LEA 3

OVERVIEW

This module provides concepts of security and security management that present a general
overview of security. To give better understanding to the students under this course subject, a
definition of security management is given for students to understand the groundwork of the
administrative processes or procedures in the operational environment of security as applied in
the Philippine setting.

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY
Defining Security

Security – It is the state of being safe and the condition of being protected against physical,
social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, or other types of
consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be
considered not desirable.

Thus, in a collective sense, security is the same as protection and safety.

FIELDS OF SECURITY

IT fields

The following are the fields of security classified according to each sphere or subjects;

Computing Security – is a branch of information security applied to both theoretical and

actual computer systems. Computer security is a branch of computer science that addresses
enforcement of “secure” behavior on the operation of computers.

Data Security – is the means of ensuring that data is kept safe from corruption and that
access to it is suitably controlled. Thus, data security helps to ensure privacy which also helps in
protecting personal data.

Application Security – encompasses measures taken to prevent exceptions in the

security policy of an application or the underlying systems through flaws in the design,
development, or deployment of the application.

Information Security – means protecting information and information systems from

unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or destruction.
 Note that information assurance, information security and computer security are
frequently used interchangeably. Although these fields are interrelated and share
common goals of protecting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information,
however, there are some subtle differences among them. These differences lie primarily
in the approach to the subject, the methodologies used, and the areas of concentration.
Information security is concerned with the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data
regardless of the form the data may take: electronic, print, or other forms.

Network Security – consists of the provisions made in an underlying computer network

infrastructure, policies adopted by the network administrator to protect the network and the
network-accessible resources from unauthorized access and the effectiveness (or lack) of these
measures combined together.

Physical security

Physical Security – describes measures that prevent or deter attackers from accessing
a facility, resource, or information stored on physical media. It can be as simple as a locked
door or as elaborated as multiple layers of armed guard posts.

Shopping Center Security (Mall or Supermarket) – a type of security which is

concerned with the protection of the stores, warehouses, storage, its immediate premises and
properties as well as the supermarket personnel and customers. Security personnel are trained
to detect “shoplifter”, robbery, and bomb detection and customer relation.

Airport Security -refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting airports and
by extension aircraft from crime and terrorism.

Home Security – are those methods of protecting residential homes or town sites which
include the interior protection of a house against property losses or damages.

Political field

International Security – consists of the measures taken by nations and international

organizations, such as United Nations, to ensure mutual survival and safety. These measures
include military action and diplomatic agreements such as treaties and conventions.
International and national security is invariably linked.

National Security – refers to the requirements to maintain the survival of the nation-
state through the use of economic, military and political power and the exercise of diplomacy.

Human Security – refers to an emerging paradigm for understanding global

vulnerabilities whose proponents challenge the traditional notion of national notion of national
security by arguing that the proper referent for security should be the individual rather than the
state. Human security holds that a people-centered view of security is necessary for national,
regional and global stability.
Monetary field

Financial Security – refer to the methods applied for the protection of fungible,
negotiable instruments representing financial value. It is broadly categorized into debt securities
such as banknotes, bonds and debentures, and equity securities, etc.

TYPES OF SECURITY

Industrial Security – a type of security applied to business groups in industries like

manufacturing, assembling, research and development, processing, warehousing and even
agriculture.

Hotel Security – a type of security applied to hotels where its properties are protected
from pilferage, loss, damage, and the function in the hotel restaurants are not disturbed and
troubled by outsiders or the guests themselves. This type of security employs house detectives,
uniforms guards and supervisors and ensures that hotel guests and their personal effects are
safeguarded.

Bank Security – this type of security is concerned with bank operations. Its main
objective is the protection of bank cash and assets, its personnel and clientele. Security
personnel are trained to safeguard banks and assets while in storage, in transit and during
transactions.

VIP Security – a type of security applied for the protection of top-ranking officials of the
government or private entity, visiting persons of illustrious standing and foreign dignitaries.

