 0.7 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.3 mg/kg medetomidine
(Bush et al., 2012)
• 0.05 mg/kg carfentanil plus 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 5 mg/kg
Comments: In our experience, thiafentanil has been the most satisfactory drug
for pronghorn, followed by carfentanil-xylazine. However, carfentanil is no
longer available and there are severe restrictions on the use of thiafentanil, thus
you are left with etorphine as the most potent immobilizing drug. Do not give
xylazine to a pronghorn if you are not going to use an antagonist - prolonged
hyperexcitability may ensue. We have also used the ketamine-medetomidine
combination with some success on captive (not excited) pronghorn. In general,
combinations like ketamine-xylazine and tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine give
unpredicatable results; the animal becomes recumbent only to stumble away
when you try to approach it. Pronghorn can be extraordinarily difficult to
immobilize; be prepared for less than satisfactory results.
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Thomas, 1961; Dyson, 1965; Beale and
Smith, 1967; Gray et al., 1974; Chalmers and Barrett, 1977; Copeland et al.,
1978; Seal and Hoskinson, 1978; Amstrup and Segerstrom, 1981; Autenrieth et
al., 1981; Pusateri et al., 1982; Thorne, 1982; Carpenter and Lance, 1983;
O’Gara, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Pond and O’Gara,
1994; Kreeger et al., 1999; 2001; Mama et al., 2009; Bush et al., 2012
PUDU, Pudu puda

Weight: 6–13 kg
Recommended Drug: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.07 mg/kg medetomidine plus
0.3 mg/kg butorphanol
Antagonist: 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole plus 0.1 mg/kg naltrexone
Comments: Dose based on ten captive pudu.
References: Fabry et al., 2001
PUKU, Kobus vardoni

Weight: 50–90 kg
343
Antagonist: 0.2 mg/kg naltrexone or naloxone
References: Hanks and Dowsett, 1969; Haigh, 1976d
PUMA - SEE LION, MOUNTAIN
QUOKKA, Setonix brachyurus

Weight: 2–5 kg
References: Richardson and Cullen, 1984
QUOLL, Dasyurus spp.

Weight: 1–7 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Holz, 2014b
RABBIT, COTTONTAIL, Sylvilagus floridanus

Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 15 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 5 mg/kg xylazine
• 44 mg/kg ketamine plus 10 mg/kg diazepam
• Isoflurane; induction 5%; maintenance 2-3%
References: Wesson et al., 1977; Garver and Jackson, 1985; Heard, 2007c
RABBIT, Oryctolagus cuniculus

344
• 44 mg/kg ketamine plus 10 mg/kg diazepam
• Isoflurane; induction 5%; maintenance 2-3%
References: Weisbroth and Fudens, 1972; Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Hughes et
al., 1975; Kisloff, 1975; White and Holmes, 1976; Garver and Jackson, 1985;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987; Hellebrekers et al., 1997; Keller
et al., 1988; Flecknell et al., 1996; 1999; Heard, 2007c; Marsh et al., 2009
RACCOON, Procyon lotor

Weight: 2–12 kg
Supplemental Drug: If not down in 10 min, give one-half original dose
Comments: Pitt et al. (2006) found that 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam (no
xylazine) also provided adequate immobilization with full recovery in less than
an hour. Gas anesthesia chambers can be designed for field use (Bentler et al.,
2012).
References: Murry and Dennett, 1963; Mech, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969;
Seal et al., 1970; Bigler and Hoff, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Haupert and Lindeen,
1974; Gregg and Olson, 1975; Hughes et al., 1975; Speckmann, 1975; Beck,
1976; Ramsden et al., 1976; Boever et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Hoilien and
Oates, 1982; Jessup, 1982b; Wright, 1983; Genevois et al., 1984b; Wiesner and
von Hegel, 1985; Clutton and Duggan, 1986; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Kreeger,
1987; Deresienki and Rupprecht, 1989; Servin and Huxley, 1992; Taulman and
Williamson, 1993; Norment et al., 1994; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Belant, 1995a;
2004; Gehrt et al., 2001; Pitt et al., 2006; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007; 2014;
Baldwin et al., 2008; Bentler et al., 2012; Robert et al., 2012
RAPTORS, GENERAL
Recommended Drug: 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine IV
Supplemental Drug: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine IV
Antagonist: None
345
Alternative Drugs: 30 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg diazepam IM
References: Haigh, 1980
RAT, BUSHY-TAILED WOOD, Neotoma cinerea

Weight: 115–350 g
Antagonist: None
References: Frase and Van Vuren, 1989
RAT, AFRICAN MOLE, Fukomys spp.

Weight: -70–90 g
Antagonist: None
References: Garcia Montero et al., 2015
RAT, NORWAY, Rattus norvegicus

Weight: 200–400 g
Antagonist: None
References: Weisbroth and Fudens, 1972; Hughes et al., 1975; Genevois et al.,
1984a; Schobert, 1987; Heard, 2007d
RATEL - SEE BADGER, HONEY
RATITES, GENERAL
Antagonist: None
References: Amand, 1982a
RATS, GENERAL
Weight: 0.2–1 kg
Recommended Drug: 50 mg/kg ketamine plus 1 mg/kg medetomidine
346
Alternative Drugs: Isoflurane (see Parker et al., 2008)
References: Stunkard and Miller, 1974; Mulder and Johnson, 1978; Garver and
Jackson, 1985; Hahn et al., 2005; Parker et al., 2008
REEDBUCK, Redunca arundinum

Weight: 50–75 kg
atipamezole
Comments: Capture attempts may be more effective at night because reedbuck
are difficult to spot during the day.
References: Pienaar, 1968a; 1973; Jones, 1972; Röken, 1975; Haigh, 1976d;
Hofmeyr, 1981; Flamand and Rogers, 1992; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d;
Kock, 2001; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
REEDBUCK, MOUNTAIN, Redunca fulvorufula

Weight: 25–35 kg
Recommended Drug: 2 mg etorphine plus 40 mg azaperone
Alternative Drugs: 0.05 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 1 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize
Comments: Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adult male, 20 mg;
adult female, 15 mg; subadult, 10 mg; neonate, 5 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg;
perphenazine (adults, 30 mg).
References: Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs,
2012
REINDEER, Rangifer tarandus tarandus

Weight: 50–90 kg
347
Comments: Anecdotal evidence suggests that xylazine (and perhaps any alpha-2
adrenoceptor agonist) should not be used on bulls in rut.
References: Arnemo et al., 2011; Evans et al., 2013; Fahlman et al., 2012;
REPTILES, GENERAL
Weight: <50 g
Weight: 50 g–1 kg
Recommended Drug 0.025 mg/g ketamine plus 0.005 mg/g xylazine
Weight: 1–20 kg
Weight: 20–50 kg
Weight: 50–100 kg
Comments: Reptiles should be acclimated to their preferred ambient
temperature (30–35 ½C/86–95½ F) prior to immobilization. Complete behavioral
recovery from anesthesia can take days . Never assume an anesthetized,
venomous reptile is incapable of biting – take appropriate precautions.
References: Hinsch and Gandal, 1969; Kaplan, 1969; Beck, 1976; Ahmad et
al., 1977; Jones, 1977b; Boever, 1979; Sedgwick, 1980b; Jackson et al., 1981;
Boever and Caputo, 1982; Genevois et al., 1983a; Lawrence, 1983; Cooper,
1984; 1987; Harper, 1984; Sedgwick, 1986; Adest et al., 1988; Arena et al.,
1988; Bennett, 1991; 1993a; 1994; 1998; Bienzle and Boyd, 1991; Frye, 1991;
Boyer, 1992; Pietrak, 1992; Avery, 1993a; Hochleithner, 1993; Schildger et al.,
1993; Holz and Holz, 1994; Schumacher, 1999; Heard, 2001; Maas and Brunson,
2002; Hernandez-Divers et al., 2003; 2005; Bertelsen et al., 2004; 2005
RHEA, Rhea americana

Weight: 15–35 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.3 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.007 mg/kg
dexmedetomidine plus 5/mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
References: Beck, 1976; Camburn and Stead, 1978; Schobert, 1987; Matthews,
1993; Lin snd Ko, 1997; Lin et al., 1997; Siegal-Willot, 2007; 2014; Ter Beest et
al., 2010; 2012; Pinheiro et al., 2014
348
RHEBOK, GREY, Pelea capreolus
Weight: 20–35 kg
with 1 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.25 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Monitor for respiratory depression. The addition of hyaluronidase is
beneficial. Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adult male, 20 mg; adult
female, 15 mg; subadult, 10 mg; neonate, 5 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg;
perphenazine (adults, 30 mg).
References: Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d;
Howard et al., 2003; 2004; Kock et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
RHINOCEROS, BLACK, Diceros bicornis

Recommended Drug: 4 mg etorphine plus 60 mg azaperone
Supplemental Drug: If no signs of drug effect develop in 6 min, repeat full dose
Antagonist: 40 mg naltrexone IV per mg etorphine given
Alternative Drugs: 2.5 mg etorphine plus 2.5 mg thiafentanil; antagonize with
100 mg naltrexone IV
• 4 mg etorphine plus 100 mg xylazine; antagonize with 40 mg naltrexone IV
per mg etorphine given
Comments: Use large (5–6 cm), small-barbed needles with side ports. Dart
placement should be as near perpendicular as possible to achieve deep IM
administration. Dart wounds should always be treated (intramammary
preparations or oxytetracycline). Hyaluronidase (2,000-5,000 IU) should always
be added to the drug mixture to hasten induction. The dart injection site must be
treated with antimicrobial agent to prevent abscesses. Lateral recumbency may
be preferred over sternal recumbency to prevent pressure necrosis. When in
lateral recumbency, the legs should be "pumped" every 20 min to aid circulation.
Quick induction is preferred, but monitor for respiratory depression (< 4
breaths/min). Also consider supplemental oxygen (15–30 L/min) or administer
200 mg doxapram IV. If body temperature exceeds 41 C (106 F), give antagonist
immediately. Immobilize calves with 1 mg etorphine; immobilize subadults with
2 mg etorphine. Always dart mother 30–60 sec before darting calf. Transport of
349
rhino may be facilitated by using azaperone (100–250 mg; repeated every 6 hr as
needed) or by long-acting tranquilizers (Reuter and Winterbach, 1998). Long-
acting tranquilizer doses: zuclopenthixol (adults, 300 mg); perphenazine (adults,
300 mg; subadults, 100 mg; juveniles, 50 mg). Captive (zoo) rhino generally use
less etorphine (1–1.5 mg) than wild rhino. Several dose regimens for captive
rhinoceroses can be found in Radcliffe and Morkel (2014).
References: Buechner et al., 1960a; 1960c; Harthoorn, 1960; 1962b; 1963a;
1963d; 1965a; 1966; 1972a; 1973a; 1973b; Harthoorn and Lock, 1960; 1961;
Larsen, 1963; Condy, 1964; King and Carter, 1965; Ebedes, 1966b; 1967; Jones,
1966; Jones and Roth, 1968; Wallach, 1968; 1969; Denney, 1969; Keep et al.,
1969; King, 1969; Hitchins et al., 1972; Hofmeyr and de Bruine, 1973; Keep,
1973b; 1973c; Alford et al., 1974; De Vos, 1975; Eltringham, 1974; Manton and
Jones, 1974; Hofmeyr, 1975; Röken, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; 1977b; Flamand et al.,
1984; MacKintosh and Van Reenen, 1984b; Henwood, 1989; Morkel, 1989;
Gaynor and Haigh, 1992; Kock et al., 1990a; 1990b; 1990c; Kock, 1992; IWVS,
1992; Kock and Morkel, 1993; Jessup et al., 1993; Rogers, 1993c; Reuter and
Winterbach, 1998; Fahlman et al., 2004; 2016; Portas, 2004; Adams et al., 2005;
Kock, M., et al., 2006; Radcliffe and Morkel, 2007; Citino, 2008; Morkel et al.,
2010; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Radcliffe and Morkel, 2014; Radcliffe et al.,
2014
RHINOCEROS, INDIAN, Rhinoceros unicornis

Weight: 1,600–2,200 kg
Recommended Drug: 2.25 mg etorphine plus 10 mg acepromazine
Alternative Drugs: 3.8 mg etorphine plus 14 mg detomidine plus 400 mg
ketamine; antagonize with 300 mg naltrexone
Comments: Refer to Radcliffe and Morkel (2014) for an excellent discussion of
all rhino capture and handling as well as dose regimens for captive rhinoceroses.
Standing sedation might be achieved using butorphanol-detomidine or
butorphanol-azaperone (Bapodra et al., 2014). Dart wounds should always be
treated (intramammary preparations or oxytetracycline).
References: Alford et al., 1974; Dinerstein et al., 1990; Atkinson et al., 2002;
Portas, 2004; Radcliffe and Morkel, 2007; 2014; Bapodra et al., 2014
RHINOCEROS, SUMATRAN, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Recommended Drug: 2 mg etorphine plus 80 mg azaperone plus 5,000 IU
hyaluronidase
350
Antagonist: 50 mg Jnaltrexone per mg etorphine given
Alternative Drugs: 80 mg butorphanol plus 80 mg azaperone; antagonize with
2.5 mg naltrexone per mg butorphanol given
Comments: Refer to Radcliffe and Morkel (2014) for an excellent discussion of
all rhino capture and handling as well as dose regimens for captive rhinoceroses.
Standing sedation might be achieved using detomidine and butorphanol (Bouts et
al., 2017). Dart wounds should always be treated (intramammary preparations or
oxytetracycline).
References: Portas, 2004; Radcliffe and Morkel, 2007; 2014; Walzer et al.,
2010; Bouts et al., 2017
RHINOCEROS, WHITE, Ceratotherium simum