Schools Security – a type of security that is concerned with the protection of students,
faculty members, and school properties. Security personnel are trained to protect the school
from theft, vandals handling campus riots and detecting the use of intoxicated drugs and alcohol
by the students.

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF SECURITY

1. Personnel Security – this is as important as physical security. Personnel Security starts

even before the hiring of an employee and remains to be maintained for as long as the person is
employed.

Its purpose is to ensure that a firm hires those best suited to assist the firm in achieving its goal
and objectives and once hired assist in providing necessary security to the workforce while
carrying out their functions.

2. Physical Security – is concerned with the physical measures adopted to prevent

unauthorized access to equipment, facilities, material and document and to safeguard them
against espionage, sabotage, damage, loss and theft.

3. Document and Information Security – this involves the protection of documents and
classified papers from loss, access by unauthorized person, damage, theft and compromise
through disclosure.
Classified documents need special handling. Lack of indoctrination and orientation among the
personal handling of them can result in the leakage, loss, theft and unauthorized disclosure of
the documents.

SECURITY MANAGEMENT

Security Management is the proper utilization of resources in security organizations in order to

meet organizational goals and objectives and to ensure their achievements; It is also a broad
field of management related to asset management, physical security and human resource
safety functions. It entails the identification of an organization’s information assets and the
development, documentation and implementation of policies, standards, procedures and
guidelines.

Management tools such as information classification, risk assessment and risk analysis are
used to identify threats, classify assets and to rate system vulnerabilities so that effective control
can be implemented.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SECURITY

Form of law and consequently form of enforcement can be traced back to the dawn of
civilization. Four thousand years before the birth of Christ in the Nile, Valley, man knew law
enforcement which is security. The Chinese, the Greeks, the Hebrews, the Persians and the
Roman empires are replete with historical background of security. In the Christian era or after
the birth of Christ, the watchman, forerunner of the security guard was known in the old
Testaments.

Security or law enforcement more often than not appeared to be military troops. During the
time that the countries were governed by royal families, military bodyguards or guardsmen
picked from the elite troops composed of the household troops assigned to Royal Families.
Famous among them the Praetorian Guards of Ancient Rome and the Mameluke of Egypt.
Today, the only remaining are the Swiss Guards at the Vatican in Rome.

During the Age of Feudalism, the Anglo-Saxons brought with them the England
organizations made up of individuals to protect civil and military groups. The formal systems of
security during the middle ages follows largely the refinements of existing practices. The Anglo-
Saxons from Germany, for six hundred years consolidated England under a fairly legal system.
The basic ties of society were kinship and the voluntary association between lord and man.
Kinship was the bond on which the individual depends for security and mutual aid in all his
affairs. Between Lord and man, the fact was bilateral. In return for such relationship man
provided the lord with weapons, horses, land and treasures and gave total unswerving loyalty.
The system of social structure was known as the “frank-pledge”; groups of ten householders
were considered a unit called tithing, ten “tithing” constituted the police organization in criminal
matters. During these times the Anglo-Saxons in the exercise of law used the oath or the ordeal
for a system or justice. Failure to appear before the court to answer a charge made one an
outlaw.
 In the Philippines, it would be wise to trace the steps leading to the final signing by
President Ferdinand E. Marcos on June 13 1969 of Republic Act 5487, the Private Security
Agency Law. This law was assigned the most important role of the Security Guard Force in
assisting the Police in its mission to safeguard lives and properties. The then Philippine
Constabulary (PC) played a great role in supervising all the Private Constabulary issued Staff
Memo dated August 4, 1969 creating the Philippine Constabulary Security and Investigation
Agency Supervisory Office (PCSIASO). After barely two (2) months another General Staff
Memo was issued renaming PCSIASO to PCSOSIA. On June 29, 1970, it was again renamed
as PC Supervisory Unit for Security and Investigation Agency (SUSIA). However, the
supervision was later on transferred to the National Intelligence Coordinating Agency (NICA).
With the intention of continuously professionalizing the security industry, several Presidential
Decrees were issued such as PD No. 11 issued on October 1972, amending certain sections of
RA 5487 particularly Sections 4 as to who may organize a security and watchman agency; PD
100 on January 17, 1973 further amended Sections 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 which permits the
watchman or security guard to assist in cases of emergency disaster or calamity.

With the creation of the Philippine National Police on January 1, 1991 pursuant RA
6975, PCSUSIA became the Supervisory Office for Security and Investigation Agencies
(SOSIA) and on January 01, 1995 it was renamed as PNP SAGSD (Security Agencies and
Guards Supervision Division). This unit of the PNP was given the same functions to that of the
PCSOSIA but more challenging and expanding tasks. To date, there are more or less Two
thousand (2,000) registered security agencies operating in the Philippines, Five Hundred Sixty
Thousand (560,000) licensed security personnel and One Hundred Twenty-four (124) Private
Security Training Institutions.

Industrial Security Management

RA no. 5487 - (as amended by PD no. 11) - Private security agency law.

Private Detective Agency - is any person who for hire or reward or on commission conducts or carries on or h
himself out as conducting or carrying on a detective agency or detective service.

Private Detective - any person who is not a member of a regular police agency or armed forces who does dete
work for hire,reward or commission.

PADPAO - Philippine Association of Detective and Protective Agency Operators.

Watchmen/Security Guard - person who offers or renders personal service to watch or secure either resident
business establishment or both or any building,compound or area for hire or compensation or as an employee
thereof.

Security Agency - any person, association, partnership or corporation who recruits, trains, muster ,furnishes,
solicit individuals or business firms, private or government owned or controlled corporation to engage his serv
or those of its watchmen.

Who May Organize Security Agency

1. Any Filipino Citizen or a corporation, partnership or association.
2. With a minimum capital required by law.

 In case of corporation, association, or partnership - must be 100 % owned and controlled by Filipino
citizen.
 No person shall organize or have interest in more than one agency.

Qualification of an Operator or Manager of a Security Agency:

1. At least 25 years of age
2. College graduate and/or commissioned officer in the
inactive service of the AFP
3. Good moral character
4. No previous record of any conviction of any
crime/offense involving moral turpitude
5. Not suffering from any of the following
disqualifications:

1. dishonorably discharged or separate from the AFP

2. mentally incompetent
3. addicted to the use of narcotic drugs
4. habitual drunkard

 An elective or appointive government employees who may be called upon on account of the function o
their respective offices in the implementation and enforcement of the provision of RA 5487 and person
related to such government employees by affinity or consanguinity in the third civil degree shall not ho
any interest, directly or indirectly in any security guard agency.

Basic Qualification of a security Guard

1. Filipino citizen
2. High school graduate
3. Physically and mentally fit
4. Not less than 21 nor more than 50 years old
5. At least 5'4" in height
6. Not suffering from any disqualification under RA
5487

 Veterans shall be given priority in employment as security guard or private detective.

 Person convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude shall not be employed as security guard or pri
detective.
 Private detective, detective agency, security guard, security agency must first obtain license from the P
 Employees employed solely for clerical or manual work need not be licensed.
 The license shall be displayed at all times in a conspicuous and suitable place in the agency office.
 The PNP shall exercise general supervision over the operation of all private detective and security guar
 agencies.
 The City/Municipal Mayors has the power as director of the City/Municipal civil defense to deputize
private detective and security guards to help maintain peace and order or prevent or arrest law violators
case of emergency or in times of disaster or calamity. They shall take orders from the Chief of Police fo
the duration of the fire, inundation, earthquakes, riots or other emergency.
 A security guard or security agency is entitled to possess firearms.
 Firearm must not be higher than .45 caliber.
 Agency is entitled to possess firearm not exceeding one firearm for every security guard in its employ.
 Security guard is entitled to possess not more than one riot gun or shotgun.
 Firearms shall be carried by the security guard only during his tour of duty in proper uniform within the
compound of the establishment except when he escorts big amount of cash or valuables in or out of sai
compound.
 The Chief PNP shall prescribe the uniform, ornaments, equipment and paraphernalia to be worn by the
security guards.
 Uniforms must be different from the PNP/AFP.
 Salary of security guard - not lower than the minimum wage prescribe by law.