Weight: 1,400–1,700 (f), 2,000–2,300 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 3 mg etorphine plus 12 mg detomidine (f); 4 mg
etorphine plus 20 mg detomidine (m)
Supplemental Drug: If no signs of drug effect develop in 6 min, repeat full dose
Antagonist: 150 mg naltrexone plus 60 mg atipamezole
Alternative Drugs: 1.5 mg etorphine plus 40 mg azaperone plus 5,000 IU
hyaluronidase (juveniles); 3 mg etorphine plus 30 mg azaperone plus 5,000 IU
hyaluronidase (subadults); 4 mg etorphine plus 40 mg azaperone plus 5,000 IU
hyaluronidase (adults)
• 4 mg etorphine plus 40 mg midazolam plus 7,500 IU hyaluronidase*
Comments: Butorphanol IV (20 mg per mg etorphine given) improves
cardiopulmonary parameters in rhinos immobilized with etorphine combinations
(Kock and Burroughs, 2012 ; Miller et al., 2013; Van Zijil Langhout et al., 2016).
Use large needles (45–60 mm length, ≥ 2 mm diam.) with minimal barb. The
needle tip can be bent over the axis of the bore to prevent plugging or side port
needles can be used. The dart injection site must be treated with antimicrobial
agent to prevent abcesses (intramammary preparations or oxytetracycline).
Hyaluronidase (5,000 IU) combined with immobilizing agent can speed
induction. Initially, place animal in sternal recumbency until relaxed, then place
in lateral recumbency to improve blood flow to limbs. Prolonged recumbency
may cause respiratory depression. Close monitoring is necessary, particularly if
immobilization exceeds 40 minutes. Respiration may also be increased by
administering 400 mg doxapram IV or by administering supplemental oxygen
(15–30 L/min). Complications include hypoxia and hyperthermia. Muscle
tremors can be reduced by giving 5–20 mg diazepam (or midazolam) IV. Try to
avoid darting at ambient temperatures >25 C (77 F). Cool the animal if body
temperature >39 C (102.2 F). If body temperature exceeds 41 C (106 F), give
antagonist immediately. If hypoxia is evident, the pulse rate is >120 bpm, and
body temperature is >39 C, antagonize the immobilizing agent immediately. If
351
the animal is being transported, it may be beneficial to antagonize the opioid
anesthetic with diprenorphine instead of naltrexone because naltrexone can result
in a fully alert animal that might fight the crate throughout transport (Rogers,
1993b). Several dose regimens for captive rhinoceroses can be found in Radcliffe
and Morkel (2014). Immobilize calves with 1 mg etorphine; juveniles with 2 mg
etorphine; and subadults with 3 mg etorphine. Long-acting tranquilizer doses:
zuclopenthixol (adults, 300 mg); perphenazine (adults, 300 mg; subadults, 100
mg; juveniles, 50 mg). Standing sedation might be achieved using detomidine
and butorphanol (Bouts et al., 2017). *Butorphanol (10 mg/mg etorphine)
injected upon recumbency significantly improved cardiopulmonary function
(Langhout et al., 2016)
References: Harthoorn, 1962a; 1962b; 1962c; 1963a; 1963d; 1965a; 1967;
1972a; 1973a; 1973b; Harthoorn and Player, 1963; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a;
Ebedes, 1966b; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Wallach, 1966; Player, 1967; 1973;
Wallach, 1968; 1969; Keep, 1969; 1971; 1972a; 1972b; 1973b; Pienaar, 1969a;
York and Huggins, 1972; Alford et al., 1974; Manton and Jones, 1974; De Vos,
1975; Röken, 1975; Smuts, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Jenkins, 1978; Wiesner et al.,
1982; Flamand et al., 1984; LeBlanc et al., 1987; Allen et al., 1991; Heard et al.,
1992; IWVS, 1992; Rogers, 1993b; Hattingh et al., 1994c; Raath, 1994; 1999;
Kock, M., et al., 1995; 2006; Radcliffe et al., 2000; Walzer et al., 2000; Kock,
2001; Fahlman et al., 2004; Bush et al., 2004a; Portas, 2004; Radcliffe and
Morkel, 2007; Wenger et al., 2007; Citino, 2008; Kock and Burroughs, 2012 ;
Miller et al., 2013; Boardman et al., 2014c; Haw et al., 2014; Radcliffe and
Morkel, 2014; Buss et al., 2015; 2016; Haymerle et al., 2016; Van Zijil Langhout
et al., 2016; Bouts et al., 2017; Jeon et al., 2017; Langhout et al., 2016; Lange et
al., 2017
RINGTAIL, Bassariscus astutus

Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Jessup
et al., 1980; Jessup, 1982b; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Kollias and Abou-Madi,
2007; 2014
ROAN - SEE ANTELOPE, ROAN
SABLE, Hippotragus niger

352
Alternative Drugs 0.03 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.06 mg xylazine; antagonize with
0.06 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
mg/kg yohimbine
• 3 mg carfentanil plus 50 mg ketamine plus 50 mg xylazine; antagonize with 1
mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Prone to hyperthermia because of dark coat. Sable are very
sensitive to xylazine or other alpha-2 adrenoceptor agonists; be sure to
antagonize if used. Sable may not go down totally with etorphine; thiafentanil is
drug of choice (Kock et al., 2006). Ketamine (50-100 mg IV to effect) can be
given to improve immobilization once the animal is down. Hyaluronidase (1,500-
3,000 IU) can be added to improve immobilization. Handle bulls separately to
avoid intraspecific aggression. Semi-immobilized animals may be attacked by
other sable, particularly from another herd. Restrain horns at all times. Long-
acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults, 15 mg; subadult, 10 mg);
zuclopenthixol (adult male, 300 mg; adult female, 225 mg; subadult, 125 mg);
perphenazine (adults, 100 mg; subadults, 50 mg).
References: Pienaar et al., 1966a; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969b; 1973a; Göltenboth
and Klös, 1970; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; York and Huggins,
1972; Grobler and Van der Meulen, 1975; Röken, 1975; Smuts, 1975; York,
1975; Haigh, 1976d; Jones, 1977; Slee and Walker, 1977; Hofmeyr, 1981;
Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987;
Strauss, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Henwood and Keep, 1989; Bush et
al., 1992; Snyder et al., 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Ball,
SAIGA, RUSSIAN, Saiga tatarica

Weight: 29–69 kg
Recommended Drug: 7.4 mg/kg ketamine plus 4 mg/kg xylazine
Antagonist: 1.2 mg/kg tolazoline
Alternative Drugs: 2.1 mg carfentanil; antagonize with 4 mg/kg naltexone
Comments: Prone to excessive running during induction with carfentanil.
Monitor for hyperthermia and respiratory depression.
References: Jensen, 1982; Strauss, 1987; Allen et al., 1991
SAMBAR, Cervus unicolor
353
Recommended Drug: 4 mg etorphine plus 12 mg acetylpromazine
• 10 mg fentanyl plus 80 mg azaperone plus 100 mg xylazine (i.e., Fentaz® plus
xylazine); antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg naloxone plus 2 mg/kg tolazoline
• 2.1 mg carfentanil plus 30 mg xylazine (males); 1.2 mg carfentanil plus 15 mg
xylazine (females); antagonize with 1 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg
yohimbine
References: Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; Nair, 1977; Keep, 1979;
Wiesner et al., 1982; Arora et al., 1983; Jones, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Mac Lentz et al., 1986; Schobert, 1987; Seal and Bush, 1987; Strauss,
1987; Arora, 1988; Van Mourik et al., 1988; Allen et al., 1991; Tung et al., 1993;
Saravanan et al., 2013
SAMBAR, PHILLIPINE, Cervus mariannus

Weight: 40–60 kg
Antagonist: None
SAMBAR, SUNDA, Cervus timorensis

Weight: 53–73 kg
Recommended Drug 0.05 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.2 mg/kg acepromazine
Alternative Drugs: 0.6 mg carfentanil plus 15 mg xylazine; antagonize with 100
mg naltexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
References: Jones, 1972; 1978; 1984; Presidente et al., 1978b; Keep, 1979; Van
Mourik and Stelmasiak, 1984; Seal and Bush, 1987; Allen et al., 1991
SEA LION, CALIFORNIA, Zalophus californianus

Weight: 50–110 (f), 200–400 (m) kg
Recommended Drug 2.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.14 mg/kg medetomidine
Supplemental Drug: 1.25 mg/kg ketamine (or isoflurane)
354
• 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.22 mg/kg midazolam or diazepam
Comments: 0.02 mg/kg atropine may be added to the recommended dose to
decrease secretions. For long procedures, you may wish to intubate the animal
and use gas anesthesia. Isoflurane or halothane alone can be used to induce and
anesthetize medium-sized females and pups using only physical restraint and a
portable anesthesia machine (see Work et al., 1992; 1993; Heath et al., 1997;
Paras et al., 1998). If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea, intubate with
cuffed endotracheal tube and manually ventilate; doxapram IV may also be
given.
References: Heuschele, 1961a; 1961b; Kroll, 1962; Ericksen, 1968; Ridgway
and Simpson, 1969; Geraci, 1973; Beck, 1976; Gray et al., 1974; McGrath et al.,
1979; Trillmich and Wiesner, 1979; Trillmich, 1983; Gage, 1984; 1993; Joseph
and Cornell, 1988; Gales, 1989; Williams et al., 1990a; Work et al., 1992; 1993;
Heard and Beusse, 1993; Heath et al., 1994; 1997; Paras et al., 1998; Haulena et
al., 1998; 2000; Haulena and Gulland, 2001; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Spelman
et al., 2004; Yamaya et al., 2006; Haulena, 2007; 2014; Dennison et al., 2008;
Stringer et al., 2010; Melin et al., 2013
SEA LION, NORTHERN (STELLER), Eumetopias jubatus

Weight: 270 (f), 1,000 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 2.1 mg/kg ketamine
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam; do not give supplemental
dose of tiletamine-zolazepam
decrease secretions. For extended immobilization times, induce with tiletamine-
zolazepam then maintain on gas anesthesia. If induction with tiletamine-
zolazepam is rapid (< 6 min), be prepared to stimulate respiration either
chemically or manually.
References: Loughlin and Spraker, 1989; Gage, 1993; Heath et al., 1994; 1996;
Haulena and Heath, 2001; Johnson et al., 2004
SEA LION, SOUTHERN (SOUTH AMERICAN), Otaria flavescens (byronia)

Weight: 140 (f), 200–350 (m) kg
355
Antagonist: None
Comments: Monitor closely for hyperthermia, particularly when ambient
temperature >20½ C (68½ F). If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea,
intubate with cuffed endotracheal tube and manually ventilate; doxapram IV may
also be given.
References: Cárdenas and Cattan, 1986; IWVS, 1992; Karesh et al., 1997;
Haulena and Heath, 2001; Haulena, 2014
SEAL, ANTARCTIC FUR, Arctocephalus gazella

Weight: 30–51 (f), 126–160 (m) kg
Alternative Drugs: 1.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam; do not give supplemental
and use gas anesthesia. If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea, intubate
with cuffed endotracheal tube and manually ventilate; doxapram IV may also be
given.
References: Bester, 1988; Gales, 1989; Boyd et al., 1990; Williams et al.,
1990a; Gage, 1993; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Haulena, 2007; 2014
SEAL, CRABEATER, Lobodon carcinophagus

Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: Isoflurane (see Gales et al., 2005)
Comments: If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea, intubate with cuffed
endotracheal tube and ventilate; doxapram IV may also be given.
References: Cline et al., 1969; Vergani et al., 1986; Gales, 1989; Williams et
al., 1990a; Shaughnessy, 1991; Gage, 1993; Nordøy et al., 1995; Lynch et al.,
1999; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Tahmindjis et al., 2003; Gales et al., 2005;
Lynch and Bodley, 2007; 2014
SEAL, GALAPAGOS FUR, Arctocephalus galapagoensis
356
Weight: 27 (f), 64 (m) kg
Alternative Drugs: 1.7 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam; do not give supplemental
• 4.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.14 mg/kg diazepam
decrease secretions. Monitor continually for hyperthermia. The
ketamine/diazepam dose may be given intravenously in restrained seals for a
more rapid induction. For long procedures, you may wish to intubate the animal
given.
References: Trillmich, 1983; Cardenas and Cattan, 1986; Gales, 1989; Gage,
1993; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Páras et al., 2002b
SEAL, GRAY, Halichoerus grypus

Weight: 105–186 (f), 170–310 (m) kg
Supplemental Drug: 0.5 mg/kg ketamine only
Antagonist: None
Comments: Use needles over 60 mm long to penetrate blubber layer. Opioids
are not recommended because they can cause prolonged apnea which must be
antagonized to avoid death. If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea,
also be given.
References: Jewell and Smith, 1965; Parry et al., 1981; Geraci et al., 1981;
Baker and Gatesman, 1985; Baker et al., 1988; 1990; Gales, 1989; Williams et
al., 1990a; Gage, 1993; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Lynch and Bodley, 2007; 2014
SEAL, GUADALUPE FUR, Arctocephalus phillipi

Weight: 50 (f), 140 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 3.6 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.12 mg/kg diazepam
Antagonist: None
357
Comments: The recommended drug combination may be given IV, but the dose
should be reduced by 50% and heart rate and core body temperature should be
monitored throughout immobilization.
References: Cardenas and Cattan, 1986; Sepúlveda et al., 1994; Haulena, 2007;
2014
SEAL, HARBOR (COMMON), Phoca vitulina

Weight: 50–150 (f), 70–170 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.05 mg/kg diazepam
given.
References: Finer, 1954; Kroll, 1962; Geraci, 1973; Hammond and Elsner,
1977; Geraci et al., 1981; Sinnett et al., 1981; Gage, 1984; 1993; Joseph and
Cornell, 1988; Gales, 1989; Williams et al., 1990a; Gulland et al., 1999; Tuomi et
al., 2000; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Lynch and Bodley, 2007; 2014
SEAL, HARP, Phoca groenlandica

Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: Isoflurane
endotracheal tube and manually ventilate; doxapram IV may also be given.
References: McDonell, 1972; Beck, 1976; Engelhardt, 1977; Gales, 1989;
Williams et al., 1990a; Gage, 1993; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Pang et al., 2006
SEAL, HOODED, Cystophora cristata

Weight: 145–300 (f), 200–400 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
358
References: Haigh and Stewart, 1979; Gales, 1989; Williams et al., 1990a;
Gage, 1993; Haulena and Heath, 2001
SEAL, LEOPARD, Hydrurga leptonyx

Weight: 225–590 (f), 200–455 (m) kg
Supplemental Drug: 0.7 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam
Antagonist: 0.006 flumazenil (optional)
Alternative Drugs: 8 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.22 mg/kg midazolam or diazepam
• 0.15 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.18 mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 30 mg
naltrexone plus 2 mg flumazenil total dose
decrease secretions. If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea, intubate with
cuffed endotracheal tube and manually ventilate; doxapram IV may also be
given.
References: Gales, 1984; 1989; Williams et al., 1990a; Mitchell and Burton,
1991; Gage, 1993; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Higgins et al., 2002; Lynch and
Bodley, 2007; 2014; Pussini and Goebel, 2015
SEAL, NEW ZEALAND FUR, Arctocephalus forsteri

Weight: 40–70 (f), 120–185 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: Isoflurane (1.2–4%)
atipamezole
References: Gales and Mattlin, 1998; Haulena, 2007; 2014; Barnes et al., 2008;
McKenzie et al., 2013
SEAL, NORTHERN ELEPHANT, Mirounga angustirostris

Weight: 900 (f), 2,000–2,700 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.22 mg/kg midazolam or
diazepam
Antagonist: None
359
Comments: If using ketamine/diazepam, give diazepam separately. 0.02 mg/kg
atropine may be added to the recommended dose to decrease secretions.
References: Ericksen, 1968; Cline et al., 1969; Gray et al., 1974; Briggs et al.,
1975; Cornell, 1977; Hammond and Elsner, 1977; Gage, 1984; Sedgwick, 1986;
Schobert, 1987; Joseph and Cornell, 1988; Gales, 1989; Nutter et al., 1998;
Haulena and Heath, 2001; Lynch and Bodley, 2007; 2014
SEAL, NORTHERN FUR, Callorhinus ursinus

Weight: 43–50 (f), 181–272 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 7 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.22 mg/kg diazepam
References: Kroll, 1962; Peterson, 1965; Keyes, 1965; Gage, 1984; Gales,
1989; Kiyota et al., 1992; Haulena and Heath, 2001
SEAL, RINGED, Phoca hispida

Weight: 61–142 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Geraci, 1973; Geraci et al., 1981; Gales, 1989; Williams et al.,
1990a; Haulena and Heath, 2001
SEAL, SOUTH AMERICAN FUR, Arctocephalus australis

Weight: 30–60 (f), 150–200 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
References: Karesh et al., 1997; Haulena, 2007; 2014
SEAL, SOUTHERN ELEPHANT, Mirounga leonina

Weight: 359–900 (f), 2,000–3,700 (m) kg
360
Antagonist: None
Comments: Tiletamine-zolazepam (0.5 mg/kg) may be given IV to physically
restrained seals (McMahon et al., 2000). Seals may show apnea which may last
2–15 min. If seal becomes anoxic give doxapram IV.
References: Ling and Nicholls, 1963; Ling et al., 1967; Cline et al., 1969; Ross
and Saayman, 1970; Cornell, 1977; Hammond and Elsner, 1977; Ryding, 1982;
Gales and Burton, 1987; Bester, 1988; Baker et al., 1988; 1990; Gales, 1989;
Woods et al., 1989; Williams et al., 1990a; Mitchell and Burton, 1991; Gage,
1993; Woods et al., 1989; 1994a; 1994b; 1995; 1996a; 1996b; Slip and Woods,
1996; McMahon et al., 2000; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Ramdohr, et al., 2001;
Field et al., 2002; McMahon et al., 2005; Lynch and Bodley, 2007; 2014; Barnes
et al., 2008; Carlini et al., 2009; Bornemann et al., 2013
SEAL, SOUTHERN FUR, Arctocephalus pusillus

Weight: 36–122 (f), 134–363 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
• 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.22 mg/kg midazolam or diazepam
Comments: David et al. (1988) found no chemical immobilization suitable for
the South African subspecies.
References: Thurman et al., 1982; Gage, 1984; 1993; David et al., 1988;
Ferreira and Bester, 1999; Haulena and Heath, 2001; Haulena, 2007; 2014;
Barnes et al., 2008
SEAL, SOUTHERN (SUBANTARCTIC) FUR, Arctocephalus tropicalis

Weight: 21–68 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Higher doses may be required for seals in poor body condition.
References: Haulena and Heath, 2001; Dabin et al., 2002; Haulena, 2007; 2014
361
SEAL, WEDDELL, Leptonychotes weddelli
Supplemental Drug: 1 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.2 mg/kg xylazine
Alternative Drugs: 1 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam (but see Comments)
Comments: Maintain anesthetized animals in lateral, as opposed to sternal,
recumbency to assist respiration. If seal becomes anoxic due to prolonged apnea,
also be given. If physically possible, intravenous injection of tiletamine-
zolazepam (0.6 mg/kg) results in shorter induction time, faster recovery, and
decreased mortality compared to intramuscular injection (Wheatley et al., 2006).
References: Flyger et al., 1965; Cline et al., 1969; Beck, 1972; 1976;
Hammond and Elsner, 1977; Gales and Burton, 1988; Gales, 1989; Williams et
al., 1990a; Phelan and Green, 1992; Bornemann and Plötz, 1993; Gage, 1993;
Haulena and Heath, 2001; Kusagaya and Sato, 2001; Wheatley et al., 2006;
Lynch and Bodley, 2007; 2014; Barnes et al., 2008; Mellish et al., 2010
SEROW, Capricornis swinhoei

Weight: 15–32 kg
Recommended Drug: 3.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.035 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
Supplemental Drug: 1.5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.015 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
Alternative Drugs: 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 3 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 3
mg/kg tolazoline
References: Yu et al., 2014
SERVAL, Felis serval

Weight: 8.7–18 kg
Antagonist: None
mg/kg butorphanol; antagonize with 0.15 mg/kg atipamezole
362
Comments: Darting free-ranging serval is not recommended because they are
lost easily before the drug takes effect; trapping is recommended (McKenzie and
Burroughs, 1993). The ketamine-medetomidine-butorphanol dose was based on
captive servals (Erdtmann et al., 1998; Langan et al., 2000) .
References: Seal et al., 1970; Gray et al., 1974; Hime, 1974; Beck, 1976;
Rowe-Rowe and Lowry, 1982; Genevois et al., 1984b; Wiesner and von Hegel,
1985; Schobert, 1987; McKenzie and Burroughs, 1993; Erdtmann et al., 1998;
Ramsay et al., 1999; Langan et al., 2000a; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Gunkel and
Lafortune, 2007; Moresco et al., 2009; Ramsay, 2014
SHARKS, GENERAL
Weight: 10–180 kg
Comments: The above doses should be used as a starting point only when no
other data are available. A good discussion and specific doses using ketamine-
medetomidine, ketamine-dexmedetomidine, propofol, MS-222, and other drugs
can be found in Mylniczenko et al (2014b).
References: Gilbert and Wood, 1957; Stoskopf, 1986; 1993; Miller et al., 2005;
Mylniczenko et al., 2014b
SHEEP, ARGALI, Ovis ammon

Weight: 40–330 kg
Recommended Drug: 4 mg carfentanil plus 100 mg ketamine plus 50 mg
xylazine total dose
Comments: Dose based on estimated weight of 90 kg.
References: Kenny et al., 2008; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014
SHEEP, BARBARY - SEE AOUDAD
SHEEP, BIGHORN, Ovis canadensis

Weight: 65–150 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.44 butorphanol plus 0.26 mg/kg azaperone plus 0.2
mg/kg medetomidine
Antagonist: 0.25 mg/kg naltrexone plus 1 mg/kg atipamezole
363
Alternative Drugs: 4.5 mg etorphine plus 50 mg xylazine; antagonize with 9 mg
mg/kg atipamezole
• 4.2 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
Comments: Bighorn sheep are very susceptible to capture myopathy and
hyperthermia; careful monitoring of the animal is required. Sheep can be
sensitive to xylazine; monitor carefully and always give an antagonist. Although
cyclohexane and alpha adrenergic agonist combinations (e.g., ketamine-xylazine,
ketamine-medetomidine, tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine) have been used on
sheep, inductions can be unpredictable and recoveries prolonged. These
combinations have been used most successfully on human-habituated sheep
(Merwin et al., 2000). The tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine dose is prepared by
reconstituting the tiletamine-zolazepam with 2 ml of 20 mg/ml xylazine.
References: Franzmann and Thorne, 1970; Thorne, 1971; Alford et al., 1974;
Gray et al., 1974; Stelfox and Robertson, 1976; Matthews, 1977; Winegardner et
al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; 1982b; 1982c; 1984; 1985a; 1985b; 1988; De Vos
and Remington, 1981; Thorne, 1982; Andryk et al., 1983; Carpenter and Lance,
1983; Bates et al., 1985; Festa-Bianchet and Jorgenson, 1985; Kock, M., et al.,
1987a; 1987b; 1987c; Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Jorgenson et
al., 1990; Jessup, 1992a; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; Hunter, 1999; Jessup, 1999;
Merwin et al., 1999; 2000; Shury and Caulkett, 2006; Caulkett and Haigh,
2007b; Fahlman et al., 2012; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014; Wolfe and Miller, 2016
SHEEP, FERAL, Ovis aries

Weight: 40–100 kg
SIAMANG, Hylobates syndactylus

Weight: 8–13 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1972; 1976; Beck and Dresner, 1972
364
SIFAKA, VERREAUX'S, Propithecus verreauxi
Weight: 3–4 kg
Alternative Drugs: 8 mg/kg tiletaime-zolazepam
References: Springer et al., 2015
SITATUNGA, Tragelaphus spekei

Weight: 50–125 kg
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg etorphine; antagonize with 2 mg diprenorphine per mg
etorphine given
• 1 mg carfentanil; antagonize with 100 mg naltrexone
only)
Comments: Xylazine may produce rapid shallow respiration which may be
improved by administration of doxapram (Densmore, 1979).
References: Hime and Jones, 1970; Göltenboth and Klös, 1970; Bauditz, 1972;
Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Jones, 1972; York and Huggins, 1972; Boever and
Paluch, 1974; Mehren and Rapley, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken,
1975; Densmore, 1979; Jensen, 1982; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Schobert,
1987; Kock et al., 1989; Allen et al., 1991; Ball, 2007; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014
SKUNK, HOG-NOSED, Conepatus leuconotus

Antagonist: None
References: Dyson, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Seal and
Kreeger, 1987; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
SKUNK, MALINA'S HOG-NOSED, Conepatus chinga
365
Antagonist: None
References: Castillo et al., 2012
SKUNK, HOODED, Mephitis macroura

Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Seal and Kreeger, 1987;
Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
SKUNK, SPOTTED, Spilogale spp.

Weight: 0.2–1 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Jessup et
al., 1980; Jessup, 1982b; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Pond and O’Gara, 1994; López
González et al., 1998
SKUNK, STRIPED, Mephitis mephitis

Weight: 2–3 kg
Antagonist: None
• Halothane (see Larivière and Messier, 2000)
References: Verts, 1960; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Beck,
1972; 1976; Gray et al., 1974; Haupert and Lindeen, 1974; Ramsden et al., 1976;
Boever et al., 1977; Jessup et al., 1980; Hoilien and Oates, 1982; Jessup, 1982b;
Rosatte and Hobson, 1983; Wright, 1983; Genevois et al., 1984b Schobert, 1987;
366
Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Servin and Huxley, 1992; Pond and O’Gara, 1994;
Larivière and Messier, 1996; 2000; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
SLOTH, THREE-TOED, Bradypus variegatus

Weight: 2–6 kg
Antagonist: 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole, IM
• 2.1 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.011 mg/kg dexmedetomidine; antagonize with 0.13
mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Avoid hypothermia.
References: Hanley et al., 2006; 2008; West et al., 2007a; 2014b; Kinney et al.,
2013
SLOTH, TWO-TOED, Choloepus spp.

Weight: 4–8.5 kg
Antagonist: 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole, IM
• 2.1 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.011 mg/kg dexmedetomidine; antagonize with 0.13
mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Avoid hypothermia.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Schobert, 1987; Vogel
et al., 1998; Hanley et al., 2006; 2008; West et al., 2007a; 2014b; Rojas Moreno,
2011; Kinney et al., 2013
SNAKES, GENERAL
Antagonist: None
Comments: Neither drug dose is completely satisfactory for snakes because
they induce catalepsy. The suggested drugs and doses should be used as a starting
point only if no additional data are available. Expect prolonged recoveries. The
367
effective dose depends on species and body temperature (i.e., lower doses for
lower body temperatures).
References: Brazenor and Kaye, 1953; Karlstrom and Cook, 1955; Mosby and
Cantner, 1956; Betz, 1962; Hackenbrock and Finster, 1963; Kraner et al., 1965;
Gandal, 1968; Stemmler and Zingg, 1969; Burke and Wall, 1970; Jackson, 1970;
Wallach and Hoessle, 1970; Calderwood, 1971; Beck, 1972; 1976; Glenn et al.,
1972a; 1972b; Cooper, 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Stunkard and Miller, 1974;
Hatori et al., 1975; Beck, 1976; Jones, 1977b; Wang et al., 1977; Calderwood
and Jacobson, 1979; Jessup et al., 1980; Sedgwick, 1980b; Strond and Baxter,
1980; Amand, 1982b; Boever and Caputo, 1982; Gillingham et al., 1983; Mulder
and Hauser, 1984; Garver and Jackson, 1985; Aird, 1986; Morris, 1986;
Schobert, 1987; Johnson, 1991; Schumacher et al., 1992; Page, 1993; Nichols
and Lamirande, 1994; Pratap et al., 2006; Bertelsen, 2007; 2014
SPRINGBOK, Antidorcas marsupialis

Weight: 30–45 kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.03 mg/kg carfentanil; antagonize with 3 mg/kg naltrexone
• 1.2 mg etorphine plus 10 mg xylazine; antagonize with 2.4 mg diprenorphine
plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Springbok are difficult to approach and darts may cause injuries in
these small antelope; physical capture may be safer and more effective (Kock et
al., 2006). Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adult male, 20 mg; adult
female, 15 mg, subadult, 7.5 mg; neonate, 5 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg;
perphenazine (adult male, 100 mg; adult female, 70 mg; subadult, 50 mg;
neonate, 20 mg).
References: Heuschele, 1961a; Ebedes, 1962; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a;
Bigalke, 1965; Pienaar, 1969b; 1973a; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Bauditz, 1972;
Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; De Vos, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken,
1975; York, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; Hofmeyr et al., 1977; Wiesner et al., 1982;
1984; 1985; Jacobson, 1983; Jacobson and Kollias, 1984; Schobert, 1987; IWVS,
1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, M., et al., 2006
SQUIRREL, BROWN, Sciurus vulgaris

Weight: 200–800 g
368
Comments: Ketamine-medetomidine may not induce complete immobilization;
increase ketamine, if necessary
References: Jalanka and Roeken, 1990
SQUIRREL, AFRICAN GROUND, Xerus inauris

Weight: 375–800 g
plus 0.0005 mg/g buprenorphine
Antagonist: 0.002 mg/g atipamezole
References: Van Heerden, 1984; Van Heerden and Dauth, 1985; Joubert et al.,
2011
SQUIRREL, FLYING (NEW WORLD), Glaucomys volans

Weight: 50–185 g
Antagonist: None
References: IWVS, 1992
SQUIRREL, FOX, Sciurus niger

Weight: 600–800 g
Antagonist: None
References: IWVS, 1992; Arenz, 1997; Heard, 2007d
SQUIRREL, GRAY, Sciurius carolinensis

Weight: 300–700 g
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: Isoflurane (see Parker et al., 2008)
References: Murry and Dennett, 1963; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al.,
1970; Barry, 1972; Beck, 1976; Moller, 1983; Schobert, 1987; Heard, 2007d;
Parker et al., 2008
369
SQUIRREL, RED, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
Weight: 141–312 g
Alternative Drugs: Gas anesthesia such as isoflurane
References: Moller, 1983; Seal and Kreeger, 1987
SQUIRREL, RICHARDSON’S GROUND, Spermophilus richardsonii

Weight: 290–345 g
References: Love, 1970; Genevois et al., 1984a; Olson and McCabe, 1986;
McColl and Boonstra, 1999
SQUIRREL, TRICOLORED, Callosciurus erythraeus

Weight: 150–500 g
Antagonist: None
STEENBOK, Raphicerus campestris

Weight: 7–16 kg
Recommended Drug: 0.4 mg/kg fentanyl plus 1 mg/kg azaperone
• 0.04 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 1 mg/kg azaperone; antagonize with 1 mg/kg
naltrexone
370
References: Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; De Vos, 1975; Smuts, 1975; Wiesner,
1975; 1977; Hofmeyr, 1981; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Kock, 2001; Kock,
M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
STOAT - SEE ERMINE
SUNI, Neotragus moschatus

Weight: 4–9 kg
mg/kg yohimbine
• 0.01 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.4 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.02 mg
• 10 mg/kg ketamine IV after manual restraint
Comments: Monitor for respiratory depression when using opioids. Long-acting
tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults 5 mg); zuclopenthixol (adults, 10-20 mg).
Suni transport well in dark, individual crates when given 5 mg haloperidol.
References: Flamand and Lawson, 1986; Schobert, 1987; Burroughs, 1993d;
Kock et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
SWAN, BLACK-NECKED, Cygnus melanocoryphus

Weight: 4–5.4 kg
Antagonist: None
SWINE, WILD - SEE HOG, EUROPEAN WILD
TAHR, Hemitragus jemlahicus

Weight: 50–100 kg
371
atipamezole
naltrexone plus 0.1 mg/kg atipamezole
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Gray et al.,
1974; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; 1977; Wiesner et al., 1982;
1984; Göltenboth and Klös, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990;
Allen et al., 1991; Dematteis et al., 2006; Caulkett and Haigh, 2007b; Rainwater
et al., 2013; Caulkett and Walzer, 2014
TAKIN, Budorcas taxicolor

Recommended Drug: 0.25 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.03 mg/kg medetomidine
Supplemental Drug: 100 mg ketamine IV
Alternative Drugs: 0.005 mg/kg carfentanil plus 0.1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize
with 0.5 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: Takin given carfentanil/xylazine tended to become laterally
recumbent with increased probability of regurgitation than takin given
butorphanol/medetomidine.
References: Morris et al., 2000
TALAPOIN, Miopithecus talapoin

Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1972; 1976; Beck and Dresner, 1972; Jessup et al., 1980
TAMARAW, Bubalus mindorensis

Supplemental Drug: 0.01 mg/kg etorphine
372
References: Roth and Montemayor-Taca, 1971; Masangkay et al., 1993
TAMARIN, COTTON-HEADED, Saguinus oedipus

Weight: 225–900 g
References: Kroll, 1962; Schobert, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Ølberg,
2007
TAMARIN, EMPEROR, Saguinus imperator

Weight: 225–900 g
References: Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Ølberg, 2007
TAMARIN, GOLDEN LION, Leontopithecus rosalia

Weight: 600–800 g
References: Heuschele, 1961a; 1961b; Selmi et al., 2004b; 2004c
TAMARIN, RED-BELLIED, Saguinus labiatus

Weight: 225–900 g
References: Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Ølberg, 2007
TAMARIN, WHITE-LIPPED, Saguinus nigricollis

Weight: 225–900 g
373
Antagonist: None
References: Gray et al., 1974; Ølberg, 2007
TAPIR, BAIRD'S, Tapirus bairdii

Alternative Drugs: 0.2 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.4 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize
with 0.2 mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
Comments: The butorphanol/xylazine dose is only effective on calm animals.
Sedation lasts for about 30 minutes. If additional down time is required,
administer 1 mg/kg ketamine, preferably IV.
References: Paras-Garcia et al., 1996; Trim et al., 1998; Foerster et al., 1998;
2000; Hernandez-Divers and Bailey, 2007; Hernandez et al., 2014
TAPIR, MOUNTAIN, Tapirus pinchaque

References: Miller-Edge and Amsel, 1994; Hernandez-Divers and Bailey,
2007; Hernandez et al., 2014
TAPIR, SOUTH AMERICAN, Tapirus terrestris

Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 1.2 mg etorphine; antagonize with 2.4 mg diprenorphine
References: Kroll, 1962; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Alford et al., 1974; Gray
et al., 1974; Hertzog, 1975; Mehren and Rapley, 1975; Rapley and Mehren,
1975; Hugues et al., 1986; Schobert, 1987; Pollock and Ramsay, 2003; Blanco
Marquez and Blanco Marquez, 2004; Hernandez et al., 2014
374
TAYRA, Eira barbara
Weight: 4–5 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Seal et al., 1970; Beck, 1976; Schobert, 1987; Kollias and Abou-
Madi, 2007; 2014
TEAL, BLUE WING, Anas discors

Weight: 330–360 g
Antagonist: None
References: Crider et al., 1968; Crider and McDaniel, 1968; Gray et al., 1974;
Schobert, 1987
TEAL, GREEN WING, Anas crecca

Weight: 300–400 g
Antagonist: None
References: Crider et al., 1968; Schobert, 1987
TIGER, Panthera tigris

Weight: 100–160 (f), 140–300 (m) kg
• 3 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.0125 mg/kg dexmedetomidine plus 0.1 mg/kg
midazolam
yohimbine
• 1.5 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.04 mg/kg detomidine
Comments: There are many warnings in the literature that tiletamine-zolazepam
should not be used in tigers. However, Kreeger and Armstrong (2010) were
unable to document support for this blanket contraindication. Tiletamine-
zolazepam is used successfully on free-ranging tigers and only 1.3% of captive
375
tigers given this drug combination died, which is well within normal anesthetic
losses. It may be that captive, hybrid, or "white" tigers are more susceptible to
complications, but this is speculative. The ketamine/medetomidine dose has been
used on free-ranging Siberian tigers (Kreeger, unpubl. data), but lower doses may
be effective in captive tigers (see Miller et al., 2003). Be mindful of the potential
for sudden, spontaneous recoveries when using ketamine-medetomidine; monitor
anesthetic depth constantly . The addition of 0.1 mg/kg midazolam to any of the
above combinations may help to reduce convulsions.
References: Pistey and Wright, 1959; Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Heuschele,
1961a; Larsen, 1963; Ericksen, 1968; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Göltenboth and
Klös, 1970; Seal et al., 1970; 1987; Bennet et al., 1971; Bauditz, 1972; Foster,
1974; Gray et al., 1974; Hime, 1974; Johnston, 1974; Seidensticker et al., 1974;
Beck, 1976; Robinson, 1976; Kuntze, 1977; Wiesner, 1977; Chakrabarti, 1980;
Arora et al., 1983; Genevois et al., 1984b; Smith et al., 1983; Wiesner and von
Hegel, 1985; Gonzales and McDonnel, 1986; Hugues et al., 1986; Göltenboth
and Klös, 1987; Röken, 1987; Schobert, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Barnett and
Lewis, 1990; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Vogelnest, 1999; Goodrich et al., 2001;
Miller et al., 2003; Curro et al., 2004; Gunkel and Lafortune, 2007; Larsson et
al., 2008; Sontakke et al., 2009; Kreeger and Armstrong, 2010; Lewis et al.,
2011; Ramsay, 2014; Clark-Price et al., 2015; Laricchiuta et al., 2015
TIANG - SEE TOPI
TITI - SEE MARMOSET, SHORT-TUSKED
TOADS - SEE AMPHIBIANS, GENERAL
TOPI, Damaliscus lunatus

Alternative Drugs: 4 mg etorphine plus 80 mg azaperone; antagonize with 8 mg
diprenorphine
Comments: Topi are susceptible to capture myopathy and will run long
distances when darted from helicopters; net-gunning may be preferred.
Hyaluronidase (1,500-3,000 IU) may be added to decrease induction time. Tiang
(D. l. tiang ) are a little larger than topi (130-160 kg). Long-acting tranquilizer
376
doses: haloperidol (adult male, 30 mg; adult female, 20 mg; subadult, 10 mg);
zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults, 100-150 mg; subadults, 40 mg).
References: Talbot and Lamprey, 1961; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Buck et al.,
1963; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969b; Patrick, 1971; Jones, 1972;
De Vos, 1975; 1978a; York and Huggins, 1972; Röken, 1975; Smuts, 1975; York,
1975; Haigh, 1976d; Hofmeyr, 1981; Kock et al., 1989; 2006; IWVS, 1992;
Burroughs, 1993d; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
TSESSEBE- SEE TOPI
TUAN - SEE MOUSE, BRUSH-TAILED MARSUPIAL
TUCO-TUCO, Ctenomys spp.

Weight: 100–700 g
Antagonist: None
References: Stein, et al., 2009
TURKEY, WILD, Meleagris gallopavao

Weight: 4–8 kg
Recommended Drug: Alpha-choralose given orally at a rate of 8 g/liter cracked
corn
Antagonist: None
Comments: Oral administration of immobilizing drugs is generally an
ineffective method of capturing birds, but may be employed when no other
alternatives exist. Be prepared for extreme variability of effects, ranging from
little or no sedation to relatively high mortality.
References: Mosby and Cantner, 1956; Murry and Dennett, 1963; Williams,
1966; 1967; Williams et al., 1966; 1973a; 1973b; Bailey, 1972; Bailey and
Doepker, 1977; Evans and Goertz, 1975; Donahue et al., 1982; Holbrook and
Vaughan, 1985; Schumacher et al., 1997b
TURTLE, LEATHERBACK, Dermochelys coriacea

Comments: The recommended doses are at the high end of the range of doses
that Harms et al. (2007) employed. However, all doses seemed to be safe for the
377
turtles and did not affect within-season return nesting rate.
References: Harms et al., 2007; 2014
TURTLE, LOGGERHEAD, Caretta caretta

Supplemental Drug: maintain on 0.5-2% sevoflurane
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg/kg propofol, IV
• 3 mg/kg alfaxalone, IV
Comments: The longer the turtle has been anesthetized, the less atipamezole
needs to be given in order to avoid hyperexcitability upon recovery. For example,
if the turtle has been anesthetized for 15-30 min, give 1/2 dose of atipamezole;
30-45 min., give 1/4 dose; and >45 min. give no atipameazole.
References: Chittick et al., 2002b; MacLean et al., 2005; 2008; Phillips et al.,
2017
TURTLE, RED-EARED SLIDER, Trachemys scripta elegans

Weight: 5–10 kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.1 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
Alternative Drugs: 20 mg/kg alfaxalone
Comments: Administer drugs IM in hindlimb, SC in forelimb, or intranasally.
The alfaxalone dose was more efficacious at body temperatures of 20º C
(Kischinovsky et al., 2013).
References: Lahner et al., 2011; Kischinovsky et al., 2013
TURTLE, SNAPPING, Chelydra serpentina

Weight: 5–30 kg
Recommended Drug: 40 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg midazolam
Antagonist: None
Comments: Placing turtles/tortoises in dorsal recumbency (on their “backs”)
may result in respiratory depression because the viscera will compress the lungs.
Surgical anesthesia is achieved when the head is not retracted when pulled out,
but the corneal reflex is still present.
378
References: Mosby and Cantner, 1956; Beck, 1972; Jessup et al., 1980; Bienzle
et al., 1991; Bienzle and Boyd, 1992
TURTLES/TORTOISES: GENERAL
Alternative Drugs: gas (isoflurane, sevoflurane) anesthesia
• 44 mg/kg ketamine
Comments: Suggested doses should be used as a starting point only in the
absence of other data. Placing turtles/tortoises in dorsal recumbency (on their
“backs”) may result in respiratory depression because the viscera will compress
the lungs. Surgical anesthesia is achieved when the head is not retracted when
pulled out, but the corneal reflex is still present.
References: Mosby and Cantner, 1956; Kaplan and Taylor, 1957; Young and
Kaplan, 1960; Hunt, 1964; Wallach and Hoessle, 1970; Calderwood, 1971; Beck,
1972; 1974; Gray et al., 1974; Kuehn, 1974; Calderwood and Jacobson, 1979;
Jessup et al., 1980; Boever and Caputo, 1982; Wood et al., 1982; Garver and
Jackson, 1985; Brannian et al., 1987; Schobert, 1987; Adest et al., 1988; Gyuris
and Limpus, 1989; Bennett, 1991; Bienzle et al., 1991; Bienzle and Boyd, 1992;
Page, 1993; Holz and Holz, 1994; Oppenheim and Moon, 1995; Moon and
Stabenau, 1996; Lock et al., 1998; Pye and Carpenter, 1998; Norton et al., 1998;
Rooney et al., 1999; Dennis et al., 2000; Sleeman et al., 2000; Greer et al., 2001;
Dennis and Heard, 2002; Schumacher, 2007; Hernandez-Divers et al., 2007;
Hansen and Bertelsen, 2013; Vigani, 2014
UAKARI, Cacajao spp.

Weight: 5–10 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Beck, 1976; Bush et al., 1977; Schobert, 1987
URIAL, Ovis orientalis

Weight: 50–100 kg
Recommended Drug: 1.2 mg carfentanil (males); 1 mg carfentanil (females)
Antagonist: 120 mg naltexone
Comments: Also see Mouflon
379
References: Allen et al., 1991
VERVET, Cercopithecus pygerythrus

Weight: 3–8 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Kroll, 1962; Graham-Jones, 1964; Beck, 1976; Eads, 1976;
Schobert, 1987; Burroughs, 1993c
VICUÑA, Vicugna vicugna

Weight: 35–65 kg
Alternative Drugs: 8 mg/kg ketamine plus 1.2 mg/kg xylazine plus 0.35 mg/kg
Comments: Jones (1977a) stated that the use of opioids in llama was
contraindicated; assume the same for vicuña.
References: Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schiappacasse Faundes, 1991;
Mama and Walzer, 2014
VULTURE, CAPE, Gyps coprotheres

Weight: 5–7 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Ebedes, 1973a; Van Heerden et al., 1987
VULTURE, TURKEY, Cathartes aura

Weight: 5–7 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Redig and Diuke, 1976; Allen and Oosterhuis, 1986a
380
WALLABY, BRIDLED NAILTAIL, Onychogalea fraenata
Weight: 2–9 kg
Supplemental Drug 2 mg/kg ketamine only
References: Boardman et al., 2014
WALLABY, AGILE, Macropus agilis

Weight: 12–20 kg
Supplemental Drug 4 mg/kg ketamine only
Antagonist: None
References: Kroll, 1962; Keep, 1973; Stirrat, 1997; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008
WALLABY, BRUSH-TAILED ROCK, Petrogale penicillata

Weight: 3–9 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Holz, 1992; Shima et al., 1993; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008
WALLABY, PARMA, Macropus parma

Antagonist: None
References: Bush et al., 1990; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008
WALLABY, RED-NECKED (BENNETT'S), Macropus rufogriseus

Weight: 7–20 kg
Supplemental Drug: 2.5 mg/kg ketamine only
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.05 mg/kg dexmedetomidine; antagonize with 2.5
mg/kg atipamezole
381
• 4 mg/kg alfaxalone plus 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.5 mg/kg
atipamezole
References: Seal et al., 1970; Denny, 1974; Wiesner, 1977; England and Kock,
1988; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Holz, 1992; 2014b; Shima et
al., 1993; Holz and Barnett, 1996; vonDegerfeld, 2005; Vogelnest and Portas,
2008; Bouts et al., 2010; 2011; Watson et al., 2016
WALLABY, SWAMP, Wallabia bicolor

Weight: 10.3–15.4 (f), 12.3–20.5 (m) kg
Antagonist: None
References: Denny, 1974; Shima et al., 1993; Vogelnest and Portas, 2008
WALLABY, TAMMAR, Macropus eugenii

Weight: 12–20 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Denny, 1974; Richardson and Cullen, 1981; 1984; Vogelnest and
Portas, 2008
WALLAROO, Macropus robustus

Weight: 20–40 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Marlow, 1956; Denny, 1974; Finnie, 1976
WALRUS, Odobenus rosmarus

Weight: 400–1,250 (f), 800–1,700 (m) kg
Recommended Drug: 2.2 mg/kg meperidine plus 0.1 mg/kg midazolam
Supplemental Drug: Gas (sevoflurane)
Antagonist: None
• 7.8 mg* etorphine total dose; antagonize with 250 mg naltrexone total dose
382
Comments: When using meperidine-midazolam, administering 0.04 mg/kg
atropine (IM, SC, or IV) is recommended to prevent bradycardia (Brunson,
2007). Use 8–10 cm needles to administer drugs along the epaxial muscles,
caudal to the last rib and cranial to the pelvis on both sides of the vertebral
column. Alternatively, the muscles of the forelimbs can be used. The tiletamine-
zolazepam dose produced smooth induction (14–29 min) and recoveries,
although recoveries can be prolonged (75–220 min); one of three animals given
tiletamine-zolazepam died during recovery (Griffiths et al., 1993). *The actual
amount of etorphine contained in the dart was 9.8 mg (1 ml); however, the
authors estimated that 2 mg (0.2 ml) was left in the 12-cm dart needle and not
injected into the animal (Ølberg et al., 2017). Supplemental oxygen is highly
encouraged.
References: DeMaster et al., 1981; Ryding, 1982; Cornell and Antrim, 1987;
Joseph and Cornell, 1988; Stirling and Sjare, 1988; Walsh et al., 1988; Gales,
1989; Born and Knutsen, 1990; Williams et al., 1990a; Griffiths et al., 1993;
Tuomi et al., 1996; Lanthier et al., 1999; Brunson, 2007; 2014; Ølberg et al.,
2017
WAPITI - SEE ELK
WART HOG, Phacochoerus aethiopicus