Limitations and Prohibitions on a Security Agency

1. No agency operating in the City of manila and
suburbs may employ more than 1000 watchmen or
security guards.
2. No agency operating in other cities and first class
municipalities may employ more than 500 watchmen
or security guards.
3. No agency operating in municipalities other than
first class may employ more than 200 watchmen or
security guards.
4. No person, corporation, partnership or association
may organize more than one agency in any one city
or municipality.
5. No agency shall offer, render or accept services to
gambling dens or other illegal enterprises.
6. The extent of the security service being provided
by any security agency shall not go beyond the
whole compound or property of the person or
establishment requesting the security service
except when they escort big amount of cash.

Who can Issue rules and regulations to carry out the purpose of RA 5487? ans. the chief PNP, in consulta
with the Philippines Association of Detective and Protective Agency Operators.

What are the penal provisions for violation of RA5487 or its implementing rules? ans.
1. Suspension, fine or cancellation of license to
operate with the forfeiture f bond filed with the
Chief PNP.
2. Imprisonment ranging from 1 to 4 years and fine, in
 the discretion of the courts.

Physical security - describes the measures that are designed to deny access to unauthorized personnel from
physically accessing a building, facility, stored information and guidance on how to design structures to resist
potentially hostile acts.
- a system of barriers placed between a potential intruder and the material or installation to
protected.

Security - the predictable state or condition which is free from harm, injury, destruction, intimidation or fear.
Freedom from fear or danger or defense against crime.

Physical Security System - a barrier or system of barriers placed between the potential intruder and the matte
be protected. Protective device against hazards, threats, vulnerability and risks.

Purpose/Goals of Physical security

1. deter potential intruders - ex. warning signs, perimeter markings

2. distinguish authorized from unauthorized people - ex. using pass card
3. delay or prevent intrusion attempt - ex. wall, door lock, safe
4. detect intrusion and monitor/record intruders - e. CCTV, intrusion alarm
5. trigger appropriate incident responses - ex. security guards

How to deter potential intruders

1. install warning signs -

2. build fences
3. put vehicle barriers
4. install vehicle height restriction
5. implement restricted access point
6. install sight lighting and trenches

How to distinguish authorized from unauthorized people - access control at the

1. gates
2. doors
3. locks

How to detect intrusion

 1. install alarms
2. install intrusion detection monitor
3. install video monitoring system - ex. cctv

Vigiles (in Rome) - origin of the watchmen although their principal duty was as a fire brigade.

Notable security guards:

1. Frank Wills - detected the Watergate burglars ultimately leading to the resignation of US president
Richard Nixon.

Target hardening - the reduction in criminal opportunity, generally through the use of physical barriers,
architectural design and enhanced security measures of a particular location.

Defensible Space - the range of mechanisms that combine to bring an environment under the control of its
residents.

Demography - the study of the characteristics of population groups.

Principles of Physical Security

1. An intruder must be able to acquire access to the
property in order to benefit.
2. The type of access necessary will depend upon a
number of variable factors and therefore may be
achieved in a number of ways.
3. There is no impenetrable barrier.
4. Security is built upon a system of defense in depth
resulting to accumulated delay time which may lead
to the apprehension of the intruder.
5. Each installation is different from the others.

2 Kinds of Barriers
1. Natural
2. Artificial

5 Types of Barriers
1. Human
2. Animal
3. Natural
4. Energy/Electrical/Electronic
5. Structural

3 Line of Defense
1. Perimeter Barrier - 1st line of defense.
2. Building Exterior - 2nd line of defense.
3. Interior Controls - 3rd line of defense.