Weight: 65–100 kg
Recommended Drug: 200 mg ketamine plus 4 mg medetomidine
Supplemental Drug: One-half of the original dose
Antagonist: 20 mg atipamezole
• 3 mg/kg tiletamine-zolazepam plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine
• 0.4 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.125 mg/kg detomidine (or 0.07 mg/kg
medetomidine) plus 0.4 mg/kg midazolam; antagonize with 5 mg/kg naltrexone
plus 0.35 mg/kg atipamezole
• 5 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.5 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/ml
yohimbine IV
Comments: Wart hogs are not easy to immobilize and they are highly
susceptible to overheating. Do not overly stress before darting and keep cool
after immobilization. High velocity darts may cause severe muscle damage; use
low-impact darting systems, but maintain sufficient velocity to penetrate tough
skin. Hindquarters are the preferred target area. Animals will run long distances
after being darted and must be tracked. Overdose of etorphine can cause cardiac
arrest. Ketamine combinations and tiletamine-zolazepam may result in light
383
anesthesia, poor analgesia, and muscle spasms. Respiratory depression can be
severe with opioids.
References: Bigalke, 1965; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Pienaar, 1969a; 1969b;
Harthoorn, 1972a; 1973a; 1973b; Jones, 1972; De Vos, 1975; Röken, 1975;
Smuts, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993e; Calle and Morris,
1999; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Padilla and Ko, 2014
WATERBUCK, Kobus ellipsiprymnus

Comments: Difficult to immobilize. Prone to excessive running during
induction with opioids; monitor for hyperthermia. Susceptible to capture
myopathy. Carfentanil used without tranquilizers causes marked excitability.
Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adult male, 20 mg; adult female, 15
mg; subadult, 8 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults, 100-200
mg; subadults, 50 mg).
References: Buechner et al., 1960a; 1960c; Harthoorn and Bligh, 1965; Pienaar
et al., 1966a; Hanks, 1967; Keep and Keep, 1967; Short and Spinage, 1967;
Hanks and Dowsett, 1969; Pienaar, 1969b; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg,
1972; Jones, 1972; Pienaar, 1968a; 1973a; De Vos, 1975; Rapley and Mehren,
1975; Röken, 1975; York, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; De Vos, 1978a; Kupper et al.,
1981; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; 1985; Janssen and Oosterhuis, 1984; Silvestris
and Heck, 1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Kock, R., et al., 1989; Allen et
al., 1991; Janssen et al., 1991; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Borkowski et al.,
2004; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Ball, 2007; Kock and Burroughs, 2012; Ball and
Hofmeyr, 2014
WATERFOWL, GENERAL
Antagonist: None
Comments: Gas (isoflurane, sevoflurane) anesthesia is recommended, if
possible.
384
References: Amand, 1982a; Langenberg et al., 1998; Machin and Caulkett,
1998a; 1998b; 1999; 2000; Mulcahy, 2007
WEASEL LEAST, Mustela nivalis

Weight: 60–500 g
Recommended Drug: Isoflurane; induce at 4%
Supplemental Drug: Isoflurane; maintain at 2%
References: Gorini et al., 2013
WEASEL LONG-TAILED, Mustela frenata

Weight: 85–200 g
References: Seal et al., 1970; Jessup, 1982b; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Gehring
and Swihart, 2000; Kollias and Abou-Madi, 2007
WEASEL-SHORT-TAILED - SEE ERMINE
WILDEBEEST, (BLACK, WHITE-TAILED), Connochaetes gnou

Alternative Drugs: 0.025 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.03 mg/kg medetomidine;
antagonize with 0.05 mg/kg diprenorphine plus 0.15 mg/kg atipamezole
naltrexone
Comments: Wildebeest are susceptible to capture myopathy if over-exerted.
Etorphine may not completely immobilize wildebeest and they may have to be
finally captured by hand (Kock et el., 2006). Long-acting tranquilizer doses:
haloperidol (adult male, 30 mg; adult female, 20 mg; subadult, neonate, 15 mg);
zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine, 70-100 mg total dose.
References: Pienaar, 1969b; 1973; Gauckler and Kraus, 1970; Amand et al.,
1972; Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Keep, 1973a; Gray et al., 1974;
De Vos, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; Haigh, 1976d; De Vos,
1978a; Wiesner et al., 1982; 1984; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Wiesner et al.,
385
1984; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Hugues et al., 1986; Schobert, 1987;
Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Allen et al., 1991; Berry, 1992; IWVS, 1992;
Burroughs, 1993d; Kock et el., 2006; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
WILDEBEEST, (BLUE, BRINDLED, WHITE-BEARDED), Connochaetes

taurinus
Comments: Wildebeest are susceptible to capture myopathy if over-exerted.
Monitor respiration rates closely. Wildebeest may not go down when given
opioids, but can be approached. Hyaluronidase reduces induction times
(Dittberner et al., 2015). Ketamine (50-100 mg IV) can improve handling if
animal is not fully immobilized. Much lower doses may be effective in captive
animals (see Bertelsen et al., 2006). Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol
(adults, 20 mg; subadult, 10 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults,
100 mg; subadults, 50 mg).
References: Heuschele, 1961a; 1961b; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Harthoorn,
1962b; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; 1963b; Orr and Moore-Gilbert, 1964;
Harthoorn and Bligh, 1965; Hirst et al., 1965; Pienaar et al., 1966a; 1968a; Fenn
and Sedgwick, 1969; Pienaar, 1969b; Harthoorn, 1971; Koci, 1971a; 1972;
Bauditz, 1972; Jones, 1972; York and Huggins, 1972; Keep, 1973; Young and
Whyte, 1973; De Vos, 1975; Röken, 1975; Smuts, 1975; Grootenhuis et al.,
1976; Haigh, 1976d; Ebedes et al., 1977; Slee and Walker, 1977; De Vos, 1978a;
Arora et al., 1983; Schobert, 1987; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Kock, R., et al.,
1989; Allen et al., 1991; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993d; Páras et al., 2002;
Bertelsen et al., 2006; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Ball, 2007; Kock and Burroughs,
2012; Ball and Hofmeyr, 2014; Dittberner et al., 2015
WISENT - SEE BISON, EUROPEAN
WOLF, AFRICAN, Canis lupaster

Weight: 7–10 kg
Recommended Drug: 10 mg/kg ketamine plus 0.025 mg/kg dexmedetomidine
386
References: Mekonnen Gutema et al., 2018
WOLF, GRAY, Canis lupus

Weight: 27–60 kg
Antagonist: None
atipamezole
Comments: A standard dose of 500 mg tiletamine-zolazepam should be
satisfactory for helicopter darting adult wolves. If using ketamine and xylazine,
wait at least 45 min after last ketamine or tiletamine-zolazepam injection before
administering yohimbine. Calm, captive wolves may be able to be immobilized
with 4 mg/kg ketamine plus 2 mg/kg xylazine. This combination is more readily
antagonized by yohimbine than when higher doses of ketamine are used.
Atropine at 0.05 mg/kg can be given to decrease salivation, particularly when
wolves are immobilized with tiletamine-zolazepam. Higher doses of ketamine-
medetomidine have been implicated in causing deaths due to severe
hyperthermia (Arnemo et al., 2013).
References: Kroll, 1962; Dyson, 1965; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Göltenboth
and Klös, 1970; 1987; Seal et al., 1970a; Bauditz, 1972; Alford et al., 1974; Gray
et al., 1974; Wentges, 1975; Wiesner, 1975; 1977; Haigh, 1976d; Boever et al.,
1977b; Philo, 1978; Fuller and Keith, 1981; Ballard et al., 1982; 1991; Fuller and
Kuehn, 1983; Genevois et al., 1984b; Wiesner et al., 1984; Duchamps, 1985;
Hess and Knakal, 1985; Tobey and Ballard, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985;
Hugues et al., 1986; Kreeger and Seal, 1986a; 1990; Kreeger et al., 1986c;
1987a; 1988; 1989a; 1990c; 1990d; 1990e; 1995; 1996; Schobert, 1987; Seal and
Kreeger, 1987; Strauss, 1987; Kock et al., 1989; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990;
Mech and Gese, 1992; Chakraborty and Das, 1994; Holz et al., 1994; Pond and
O’Gara, 1994; Vilà and Castroviejo, 1994; Sahr and Knowlton, 2000; Arnemo et
al., 2003; 2013; Valerio et al., 2005; Arnemo, 2006; Crawshaw et al., 2007;
Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014; Muliya et al., 2016
WOLF, MANED, Chrysocyon brachturus

Weight: 20–30 kg
387
References: Graham-Jones, 1964; Jalanka and Roenken, 1990; Pessuti et al.,
2001; Furtado et al., 2006; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014; Curi and Talamoni,
2006
WOLF, MEXICAN, Canis lupus baileyi

Weight: 23–28 kg
atipamezole
References: Servin and Huxley, 1992
WOLF, RED, Canis rufus

Weight: 20–40 kg
Antagonist 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole
• 0.4 mg/kg butorphanol plus 0.04 mg/kg medetomidine; antagonize with 0.02
mg/kg naltrexone plus 0.2 mg/kg atipamezole (captive animals only)
References: Seal et al., 1970; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Sladky et al., 1999b;
2000; Larsen et al., 2001; 2002; Larsen and Kreeger, 2007; 2014
WOLVERINE, Gulo gulo

Weight: 7–32 kg
388
• 0.1 mg/kg etorphine plus 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.2 mg/kg
Comments: The ketamine-medetomidine and tiletamine-zolazepam doses can
be reduced by 50% in captive wolverines.
References: Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al., 1970; Hash and Hornocker,
1980; Ballard et al., 1982; Wright, 1983; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Röken,
1987; Seal and Kreeger, 1987; Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Golden et al., 2002;
Arnemo et al., 2005b; Fahlman et al., 2005b; 2008; Arnemo, 2006; Kollias and
Abou-Madi, 2007
WOMBAT, Vombatus ursinus

Weight: 15–35 kg
Antagonist: None
Comments: Duration of and recovery from tiletamine-zolazepam are dose-
dependent; lower doses are recommended for field procedures. Ketamine-
medetomidine may be useful when reversal is a priority, but reliability and
efficacy are less optimal than with tiletamine-zolazepam.
References: Denny, 1974; Holz, 1992; Bush et al., 1990; Shima et al., 1993;
Evans et al., 1998; Holz, 2007b; 2014b; Bryant and Reiss, 2008
WOMBAT, NORTHERN HAIRY-NOSED, Lasiorhinus krefftii

Weight: 19–32 kg
Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: Isoflurane
dependent; lower doses are recommended for field procedures.
References: Bryant and Reiss, 2008
389
WOMBAT, SOUTHERN HAIRY-NOSED, Lasiorhinus latifrons
Weight: 19–32 kg
Antagonist: None
• Isoflurane
dependent; lower doses are recommended for field procedures.
References: Shima et al., 1993; Holz, 2007b; 2014b; Bryant and Reiss, 2008
WOODCHUCK, Marmota monax

Weight: 3–7.5 kg
Antagonist: None
References: Mosby and Cantner, 1956; Seal and Erickson, 1969; Seal et al.,
1970; Noyes and Siekierski, 1975; Young and Sims, 1979; Wright, 1983;
Genevois et al., 1984a
YAK, Bos grunniens

Weight: 250–400 (f), 800–1,000 (m) kg
Alternative Drugs: 0.025 mg/kg thiafentanil plus 0.15 mg/kg xylazine;
atipamezole
• 1 mg/kg xylazine; antagonize with 0.125 mg/kg yohimbine
naltrexone plus 0.0025 mg/kg atipamezole
References: Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Mehren and Rapley,
1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Williams and Riedesel, 1987; Kock et al., 1989;
390
Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Kumar et al., 1998; 1999; Sharma et al., 1998; 2001;
Alcantar et al., 2007; Curro, 2007; Cushing et al., 2011; Napier and Armstrong,
2014; Bouts et al., 2017
ZEBRA, PLAINS (COMMON), Equus quagga

Recommended Drug: 0.02 mg/kg etorphine plus 0.2 mg/kg azaperone
Alternative Drugs: 5 mg etorphine plus 5 mg medetomidine; antagonize with 10
mg diprenorphine plus 0.1 mg/kg atipamezole
Comments: Complete muscle relaxation is difficult to obtain with wild equids;
excessive leg movement is common. Detomidine (10 mg) or xylazine (60 mg)
may be substituted for azaperone, but azaperone is preferred (Kock et al., 2006).
Opioids result in poor muscle relaxation; administer 10 mg diazepam or 5 mg
xylazine IV to improve relaxation. Wild equids tend to overheat easily,
particularly if there is a prolonged hyperexcitable state prior to anesthetic
induction. Attempt to immobilize equids during the coolest part of the day.
Thiafentanil cannot be used in zebras. Zebra skin is resilient sometimes making
dart penetration difficult, but do not dart from behind because the skin of the
perineum is soft and penetration of the abdomen can result. Dart wounds often
bleed profusely; be sure to treat all dart wounds before release. Blindfolding is
recommended. After recovery, zebras often take off at a run, which may lead to
stumbling and falling; choose a suitable release site. Long-acting tranquilizer
doses: haloperidol (adults, 20-40 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine
(adults, 100 mg). Zebras from different family units cannot be mixed in one
compartment during transport because they will fight even when tranquilized.
References: Talbot and Lamprey, 1961; Talbot and Talbot, 1962; Lanphear,
1963; Van Niekerk et al., 1963a; Wright, 1963; Bigalke, 1965; Harthoorn, 1965a;
1971; 1972a; 1973b; Harthoorn and Bligh, 1965; King and Klingel, 1965;
Ebedes, 1966a; 1971a; Pienaar et al., 1966a; Ericksen, 1968; Klingel, 1968;
Wallach, 1968; 1969; Pienaar, 1968a; 1969b; Taylor and Chandler, 1971;
Bauditz, 1972; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Higgins, 1973; Harthoorn and Young,
1974; Hertzog, 1975; Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; Jones, 1976;
Oosterhuis, 1979; Hofmeyr, 1981; Wiesner et al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck,
1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Fukumoto and
Nisshiyama, 1989; IWVS, 1992; Burroughs, 1993f; Lin et al., 1993a; Vitaud,
1993; Wiesner, 1993; Hashizaki et al., 1996; Arnemo, 2004b; Kock, M., et al.,
2006; Walzer, 2007; 2014; Kock and Burroughs, 2012
ZEBRA, GREVY, Equus grevyi
391
• 12 mg carfentanil plus 13 mg detomidine; antagonize with 100 mg naltrexone
per mg carfentanil given
excessive leg movement is common. Muscle relaxation appears better with
detomidine than with xylazine. Opioids result in poor muscle relaxation;
administer 10 mg diazepam or 5 mg xylazine IV to improve relaxation. Wild
equids tend to overheat easily, particularly if there is a prolonged hyperexcitable
state prior to anesthetic induction. Attempt to immobilize equids during the
coolest part of the day. Etorphine may be more effective than carfentanil in
zebras; thiafentanil cannot be used in zebras. The carfentanil dose given is based
on repeated immobilizations of a captive female zebra (Renner, 1998). Zebra
skin is resilient sometimes making dart penetration difficult, but do not dart from
behind because the skin of the perineum is soft and penetration of the abdomen
can result. Dart wounds often bleed profusely; be sure to treat all dart wounds
before release. Blindfolding is recommended. After recovery, zebras often take
off at a run, which may lead to stumbling and falling; choose a suitable release
site. Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults, 20-40 mg);
zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults, 100 mg). Zebras from different
family units cannot be mixed in one compartment during transport because they
will fight even when tranquilized. Standing sedation might be achieved using
detomidine and butorphanol (Bouts et al., 2017).
References: Lock and Harthoorn, 1959; Buechner et al., 1960a; 1960c;
Lanphear, 1963; Wright, 1963; Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Alford et al., 1974;
Rapley and Mehren, 1975; Röken, 1975; Jones, 1976; Oosterhuis, 1979; Jessup
et al., 1980; Wiesner et al., 1982; Bristol et al., 1984; Kock and Pearce, 1985;
Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Pospisil et al., 1989; Allen, 1990a; Klein and
Citino, 1995; Chaduc, 1996; Renner, 1998; Walzer, 2007; Kock and Burroughs,
2012; Bouts et al., 2017
ZEBRA, MOUNTAIN, Equus zebra

392
excessive leg movement is common. Muscle relaxation appears better with
detomidine than with xylazine. Opioids result in poor muscle relaxation;
administer 10 mg diazepam to improve relaxation. Wild equids tend to overheat
easily, particularly if there is a prolonged hyperexcitable state prior to anesthetic
induction. Attempt to immobilize equids during the coolest part of the day.
Etorphine may be more effective than carfentanil in zebras; thiafentanil cannot
be used in zebras. Zebra skin is resilient sometimes making dart penetration
difficult, but do not dart from behind because the skin of the perineum is soft and
penetration of the abdomen can result. Dart wounds often bleed profusely; be
sure to treat all dart wounds before release. Blindfolding is recommended. After
recovery, zebras often take off at a run, which may lead to stumbling and falling;
choose a suitable release site. Long-acting tranquilizer doses: haloperidol (adults,
20-40 mg); zuclopenthixol, 1 mg/kg; perphenazine (adults, 100 mg). Zebras from
different family units cannot be mixed in one compartment during transport
because they will fight even when tranquilized.
References: Heck and Rivenburg, 1972; Young and Penzhorn, 1972; Röken,
1975; Jones, 1976; Oosterhuis, 1979; Shalka, 1979; Hofmeyr, 1981; Wiesner et
al., 1982; Silvestris and Heck, 1984; Kuttner and Wiesner, 1987; Burroughs,
1993f; Allen, 1990a; 1994; Kock, M., et al., 2006; Walzer, 2007; 2014; Kock and
Burroughs, 2012
ZEBU, Bos taurus