Perimeter Barrier - main purpose is to deny or impede access or exit of unauthorized persons.
Other Purposes
1. It defines the boundary of the property to be
secured.
2. It creates a physical and psychological deterrent
to unauthorized entry.
3. It delays intrusion, thus facilitating apprehension
of intruders.
4. It assists in a more efficient and economical
employment of guards.
5. It facilitates and improves the control of pedestrian
and vehicular traffic.
Components:
1. Types of Fencing (solid/full view)
2. The top guard
3. Types of Protective Alarms Systems
4. Types of Protective and Emergency Lighting's
5. CCTV Cameras and other Electronic Security
Systems/Energy Barriers

Building Exterior - Components:

1. walls
2. Doors
3. Windows
4. Roof Openings
5. Fire Escapes
6. Protective Alarm Systems
7. Protective and Emergency lightnings
8. CCTV Cameras and other Electronic Security
Systems/Energy Barriers

Interior Controls - Components:

1. ID Systems
2. Protective Alarm Systems
3. Protective Emergency Lighting's
4. Communication Systems
5. CCTV Cameras and other Electronic Security
Systems/Energy Barriers
6. Restricted Areas (storage areas/utilities)
7. Access Control
8. Key Control
9. Emergency Plans
10.Guards

Natural barriers or features - such as cliffs,ravines,and rivers which delay or make more difficult to entry of
intruders.

Barriers - any line of boundary and separation,natural or artificial,places,or serving as limitation or

obstruction.Anything that bars,keep out,obstruct progress,or prevents encroachment or intrusion.

Structural barriers - features constructed by man regardless of their original intent that tends to delay the
intruder.ex.walls,ceilings,locks,safe,windows.

Human barriers - guards,charges of quarters,office personnel,shop workers etc. who stand between the intrud
and the matter to be protected.

Animal barriers - usually guard dog.ex. trained German shepherds used as guards,goose,and turkeys can also
included.

Energy barriers - usually electrical or electronics devices used to provide assistance to guard personnel.ex.
protective lightnings,anti intrusion devices.

Full view fence - it is designed primarily to prevent physical access between two areas.Constructed in such a w
that visual access is permitted through the fence.

Physical Security Features:

1.Natural barriers - natural terrains features must be
considered from the stand point of their values to
intruder as cover and concealment.Normally the
first type considered very often we have to accept
and work around them.
2.Fences
a. solid fence - one is constructed in such a way that
visual access through the fenced structure is
denied.
b. full view fence - constructed in such a way that
usual access is permitted through the fence.

Advantages of a full view fence

1. removing patrols and stationary guards are able to
keep area surrounding of the installation under
observation.
2. it does not create shadows which would provide
cover and concealment for the intruder.

Disadvantages of a full view fence

1. It allows visual access to the installation,its
 personnel,its guard and its activities.
2. It allows the intruders to become familiar with the
movements and the time schedule of the guard
patrols thereafter allowing him to pick the time for
attempting penetration which would most
advantageous to the intruder.

Advantages of solid fence

1. Denies visual access of the installation of the
intruder.
2. Denies the opportunity for the intruder to become
familiar with the personnel,activities and the time
schedule of the movements of guards in the
installations.

Disadvantages of solid fence

1. It prevents the guards from observing the area
around the installation.
2. It creates shadows which may be used by the
intruder for cover and concealment.