Antagonist: None
Alternative Drugs: 8 mg etorphine; antagonize with 16 mg diprenorphine
References: Jarvis and Morris, 1960; Beck, 1972; Woolf et al., 1973; Wiesner,
1975; Wiesner and von Hegel, 1985; Schobert, 1987
393
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Glossary
Adjuvant – Pharmacological agent added to a drug to increase or aid its effect
Agonist – Drug capable of combining with receptors to initiate drug actions
Akinesia – Loss of motor response due to paralysis of motor nerves
Alpha–adrenergic – Drugs that mimic the actions of the sympathetic nervous
system that employ norepinephrine as their neurotransmitter
Amnestic – Agent causing amnesia
Analgesia – Loss of sensitivity to pain
Anesthesia, General – Loss of ability to perceive pain associated with loss of
consciousness
Antagonist – Drugs that neutralize or impede the action or effect of others
Apnea – Absence of breathing
Apneic – Related to or suffering from apnea
Arrhythmia – Loss of rhythm, especially an irregularity of the heart beat
Auscultation – Listening to the sounds made by the various body structures
Benzodiazepine – Compounds with sedative, antianxiety, anticonvulsant, and
muscle relaxant properties
BP – Blood pressure
Bradycardia – Slowness of the heart beat
Bronchospasm – Contraction of the smooth muscles of the walls of the bronchi and
bronchioles causing narrowing of the lumen
BT – Body temperature
Catalepsy – State of malleable rigidity of the limbs.
Cerebration – Activity of the mental processes
CNS – Central nervous system
Congener – A member of the same class or group
Contralateral – Relating to the opposite side
CRT – Capillary refill time
Cyanosis – A dark bluish or purplish coloration of the skin and mucous membranes
due to deficient oxygenation of the blood
Cyclohexane – Dissociative anesthetic
Cycloplegia – Loss of power in the ciliary muscle of the eye
Distal – Situated away from the center of the body
554
Dose – Amount of drug given on a per weight basis, usually expressed as mg/kg
Dose – Total amount of drug given to an animal, usually expressed in mg
ED50 – Dose causing desired effect in 50% of the sample population
Endogenous – Originating or produced within the organism
Exogenous – Originating or produced outside of the organism
GABA – Gamma–aminobutyric acid; a neurotransmitter in the CNS
G – Gram
Hepatotoxic – Relating to an agent that damages the liver
HR – Heart rate
Hyperglycemia – Abnormally high concentration of glucose in the circulating
blood
Hyperkalemia – Abnormally high concentration of potassium ions in the circulating
blood
Hyperthermia – Unusually high body temperature
Hyperventilation – Abnormally fast or deep respiration
Hypnosis – Artificially induced sleep or state resembling sleep.
Hypocalcemia – Abnormally low concentration of calcium in the circulating blood
Hypoglycemia – Abnormally low concentration of glucose in the circulating blood
Hypokalemia – Abnormally low concentration of potassium ions in the circulating
blood
Hypotension – Low blood pressure
Hypothermia – Unusually low body temperature
Hypoxia – Decrease below normal levels of oxygen in the blood or tissue
IC – Intracardiac; within the chambers of the heart
IM – Intramuscular; within the substance of the muscle
Immobilant – A drug that induces immobilization
Immobilization – The state in which an animal is rendered incapable of voluntary
movement; it may or may not be sensate
Intranasal – In the nose
IP – Intraperitoneal; within the peritoneal cavity
IV – Intravascular; within the lumen of blood vessels
Kg – Kilogram
Lateral – On the side away from the median plane
Lb – Pound
LD50 – Dose lethal to 50% of the sample population
Medial – Relating to the middle or center
Mg – Milligram
555
Ml – Milliliter
Miosis – Excessive constriction of the pupil
Mydriasis – Dilation of the pupil
Myoglobinuria – Excretion of myoglobin in the urine
Narcosis – Sedation in which the animal is oblivious to pain with or without
hypnosis
Nephrotoxic – Relating to an agent that damages the kidney
Neuroleptanalgesia – Amnesia and analgesia produced by a combination of a
neuroleptic drug and a narcotic analgesic drug.
Neuroleptic – Antipsychotic drug causing suppression of spontaneous movements
with retention of spinal reflexes and pain-avoidance behavior
Neuropathy – Any disorder affecting any segment of the nervous system
Nociceptive – Capable of appreciation or transmission of pain
Opioid – Drug that has opium- or morphine-like properties
Paresis – Partial or incomplete paralysis
Patent – Open, exposed
Peritonitis – Inflammation of the peritoneum
Phenothiazine – Antipsychotic drug
PO – Per os; orally
Polyuria – Excessive urination
Proximal – Nearest the trunk or point of origin
RR – Respiratory rate
SC – Subcutaneous
Safety Margin – The ratio of the drug dose that causes death in 1% of the sample
population (LD1 ) to the drug dose that causes the desired effect in 99% of the
sample population (ED99 ); a small safety factor implies that the effective dose is
close to the lethal dose
Sedation – Relief of anxiety resulting in drowsiness to sleep
T1/2 – Half-life; the period of time during which the concentration of a substance in
the blood is reduced to one-half of its initial concentration
Tachycardia – Rapid beating of the heart
Thypnea – Rapid breathing
Therapeutic Index – The ratio of the drug dose that causes death in one-half of the
sample population (LD50 ) to the drug dose that causes the desired effect in one-
half of the sample population (ED50 )
Tidal Volume – The volume of air that is inspired and expired in a single breath
during regular breathing
556
Tranquilization – Relief of anxiety without producing undue sedation
557
Index
A
A-3080 31
AAM 19 , 35
Aardvark 161
Aardwolf 161
Accipiter gentilis 230
Acepromazine 22 , 153
Acinonyx jubatu 190
Acouchis 161
Addax 161
Addax nasomaculatus 161
Adjuvants 47
Administration Sites 93
Aepyceros melampus 241
Aero Syringe 75
Agouti 162
Agouti paca 277
Aguila chrysaetos 210
Ailurus fulgens 278
Aix sponsa 207
Alcelaphus buselaphus 233
Alces alces 266
Alfaxalone 35
Allenopithecus nigroviridis 262
Alligator 162
Alopechen aegyptiacus 229
Alopex lagopus 217
Alouatta spp. 264
Alpaca 162
Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Agonists 22
Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Antagonists 44
AMDUCA 9
Ammotragis lervia 165
Ampakines 48
558
Amphibians 162
Analgesics 140
Anas crecca 311
Anas discors 311
Anas platyrhynchos 207
Anguilla anguilla 211
Animal Capture Form 12
Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act 9
Ankole 163
Anoa 163
Anserini albiforns frontalis 229
Antagonists 42
Anteater, banded 163
Anteater, giant 163
Anteater, lesser 163
Anteater, silky 163
Antelope, four-horned 164
Antelope, roan 164
Antidorcas marsupialis 305
Antilocapra americana 282
Antilope cervicapra 180
Aonyx capensis 275
Aonyx cinerea 274
Aotus spp. 206
Aotus trivirgatus 264
Ape, barbary 165
Ape, celebes 165
Approach 90
Aptenodytes patagonicus 279
Arctictus binturong 176
Arctocephalus australis 298
Arctocephalus forsteri 297
Arctocephalus galapagoensis 295
Arctocephalus gazella 294
Arctocephalus phillipi 296
Arctocephalus pusillus 299
Arctocephalus tropicalis 299
Arctonyx collaris 169
Armadillo, giant 165
Armadillo, hairy 166
559
Armadillo, long-nosed 166
Armadillo, six-banded 166
Armadillo, three-banded 166
Aspiration 130
Ateles spp. 265
Atelocynus microtis 206
Atilax paludinosus 261
Atipamezole 44 , 46
Axis axis 196
Axis porcinus 198
Azaperone 23 , 153
B
Babirusa 167
Baboon, chacma 167
Baboon, gelada 167
Baboon, olive 168
Baboon, western 168
Baboon, yellow 168
Babyrousa babysussa 167
Badger, American 170
Badger, european 169
Badger, ferret 169
Badger, hog 169
Badger, honey 169
BAM 19 , 32, 34
Bandicoot, long-nosed 170
Bandicoot, short-nosed 170
Banteng 170
Bassaricyon gabbii 271
Bassariscus astutus 291
Bats 171
Bdeogale spp. 261
Bear, Asiatic black 171
Bear, black 172
Bear, polar 174
Bear, Sloth 175
Bear, spectacled 175
Bear, sun 175
560
Beaver 175
Beaver, European 176
Benzodiazepine Agonists 22
Benzodiazepines 23
Bettong, brush-tailed 176
Bettongia penicillata 176
Bilby, greater 176
Birds, general nonpasserine 177
Birds, general passerine 178
Birds, general pet 178
Bison bison 179
Bison bonasus 180
Bison, European 180
Bispectral index 30
Blackbuck 180
Blastocerus dichotomus 199
Blesbok 181
Bloat 128
Blow Pipes 56
Bobcat 181
Bongo 182
Bonobo 182
Bontebok 182
Boselaphus tragocamelus 269
Bos gaurus 221
Bos grunniens 325
Bos javanicus 170
Bos taurus 189 , 327
Bradypus variegatus 304
Branta canadensis 229
Bubalus bubalis 183
Bubalus mindorensis 309
Bubalus spp. 163
Bubo virgianus 276
Budorcas taxicolor 309
Buffalo, African 182
Buffalo, Asian water 183
Burramys parvus 281
Burro 183
Bushbuck 183
561
Bush pig, african 184
Buteo jamaicensis 234
Buteo lagopus 234
Buteo lineatus 234
Buteo platypterus 233
Butorides virescens 235
Butorphanol 32 , 34
Butorphanol-Azaperone-Medetomidine (BAM)
Quick Reference Chart 158
Butyrophenone Agonists 21 , 23
Buzzard, common 184
C
Cacajao spp. 315
Caiman 184
Cairina moschata 207
Calculating Drug Doses 17
Callithrix jacchus 259
Callithrix penicillata 259
Callorhinus ursinus 298
Callosciurus erythraeus 307
Camel, dromedary 184
Camelus bactrianus 184
Camelus dromedarius 184
Canis adustus 243
Canis aureus 243
Canis latrans 194
Canis lupaster 321
Canis lupus 322
Canis lupus baileyi 323
Canis lupus dingo 204
Canis lupus familiaris 206
Canis mesomelas 242
Canis rufus 323
Canis simensis 243
Capra falconeri 259
Capra hircus 228
Capra ibex 240
Capra nubiana 240
562
Capra pyrenaica 240
Capreolus capreolus 201
Capricornis swinhoei 300
Capture Myopathy 131
Capture-related Stress and Mortality 83
Capuchin 262
Capybara 185
Caracal 185
Cardiac Arrest 136
Caretta caretta 314
Carfentanil 31 , 147
Caribou 185
Cassowary, double-wattled 186
Castor canadensis 175
Castor fiber 176
Casuarius casuarius 186
Catagonus wagneri 278
Cat, black-footed 186
Cat, feral domestic 186
Cat, fishing 187
Cat, flat-headed 187
Cat, geoffrey 187
Cathartes aura 316
Cat, jungle 187
Cat, leopard 187
Cat, little spotted 188
Cat, marbled 188
Cat, pallas 188
Cat, wild 188
Cattle, feral 189
Cavia spp. 231
Cavy, patagonian 189
Cebus spp. 262
Celebes 165
Cephalophorus jentinki 209
Cephalophorus maxwelli 209
Cephalophorus monticola 208
Cephalophorus natalensis 209
Cephalophorus niger 207
Cephalophorus rufilatus 209
563
Cephalophorus sylvicultor 210
Cephalophorus zebra 210
Ceratotherium simum 290
Cercocebus albigena 258
Cercocebus torquatis 258
Cercopithecus aethiops 230 , 263
Cercopithecus albogularis 265
Cercopithecus ascanius 262
Cercopithecus diana 263
Cercopithecus mitis 262
Cercopithecus mona 264
Cercopithecus neglectus 263
Cercopithecus nictitans 265
Cercopithecus petaurista 264
Cercopithecus pygerythrus 315
Cerdocyon thous 218
Cervus canadensis 213
Cervus canadensis nannodes 215
Cervus canadensis roosevelti 215
Cervus duvauceli 171
Cervus elaphus 213
Cervus elaphus hippelaphus 200
Cervus elaphus roosevelti 215
Cervus eldi 197
Cervus mariannus 293
Cervus nippon 201
Cervus timorensis 293
Cervus unicolor 292
Cetaceans 189
Chaetophractus nationi 166
Chamois, northern 190
Chamois, southern 190
Cheetah 190
Chelydra serpentina 314
Chilla 191
Chimpanzee 191
Chinchilla spp. 192
Chital 192
Chlorphaga picta 229
Choeropsis liberiensis 236
564
Choloepus spp. 304
Chousingha 192
Chronic wasting disease 76
Chrysocyon brachturus 322
Civet, african 192
Civet, banded palm 192
Civet, brown palm 192
Civet, malagasy 193
Civet, masked palm 193
Civet, oriental 193
Civet, palm 193
Civettictis civetta 192
Coatimundi 194
Coendou prehensilis 280
Colobus spp. 263
Conepatus chinga 303
Conepatus leuconotus 303
Connochaetes gnou 320
Connochaetes taurinus 321
Considerations Prior to Animal Capture 87
Convulsions 133
Cougar 194
Coyote 194
Coypu 194
Crocodilians 194
Crocuta crocuta 239
Crustaceans 195
Ctenomys spp. 313
Culpeo 195
Cuon alpinus 204
Cuscus 195
CWD 76
Cyclohexanes 27 , 149
Cyclohexane Tips 28
Cyclopes didactylus 163
Cygnus melanocoryphus 308
Cynomys ludovicianus 282
Cynopithecus niger 165
Cystophora cristata 297
565
D
Dama dama 197
Damaliscus lunatus 312
Damaliscus pygargus 181
Darts 68
Dasyprocta spp. 162
Dasypus novemcinctus 166
Dasyurids, general 195
Dasyurus spp. 283
Deer, black-tailed 196
Deer, brocket 196
Deer, brow-antlered 197
Deer, eld’s 197
Deer, fallow 197
Deer, Himalayan musk 198
Deer, hog 198
Deer, marsh 199
Deer, mule 199
Deer, pére david’s 200
Deer, red 200
Deer, roe 201
Deer, rusa 201
Deer, sika 201
Deer, swamp 202
Deer, timor 202
Deer, white-tailed 202
Degu 203
Dehydration 138
Delivery Systems 39
Dendrolagus matschiei 245
Dermochelys coriacea 313
Desflurane 39
Detomidine 24 , 152
Dexmedetomidine 24 , 152
Dhole 204
Diazepam 23 , 152
Dicerorhinus sumatrensis 289
Diceros bicornis 288
Diethyl Ether 37
Dik-dik 204
566
Dingo 204
Dinomys branickii 277
Diprenorphine 44
Dog, African hunting 205
Dog, bush 205
Dog, small-eared 206
Dolichatis patagonum 189
Dot Sights 77
Douroucoulis 206
Doxapram 48 , 121
Dromaius novaehollandiae 215
Drug Combinations 19
Drug Doses 155
Drug Doses by Species 161
Drug Enforcement Administration 7
Duck, muscovy 207
Duck, wood 207
Duiker, black 207
Duiker, common (gray) 208
Duiker, jentink’s 209
Duiker, maxwell’s 209
Duiker, red 209
Duiker, red-flanked 209
Duiker, yellow-back 210
Duiker, zebra 210
E
Eagle, golden 210
Echidna, 210
Eira barbara 311
Eland, Giant (Lord Derby) 211
Elaphurus davidianus 200
Elaphus maximus 213
Elephant, African 212
Elephant, Asian 213
Elk, North American 213
Elk, Roosevelt, 215
Elk, tule 215
Emu 215
567
Enflurane 37
Enhydra lutris 275
Equus asinus 167
Equus caballus 237
Equus ferus caballus 237
Equus ferus prezwalskii 238
Equus grevyi 326
Equus hemionus 245
Equus kiang 246
Equus onager 271
Equus quagga 325
Equus zebra 327
Erethizon dorsatum 280
Erinaceus europaeus 235
Ermine 215
Ervus elaphus nannodes 215
Erythrocebus patus 264
Etorphine 33 , 147
Eulemur macaco 249
Eumetopias jubatus 294
Euphractus sexcinctus 166
Eustress 83
Euthanasia 114
Expiration Dates 13
Exsanguination 115
F
Falco mexicanus 216
Falco peregrinus 216
Falco rusticolus 232
Falco sparverius 245
Fanaloka 216
Felis caracal 185
Felis catus 187
Felis chaus 187
Felis geoffroyi 187
Felis marmorata 188
Felis nigripes 186
Felis pardalis 270
568
Felis planiceps 187
Felis serval 300
Felis sylvestris 188
Felis temmincki 186
Felis tiedii 258
Felis tigrina 188
Felis viverrina 186
Fentanyl 33 , 147
Ferret 216
Ferret, black-footed 216
Fisher 217
Fish, general 216
Flumazenil 47
Food and Drug Administration 7
Fossa fossa 193
Fox, arctic 217
Fox, bat-eared 218
Fox, cape 218
Fox, crab-eating 218
Fox, fennec 218
Fox, flying 218
Fox, hoary 219
Fox, Indian (Bengal) 219
Fox, kit 219
Fox, pale 219
Fox, Pampas 219
Fox, red 220
Frogs 221
Frostbite 127
Fukomys spp. 285
G
Galago 221
Galago senegalensis 221
Galago, thick-tailed 221
Galictis cuja 230
Galidia elegans 262
Gallamine 151
Gauge-metric conversion chart 51
569
Gaur 221
Gazella dama 221
Gazella dorcas 222
Gazella gazella 222
Gazella granti 222
Gazella leptoceros 223
Gazella soemmerringi 223
Gazella subgutturosa 223
Gazella thomsonii 224
Gazelle, dama 221
Gazelle, dorcas 222
Gazelle, mountain 222
Gazelle, Persian 223
Gazelle, soemmerings 223
Gemsbok 224
Genet 225
Genetta spp. 225
Gerbils 225
Gibbon, siamang 226
Gibbon, white-cheeked (crested) 226
Gibbon, white-handed (lar) 226
Giraffa camelopardalis 226
Giraffe 226
Glaucomys volans 306
Gnu 228
Goat, feral 228
Goat, mountain 228
Goose, canada 229
Goose, egyptian 229
Goose, lesser magellan 229
Goose, white-fronted 229
Gorilla 229
Gorilla gorilla 229
Grison, lesser 230
Grivet 230
Grysbok 230
Grysbok, Sharpe’s 231
Guanaco 231
Guemal 231
Guenons 231
570
Guineafowl 232
Guinea pig 231
Gulo gulo 323
Gyps coprotheres 316
Gyrfalcon 232
H
Haliaetus leucocephalus 210
Halichoerus grypus 295
Haloperidol 26 , 153
Hamsters 232
Handling the Immobilized Animal 101
Hare, European brown 232
Hartebeest 233
Hartebeest, Lichtenstein's 233
Hawk, broad-winged 233
Hawk, red-shouldered 234
Hawk, red-tailed 234
Hawk, rough-legged 234
Hawks 234
Helicopters 91
Hemigalus derbyanus 192
Hemitragus jemlahicus 308
Heron, green 235
Herpestes spp. 262
Hippocamelus bisculus 238
Hippopotamus 235
Hippopotamus amphibius 235
Hippotragus equinus 164
Hippotragus niger 291
Hobbles 102
Hog, European wild 236
Hog, feral 237
Horse, feral 237
Horse, Przewalski 238
Huemal 238
Human Consumption of Drugged Animals 13
Human First Aid Kit Checklist 154
Hutia, hispanolia 238
571
Hyaena brunnea 238
Hyaena hyaena 239
Hyaluronidase 48
Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris 185
Hydrurga leptonyx 297
Hyena, brown 238
Hyena, spotted 239
Hyena, striped 239
Hylobates concolor 226
Hylobates lar 226
Hylobates muelleri 225
Hylobates syndactylus 302
Hyperthermia 123
Hypothermia 124
Hyrax, rock 240
Hystrix africaeustralis 280
Hystrix cristata 280
Hystrix indica 280
Hystrix leucura 281
I
Ibex, Iberian (Spanish) 240
Ibex, nubian 240
Iguana 241
Iguana iguana 241
Immobilants 27
Immobilization Signs 96
Impala 241
Incomplete Immobilization 99
Inhalation Anesthetics 36
Intramuscular injection 93
Intranasal administration 95
Intravascular injection 95
Invertebrates, general 242
Isoflurane 38
Isoodon macrourus 170
572
Jackal, black-backed 242
Jackal, side striped 243
Jaguar 243
Jaguarundi 244
Javelina 244
K
Kangaroo, eastern grey 244
Kangaroo, red 244
Kangaroo, tree 245
Kangaroo, western gray 245
Kestrel, American 245
Ketamine 29 , 149
Ketamine-Medetomidine 28
Ketamine-Medetomidine Combinations with Atipamezole Antagonism 45
Ketamine-Xylazine Combinations 45
Ketamine-Xylazine Combinations with Yohimbine Antagonism 45
Khulan 245
Klipspringer 246
Koala 247
Kob, Uganda 247
Kobus ellipsiprymnus 319
Kobus kob 247
Kobus leche 248
Kobus megaceros 249
Kobus vardoni 283
Kudu, greater 247
Kudu, lesser 248
L
Labeling 13
Lagothrix spp. 265
Lama glama 254
Lama guanicoe 231
Lama pacos 162
Langur, hanuman (Indian) 248
Laser Sights 77
Lasiorhinus krefftii 324
573
Lasiorhinus latifrons 324
Lechwe 248
Lechwe, Nile 249
Lemming 249
Lemmus lemmus 249
Lemur, black 249
Lemur catta 250
Lemur, ring-tailed 250
Lemur, ruffed 250
Leontopithecus rosalia 310
Leopard 250
Leopard, snow 251
Leopard, Sunda clouded 251
Leopardus tigrinus 188
Leptonychotes weddelli 299
Lepus europaeus 232
Levallorphan 44
Linsang, banded 252
Lion 252
Litocranius walleri 225
Lizards 253
Lobodon carcinophagus 295
Long-acting Tranquilizers 24
Lontra canadensis 274
Lontra felina 275
Lophocebus aterrimus 258
Loris, slow 254
Loxodonta africana 212
Lutra lutra 275
Lutra maculicollis 276
Lycalopex (Pseudalopex) gymnocerus 219
Lycalopex (Pseudalopex) vetulus 219
Lycaon pictus 205
Lynx 255
Lynx canadensis 255
Lynx, european 254
Lynx lynx 254
Lynx pardina 255
Lynx rufus 181
574
M
Macaca arctoides 257
Macaca fascicularis 256
Macaca fuscata 256
Macaca mulatta 257
Macaca nemestrina 256
Macaca radiata 255
Macaca silenus 256
Macaca sinica 257
Macaca sylvanus 255
Macaque, barbary 255
Macaque, bonnet 255
Macaque, crab-eating (cynomolgus) 256
Macaque, lion-tail 256
Macaque, pig-tail 256
Macaque, stump-tailed 257
Macaque, toque 257
Macropus agilis 316
Macropus eugenii 317
Macropus fuliginosus 245
Macropus giganteus 244
Macropus parma 317
Macropus robustus 317
Macropus rufogriseus 317
Macropus rufus 244
Macrotis lagotis 176
Madoqua kirki 204
Manatee 257
Mandrillus sphinx 258
Mangabey, black 258
Mangabey, gray-cheeked 258
Mangabey, sooty 258
Manis tetradactyla 278
Manufacturers and Major Distributors 82
Mara 258
Margay 258
Markhor 259
Marmoset, black-tufted 259
Marmoset, cotton top 259
Marmoset, golden 259
575
Marmota flaviventris 260
Marmot, alpine 260
Marmota marmota 260
Marmota monax 324
Marmot, yellow-bellied 260
Marten 260
Marten, pine 260
Marten, yellow-throated 260
Martes americana/martes 260
Martes flavigula 260
Martes pennanti 217
Medetomidine 24 , 152
Meles meles 169
Mellivora capensis 169
Melogale moschata 169
Melurus ursinus 175
Mephitis macroura 303
Mephitis mephitis 303
Midazolam 23 , 152
Miopithecus talapoin 309
Mirounga angustirostris 297
Mirounga leonina 298
MK-467 45
Mongoose 262
Mongoose, African water 261
Mongoose, black-legged 261
Monitoring Equipment 78
Monkey, African green 262
Monkey, Allen’s 262
Monkey, capuchin 262
Monkey (guenon), black-cheeked 262
Monkey (guenon), blue 262
Monkey (guenon), diana 263
Monkey (guenon), grivet 263
Monkey (guenon), lesser white-nosed 264
Monkey (guenon), mona 264
Monkey (guenon), white-nosed 265
Monkey, night (douroucoulis) 264
Monkey, patas 264
Monkey, proboscis 264
576
Monkey, spider 265
Monkey, squirrel 265
Monkey, wooly 265
Mortality 84
Moschus chrysogasters 198
Mouse, brush-tailed marsupial 267
Muntiacus muntjak 268
Muntiacus reevesi 268
Muntjac 268
Muntjac, Reeves 268
Muskox 268
Muskrat 268
Mustela erminea 215
Mustela frenata 320
Mustela lutreola 261
Mustela nigripes 216
Mustela nivalis 320
Mustela putorius 216
Mustela vison 261
Myocastor coypus 269
Myoprocta spp. 161
Myrmecobius fasciatus 269
Myrmecophaga tridactyla 163
N
Nalbuphine 32 , 34 , 43 , 44
Nalmefene 44
Naloxone 44
Naltrexone 43 , 44
NAM 19 , 113
Nandinia binotata 192
Nasalis larvatus 264
Nasua spp. 194
Neofelis diardi 251
Neofelis nebulosa 251
Neostigmine 151
Neotoma cinerea 285
Neotragus moschatus 308
Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs 20 , 150
577
Nitrous Oxide 37
NSAIDS 140
Numbat 269
Numida meleagris 232
Nutria 269
Nyala 269
Nyala, mountain 270
Nyctea scandiaca 277
Nyctereutes procyonoides 206
Nycticebus coucang 254
O
Ocelot 270
Octodon degus 203
Odobenus rosmarus 318
Odocoileus hemionus 199
Odocoileus virginianus 202
Okapi 270
Okapia johnstoni 270
Onager 271
Oncilla 271
Ondatra zibethicus 268
Onychogalea fraenata 316
Opioid Antagonists 42
Opioids 30 , 147
Opioid Toxicity 32
Oral administration 95
Orangutan 272
Oreamnos americanus 228
Oreotragus oreotragus 246
Oribi 272
Orinthorhynchus anatinus 279
Orycteropus afer 161
Oryctolagus cuniculus 284
Oryx, arabian 272
Oryx dammah 273
Oryx gazella 224
Oryx leucoryx 272
Ostrich 273
578
Otaria flavescens (byronia) 294
Otocolobus manul 188
Otocyon megalotis 218
Otolemur crassicaudatus 221
Otter, American river 274
Otter, Asian small-clawed 274
Otter, European 275
Otter, marine 275
Otter, sea 275
Otter, spotted-necked 276
Otus asio 276
Ourebia ourebi 272
Ovibos moschatus 268
Ovis ammon 301
Ovis aries 302
Ovis orientalis 267
Ovis vignei 315
Owl, barred 276
Owl, great horned 276
Owls 277
Owl, screech 276
Owl, snowy 277
Oxygen 80
P
Paca 277
Pacarana 277
Paguma larvata 193
Pangolin 278
Panthera leo 252
Panthera onca 243
Panthera pardus 250
Panthera tigris 311
Panthera uncia 251
Pan troglodytes 191
Papio anubis 168
Papio cynocephalus 168
Papio hamadryas 168
Papio papio 168
579
Papio ursinus 167
Paradoxurus hermaphroditus 193
Paradoxurus jerdoni 192
Parrots 278
Peccary, chacoan 278
Peccary, collared 279
Peccary, white-lipped 279
Pelea capreolus 288
Perameles gunnii 170
Perphenazine 26
Petaruus breviceps 228
Petrogale penicillata 316
Phacochoerus aethiopicus 318
Phalanger spp. 195
Phascogale tapoatafa 267
Phascolarctos cinereus 247
Phase-locked loop 110
Phenothiazine Agonists 21 , 22
Phoca groenlandica 296
Phoca hispida 298
Phoca vitulina 296
Plagiodontia aedium 238
PLL 110
Polecat 279
Pole Syringes 53
Pongo pygmaeus 272
Porcupine, crested 280
Porcupine, North American 280
Porcupine, white-tailed 281
Possum, brush-tail 281
Possum, ringtail 281
Potamochoerus porcus 184
Potassium chloride 117
Potoroo 282
Potoroo, long-nosed 282
Potorous spp. 282
Potorous tridactylus 282
Potus flavus 246
Preparation 89
Preventative Measures 143
580
Priodontes maximus 165
Prionailurus bengalensis 187
Prionodon linsang 252
Procavia capensis 240
Procyon lotor 284
Promazine 22 , 153
Pronghorn 282
Propithecus verreauxi 302
Proteles cristatus 161
Pseudalopex spp. 220
Pseudocheirus peregrinus 281
Pteronura brasiiensis 275
Pudu 283
Pudu puda 283
Puku 283
Pulse oximeter 78
Puma 283
Puma concolor 253
Puma yagouaroundi 244
Q
Quoll 283
R
Rabbit 284
Rabbit, cottontail 284
Raccoon 284
Range Finders 76
Rangifer tarandus 185
Rangifer tarandus tarandus 287
Raphicerus campestris 307
Raphicerus melanotis 230
Raphicerus sharpei 231
Raptors 285
Rat, African mole 285
Rat, bushy-tailed wood 285
Ratel 285
Rats 286
581
Rattus norvegicus 285
Recco 111
Records 10
Recovery from Immobilization 108
Recovery of Lost Darts 109
Redunca arundinum 286
Redunca fulvorufula 286
Reedbuck 286
Reedbuck, mountain 286
Remote Drug Delivery Systems 54
Resedation 32
Respiration 102
Respiratory Depression 119
Rhea americana 287
Rhebok, grey 288
Rhinoceros, indian 289
Rhinoceros, Sumatran 289
Rhinoceros unicornis 289
Ringtail 291
R-ketamine 29
Roan 164 , 291
Romifidine 24 , 152
Rules for Accidental Exposure 145
Rules of Animal Capture 86
Rupricapra pyrenaica 190
Rupricapra rupricapra 190
S
S-ketamine 29
Sable 291
Saguinus imperator 309
Saguinus labiatus 310
Saguinus nigricollis 310
Saguinus oedipus 309
Saiga, Russian 292
Saiga tatarica 292
Saimiri spp. 265
Sambar 292
Sarcophilus harrisii 204
582
Sarmazenil 47
Sciurius carolinensis 306
Sciurus niger 306
Sciurus vulgaris 306
Seal, Antarctic fur 294
Seal, crabeater 295
Seal, gray 295
Seal, Guadalupe fur 296
Seal, harp 296
Sea lion, California 293
Sea lion, northern (steller) 294
Seal, leopard 297
Seal, New Zealand fur 297
Seal, northern elephant 297
Seal, northern fur 298
Seal, ringed 298
Seal, South American fur 298
Seal, southern elephant 298
Seal, southern (subantarctic) fur 299
Seal, Weddell 299
Seizures 133
Semnopithecus entellus 248
Serow 300
Serval 300
Setonix brachyurus 283
Sevoflurane 38
Sharks 300
Sheep, argali 301
Sheep, feral 302
Shock 127
Siamang 302
Sifaka, Verreaux's 302
Sigmoceros lichtensteinii 233
Silivicapra grimmia 208
Skinks 254
Skunk, hog-nosed 303
Skunk, hooded 303
Skunk, Malina's hog-nosed 303
Skunk, striped 303
Slo-Inject 69
583
Sloth, three-toed 304
Sloth, two-toed 304
Snakes, general 305
Speothos venaticus 205
Spermophilus richardsonii 307
Sphiggurus spinosus 281
Spilogale spp. 303
Springbok 305
Squirrel, brown 306
Squirrel, fox 306
Squirrel, gray 306
Squirrel, red 307
Squirrel, Richardson’s ground 307
Squirrel, tricolored 307
Steenbok 307
Stoat 307
Stress 83
Strix varia 276
Struthio camelus 273
Stunning 115
Succinylcholine 150
Sufentanil 31 , 147
Suni 308
Suricata suricata 261
Sus scrofa 236
Swan, black-necked 308
Swine, wild 308
Sylvilagus floridanus 284
Syncerus caffer 182
Syringes and Needles 50
T
Tachyglossus aculeatus 210
Tahr 308
Tamandua 163
Tamandua tetradactyla 163
Tamaraw 309
Tamarin, cotton-headed 309
Tamarin, emperor 309
584
Tamarin, red-bellied 310
Tamarin, white-lipped 310
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus 307
Tapir, Baird's 310
Tapir, South American 311
Tapirus bairdii 310
Tapirus pinchaque 310
Tapirus terrestris 311
Tarps 106
Taurotragus oryx 211
Taxidea taxus 170
Tayassu pecari 279
Tayassu tajacu 279
Tayra 311
Tetracerus quadricornis 164
Thermometer 78
Theropithecus gelada 167
Thiafentanil (A-3080) 31 , 33 , 147
Thylogale stigmatica 277
Tiletamine 29 , 149
Tiletamine-Zolazepam 28
Tiletamine-Zolazepam-Xylazine 28
Titi 312
Tolazoline 44 , 46
Tolypeutes spp. 166
Topi 312
Tortoises 314
Trachemys scripta elegans 314
Tragelaphus angasi 269
Tragelaphus buxtoni 270
Tragelaphus eurycerus 182
Tragelaphus imberbis 248
Tragelaphus scriptus 183
Tragelaphus spekei 302
Tragelaphus strepsiceros 247
Tranquilizers and Sedatives 21
Tranquilizers/Sedatives 152
Transport of the Immobilized Animal 106
Tremarctos ornatus 175
Trichechus manatus 257
585
Trichosurus vulpecula 281
Tsessebe 313
Tuan 313
Tuco-tuco 313
Turkey, wild 313
Tursiops truncatus 206
Turtle, leatherback 313
Turtle, loggerhead 314
Turtle, red-eared slider 314
Turtles 314
Turtle, snapping 314
Tyrannosaurus rex 253
Tyto alba 276
U
Urban Wildlife Capture 111
Urocyon cinereoargenteus 219
Ursus americanus 172
Ursus arctos 173
Ursus malayanus 175
Ursus maritimus 174
Ursus thibetanus 171
V
Varanus komodoensis 207
Varecia variegata 250
Veterinary First Aid Kit Checklist 141
Vicugna vicugna 316
Viverra zibetha 193
Viverricula indica 193
Vombatus ursinus 324
Vomiting 130
Vulpes bengalensis 219
Vulpes chama 218
Vulpes macrotis 219
Vulpes pallida 219
Vulpes velox 220
Vulpes vulpes 220
586
Vulpes zerda 218
Vulture, cape, 316
Vulture, turkey 316
W
Wallabia bicolor 317
Wallaby, bridled nailtail 316
Wallaby, brush-tailed rock 316
Wallaby, parma 317
Wallaby, red-necked (Bennett's) 317
Wallaby, swamp 317
Wallaby, tammar 317
Wallaroo 317
Wapiti 318
Wart hog 318
Waterbuck 319
Weasel, least 320
Weasel long-tailed 320
Weasel-short-tailed 320
Wildebeest, (black, white-tailed) 320
Wildebeest, (blue, brindled, white-bearded) 321
Wolf, African 321
Wolf, maned 322
Wolverine 323
Wombat, northern hairy-nosed 324
Wombat, southern hairy-nose 324
Woodchuck 324
Wounds 134
X
Xerus inauris 306
Xylazine 24 , 152
Y
Yohimbine 44 , 46
587
Z
Zalophus californianus 293
Zebra, Burchell’s (common) 325
Zebra, mountain 327
Zebra, plains 325
Zebu 327
Zuclopenthixol 26
588
English-Metric Conversion
Kilogram–Pounds
The doses in this handbook are presented on a body weight basis, expressed in the
metric system (grams, kilograms). For those not familiar with the metric system,
following are two methods for converting pounds to kilograms without the use of a
calculator.
For those of you who just have to use a calculator: 1 pound (lb) = 0.454 kilograms or
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds. You can use the following scales to convert back
and forth between pounds and kilograms.
Celsius-Fahrenheit
Temperatures in this handbook are given in degrees Celsius with the equivalent
Fahrenheit temperature given in parentheses. If you have a need to convert other
temperatures, the conversions are as follows:
To convert Celcius to Fahrenheit:
589
Multiply the Celcius temperature by 9, divide by 5, add 32. For example: 25 ºC x 9 =
225; 225/5 = 45; 45 + 32 = 77 ºF.
To convert Fahrenheit to Celcius:

Subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit temperature, multiply by 5, divide by 9. For
example: 77 ºF - 32 = 45; 45 x 5 = 225; 225/9 = 25 ºC.
590
About the Authors
T erry J. Kreeger retired as the state

wildlife veterinarian for the Wyoming
Game and Fish Department. He holds
Bachelor degrees in Journalism and
Veterinary Science, a Masters degree in
Wildlife Biology, a Doctor of Philosophy
degree in Wildlife Management and a
Doctor of Veterinary Medicine degree.
He is an adjunct professor at the
University of Wyoming (Veterinary
Sciences) and the University of
Minnesota (Fisheries and Wildlife). His
research interests include wildlife
capture and anesthesia, physiology and behavior, animal contraception, and
wildlife diseases. He has captured wildlife and trained others to capture
wildlife throughout North America and in Russia, Africa, and Asia. In 2016, he
was unanimously elected a lifetime Honorary Member of The Wildlife Society.
J on M. Arnemo is a professor at the

Inland Norway University of Applied
Sciences and the Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences. He is a Doctor of
Veterinary Medicine with a Doctor of
Philosophy in pharmacology. After
working in private mixed animal practice
for six years, he became a full-time
wildlife veterinarian in 1991. His major
research topics include wildlife
anesthesia, ecophysiology, wound
ballistics and health effects of spent
lead ammunition. He has supervised
numerous veterinary and master students and PhD candidates. He has given
immobilization courses for 25 years and has been involved in wildlife capture
591
operations in Europe, Asia, Africa, North America and South America. He
resides with his dogs on a mountain farm in south-central Norway and is a
dedicated moose hunter.
592
Table of Contents
Title Page 1
Copyright 2
Disclaimer 6
Preface 7
Contents 3
Drug Possession and Use 9
Legalities of Drug Use 9
Records 12
Ordering and Storage 14
Labeling 16
Expiration Dates 16
Human Consumption of Drugged Animals 17
Drugs Used for Animal Capture 19
Drug Characteristics 19
Calculating Drug Doses 20
Drug Combinations 22
Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs 23
Phenothiazine Agonists 26
Butyrophenone Agonists 26
Benzodiazepine Agonists 27
Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Agonists 27
Long-acting Tranquilizers 28
Immobilants 31
Cyclohexanes 31
Opioids 34
Alfaxalone 40
Propofol 41
Inhalation Anesthetics 41
Antagonists 48
Opioid 49
Alpha-2 adrenoceptor 51
Benzodiazepine 54
593
Adjuvants 54
Equipment Used for Animal Capture 58
Syringes and Needles 59
Pole Syringes 62
Remote Drug Delivery Systems 63
Blow Pipes 65
Dart Guns 67
Darts 84
Range Finders 94
Laser Sights 96
Dot Sights 96
Monitoring Equipment 97
Oxygen 100
Equipment and Supply Checklist 101
List of Manufacturers 103
Animal Capture: Putting It All Together 105
Capture-related Stress and Mortality 105
Rules of Animal Capture 108
Considerations Prior to Animal Immobilization 109
Preparation 112
Approach 113
Administration Sites 117
Immobilization Signs 120
Incomplete Immobilization 124
Handling the Immobilized Animal 127
Transport of the Immobilized Animal 134
Recovery from Immobilization 137
Recovery of Lost Darts 137
Urban Wildlife Capture 140
Euthanasia 144
Animal Medical Treatment 148
Respiratory Depression/Arrest 149
Hyperthermia 154
Hypothermia/Frostbite 156
Shock 158
Bloat 159
594
Vomiting/Aspiration 162
Capture Myopathy 164
Seizures/Convulsions 166
Wounds 167
Cardiac Arrest 169
Dehydration 171
Analgesics 174
Veterinary First Aid Kit Checklist 176
Human Medical Treatment 178
Preventative Measures 180
Rules for Accidental Exposure 182
Specific Emergency Treatments 184
Opioids 184
Cyclohexanes 186
Neuromuscular Blocking Agents 188
Human First Aid Checklist 193
Drug Doses 194
BAM Quick Reference Chart 198
References 394
Glossary 554
Index 558
English-Metric Conversion 589
About the Author 591
595

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Handbook of Wildlife Chemical Immobilization

Dr. Jon M. Arnemo

Digital book(s) (epub and mobi) produced by Booknook.biz .

Drugs Used for Animal Capture

Equipment Used for Animal Capture

Animal Capture: Putting It All Together

Animal Medical Treatment

This handbook is intended to provide wildlife biologists, wildlife and zoo

Interspersed throughout this book is information that we consider either important to

As always, we would appreciate any comments or criticisms of this handbook. This

Schedule III (IIIN) – This contains several barbiturates, ketamine, and

Schedule IV – Includes benzodiazepine tranquilizers, such as diazepam and

Schedule V – This covers small, limited quantities of narcotic drugs included in

In addition, most states have boards of pharmacy which have registration

Animal Medicinal Drug Use Clarification Act of 1994

It also may be advisable to write doses with a permanent marker on emergency

Semple et al. (2000) published a pharmacokinetic and tissue residue study of

Calculating Drug Doses

Concentration of the Drug

Calculating Drug Doses and Volumes

mg Drug X needed = 80 kg x 5 mg/kg = 400 mg

Physically calculate drug doses.

Calculate the dose at least twice.

Look at your answer.

Capture drugs used to be considered as primary and secondary immobilants. The

Advantages of combining drugs include:

Disadvantages of combining drugs include:

Following is a discussion of the properties of paralytics, tranquilizers, anesthetics,

Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs

Competitive NMB drugs occupy postsynaptic cholinergic receptors in skeletal

Tranquilizers and Sedatives

Phenothiazine Agonists and Butyrophenone Agonists

Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Agonists

Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Agonists

Long-acting tranquilizers were developed to calm animals subjected to prolonged

Long-acting tranquilizers consist of fatty acid esters of a basic tranquilizer, which

Long-acting tranquilizers are always administered in combination with short- and/or

Tranquilizers must always be used with discretion. Overdosing must be avoided

Tiletamine is unavailable as a single product and it is combined in equal proportions

Use ketamine-medetomidine combinations with extreme care when immobilizing

Opioids induce neuroleptanalgesia, an intense analgesic and amnesic state characterized by

Fentanyl, Sufentanil, Thiafentanil, Etorphine

Inhalation anesthesia sees limited application in field immobilizations. However, it

Non-rebreathing systems require the input of a pressurized oxygen to vaporize and

Black-footed ferret in portable sevoflurane anesthesia machine.

A hypothetical process for using inhalation anesthetics is as follows: fill the

Table 2. Classical stages of anesthesia as defined for ether anesthesia.

II Stage of Delirium or Excitement

III Stage of Surgical Anesthesia

IV Stage of Medullary Paralysis

Diprenorphine, Naloxone, Naltrexone, Nalbuphine

Alpha-2 Adrenoceptor Antagonists

Ketamine-Xylazine Combinations with Yohimbine Antagonism

Because yohimbine does not fully antagonize ketamine, it should not be

Ketamine-Medetomidine Combinations with Atipamezole Antagonism

Yohimbine, Tolazoline, Atipamezole, MK-467

Hyaluronidase is an enzyme that is sometimes mixed with the immobilizing agent in

Diazepam, midazolam, zolazepam Flumazenil, sarmazenil

All other drugs not listed do not have an antagonist.

Syringes and Needles

Manufacturers: Several worldwide