Minimum acceptable requirements for fence used security barriers

1. Height - 8 feet at a minimum.
2. Slack at the bottom - not to exceed 2 inches.If the
fences are not tight then it should extend even
closer to the ground.
3. Wooden fence post - minimum horizontal dimension
of 4X4 inches.
4.Steel fence post - the round type should at least be
2 inches at the smallest diameter.
5. Fence post - should be set in concrete or in firm
soil using commercial drive anchors to a depth of 3
feet and the maximum distance post is 10 feet.
6. Fence top (Top Guard) - there should be something
on the top of the fence to deter persons attempting
to go over fence.ex.use of barb wire overhang.The
arms holding the barbwire should be extended at 45
degree angle in the direction of the expected
approach.
7. Fence area - it should be declared trees and
vegetation and debris of other materials which
would offer concealment of the intruder or would
aid him in scaling the fence.
8. Fence Gates - gates should be limited to the no.
necessary for efficient and sage operation of the
installation.
9. Fence Opening - all opening in the fence in excess
of 96 inches must be locked barbed or screen in
such a way that they may be interlocked and
opened from the inside and only by selected
personnel.
10.Multiple fence - is used should at least be 10 feet
apart and the overhang on the top of the inner
fence should point inward.

4 Basic functions that must be accomplished by the guard system

1. Detect intruders
2. Sound alarms
3. Apprehend unauthorized personnel
4. Identify authorized personnel

Personnel Control Identification

2 Types of identification
1. Personal Recognition - is the most effective
2. Artificial Identification - badges,passes etc.

System of Employment of Personnel Control Identification

1. Pass system - a method used by security to screen
visitors or person admitted into building premises.
2. Single pass or Badge system - the least expensive
and the least secure.
3. Group pass and Badge system - one ID for one
group.
4. Multiple pass system - separate pass is required for
access to various areas in need ex.color coding
5. Spot magnetized identification passes - a code may
be placed in the device and when passes through a
machine,the code on the device is read,if it contains
wrong code or no code at all,it will alarm.
6. Access list - it contains the names of authorized
persons or personnel and is checked against
identification cards such as drivers licenses,draft
registration etc.

Visitor control - the measures used would depend on the sensibility of the installation but could include the
following:
1. Escort - expensive but most secure
2. Time traveled - if there is a long delay or time lapse
between the departure and arrival,the visitor may
be required to show cause for the delay.
3. Visitors logs - should contain identifying data,
reasons of visit,time in and hour etc.
4. Visitors entrances - separate access for visitors and
separate for employees .

Utility and maintenance personnel - escort system could be used.If these people visit the installations on a regu
basis some of the systems previously could be used.

Package control - there should be provisions made to check packages being taken in and taken out.

Photography - extreme caution must be exercised in areas where classified information is displayed to preclud
unauthorized taking of pictures of the installation.

Vehicular control and identification

* Most common identification is for registering at the headquarters or gates and putting of sticker on the windo
of the vehicles.
* For visitors,the following systems are used:
1. Escort
2. Driver pool - the most secure but the most
expensive.In this system,car is driven by qualified
driver employed by the installation from the
entrance to its destination and after the
conclusion of the business of the visitor.car is
driven back to the installations entrance.
3. Time travel - used in less sensitive installations
4. Grid system - a very complicated system.The
installation is divided into grid ad squares like a
map.Each square is given a no. or letter
designation.The visitor is then given a map and
shown the route to take to his destination and
should not deviate from the prescribed route,
otherwise he could be stopped and questioned
by the guards.
5. Search of vehicles - sign should be put at the
entrance to the installation that any vehicle
entering is subject to search anytime.

Types of Protective Alarm Systems

1. Central station system - the control station is
located outside the installations.When the alarm is
sounded by a subscriber, the central station
notifies the police or protection agency.
2. Property system - the control system is located
inside the installations with its own firefighter,law
enforcer,ambulance,or bomb disposal unit.
3. Local alarm - the signalling is near the alarm itself.
When the intruder enters the installation,the alarm
goes off scaring the intruder.Purpose is just to
 scare not to apprehend intruder.
4. Auxiliary alarm - the installation owned the
protective alarm with a unit in the nearest police
station so that in case of need,direct call is possible.

Kinds of Alarms
1. Intrusion alarm - any detecting devices using
electric and their combinations to signal an alarm
when actuated.
2. Laser beam alarm - a laser emitter floods the wall or
fence with a beam so that when this beam is
disturbed by a physical object,an alarm is activated
3. Photocell alarm - an invisible or visible beam is
emitted and when disturbed,it activates an alarm
or mechanical device that opens a door or lift
movable barriers,activated by light.

Basic component of an alarm system

1. Annunciation - the heart of the system of the
detecting device and is the component that
activates the triggering unit.
2. Transmission - it transmit what is detected.
3. Triggering device - the one which emits those aural
or visual signals or both.

Security Survey - The detailed check and audit of what an installation or plant does not have in relation to its
protection from hazards.

Security Inspection - a precess where physical

examination is conducted to determine compliance with established security policies and procedures as a resul
security survey.

Purpose of security survey

1. To determine existing state or condition of security
2. To locate weaknesses and possible defense
3. To determine degree of protection required

Security hazards - an act or condition which result in a situation conductive to a breach of the protection syste
and the subsequent loss or compromise of defense,information,company secrets,or damage to
property,personnel,or facilities.

Hazards - exposure to loss or injury.

Two General Categories of Security Hazards

1. Human hazard - caused by human
action.Ex.sabotage,pilferage,theft
2. Natural Hazard - caused by natural phenomena.

Types of Human Hazards

1. Human carelessness
2. Accident
3. Disaffection
4. Disloyalty
5. Subversion
6. Sabotage
7. Espionage
8. Pilferage
9. Theft
10.Vandalism

Protective Security - measures taken by an installation or unit to protect against sabotage,espionage or subver
and at the same time provide freedom of action in order to provide the installation or unit with the necessary
flexibility to accomplish its mission.

3 Aspects of Security
1. Physical Security - measures taken to prevent
physical access or entry to an installation.
2. Personnel Security - measures taken to insure
that only authorized personnel have access to
classified documents or information.
3. Document and Information Security

Types of Security
1. Physical Security - the most broad.
2. Industrial Security - security of business
installations and industrial plants.
3. VIP Security - protection of high level officers and
important personnel.
4. Bank Security - security of money and assets
stored or in transit.
5. Hotel Security - security for hotel guest and their
personal belongings and property as well as
properties of the hotel.
6. Document security - protection of vital records
from loss or unauthorized access.
7. Communication Security - measures to prevent or
delay the unauthorized person in gaining
information through communication.

Physical Security
* Protective barrier - is the physical type of security.
* Barrier - any structure or physical device capable
 of restricting,deterring,delaying illegal access into
installations.
* Perimeter barrier - a medium or structures which
define the physical limits of an installation or area
to restrict or impede access thereto.Any physical
barrier used to supplement the protection of the
inside perimeter.
* Inside Perimeter - a line of protection adjacent to
the protected area and passing through points of
possible entry into the area.ex. doors and windows
* Outside perimeter - a line of protection but some
what removed from the protected area.ex.fence

Types of Perimeter Barrier Opening

1. Gates and Doors
2. Elevators
3. Air intakes,Exhaust tunnels
4. Clear Zone
5. Top Guard
6. Guard Control Stations
7. Tower
8. Barrier maintenance
9. Sign and Notices

Protective Alarms - supplemental physical barriers in a form of sound that cause alarm installed indoors or
outdoors in an installation.

Types of Alarm Systems

1. Metallic foil wire
2. Ultrasonic Detection Device
3. Vibration Detection Device
4. Microwave Motion Detection Device
5. Audio Detection Device
6. Photo Electric or Electric Eye

Kinds of Alarms
1. Bill Traps
2. Foot Rail Activator
3. Knee or thigh button
4. Foot button
5. Double squeeze button

Protective Lighting - provide illumination on areas to be secured that adds psychological deterrence.

Types of protective Lighting

1. Stationary luminary - consist of series of fixed
 luminaries to flood given area continuously
Example: glare protection type
2. Standby Lighting - provides continuous lighting
through manual operations.
3. Movable Lighting - stationary or portable manually
operated search lights.
4. Emergency Lighting - duplication of existing
lighting system that is utilized in the event of
electric failure.

Types of Lighting Equipment

1. Street lights - used in parking areas
2. Search Lights - highly focused incandescent lamps
used to pinpoint potential trouble spot.
3. Flood Lights - project light in a concentrated beam
used in boundaries and fences.
4. Fresnel Lights - wide beam units primarily used to
extend illumination in long horizontal strips to
protect approaches to perimeter barrier.

Protective Locks and Keys

1. Lock - a mechanical,hydraulic,electrical or
electronic device designed to prevent entry into a
building,room,container or hiding place and to
prevent the removal of items without the consent
of the owner.
2. Padlock - portable and detachable lock having or
sliding hasp that passes through a staple ring.
3. Peterman - A term used in England for lock picker,
safe cracker and penetrators of restricted areas
or rooms.

Types of Locks
1. Lever locks - used in cabinets,drawers,safe
deposit box.
2. Disc-Tumble Locks - used in car doors.
3. Warded Locks - offer little security,used only to
provide privacy.
4. Combination Locks
5. Card Operated Locks
6. Electromagnetic Locks
7. Code operated Locks

Types of Keys
1. Master Key - a special key of opening a series
locks.
 2. Grand Master Key - a key that will open
everything in a system involving two or more
master key groups.
3. Change Key - a key to a single lock within a master
keyed system.
4. Sub Master Key - a key will open all lock with a
particular area or grouping in a given facility.

Types of Security Cabinets

1. Safe
2. vault
3. File Room

Protective Cabinets - considered as the third line of defense against unauthorized persons.

Key Control - a system of controlling keys devised and regulated for disposal,storage and withdrawals.

Close-in Security Formations

1. One Man Security - 360 degrees coverage.
2. Two Man Security - Each guard has 180 degrees
coverage.
3. Three Man Security - has equal areas of coverage
4. Four Man Security
5. Five Man Security - modified diamond.
6. Six Man Security - (defensive circle) too much
crowd requires arm lock formation.
Note: Six Man Security is the most effective.

Defensive In Depth Barriers

1. Outer Ring - securing sidewalks,in front of
quarters or offices,covering all entrances,front,
center,side and rear.
2. Middle Ring - security covering inside quarters,
office,residence,all stairways and elevators.
3. Inner Ring - immediately outside the high risk
personnel door or the one closest to the VIP.
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
BALLISTICS
- the science of the motion of projectiles and the condition that affects their motion
- science of firearms identification
ORIGIN OF THE WORD “BALLISTICS”
- derived from two Greek words: BALLO, BALLEIN, which means “to throw”
- derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called BALLISTA
COL. CALVIN H GODDARD M.D.
- the “father of modern ballistics”
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- branch of science which actually involves the investigation and identification of firearms by means
of ammunition fired through them
- study of the motion of projectiles as applied to law
PROJECTILE
- refers to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1) INTERIOR OR INTERNAL BALLISTICS
o treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside the firearm which extends from the
breach to the muzzle
2) EXTERIOR OR EXTERNAL BALLISTICS
o treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle
a) muzzle blast – the noise created at muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of the
expanding gas and its contact with the air
b) muzzle energy – energy generated at the muzzle point
c) trajectory – the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until it hits
the target; the actual curve path taken by a bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target
d) range – the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target
1. accurate range – the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control of his shots
2. maximum range – the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm; the farthest
distance the bullet could travel
e) velocity – the rate of speed of the bullet during its flight per unit of time usually expressed as feet
per second (ft/sec)
f) pull of gravity – downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its weight
g) air resistance – that force of the air encountered by the bullet in its flight
3) TERMINAL BALLISTICS
- that branch of ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target
a) terminal accuracy – the size of the bullet grouping on the target
b) terminal energy – the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target; same as striking
energy
c) terminal velocity – the speed of the bullet upon striking the target
d) terminal penetration – the depth of entry of the bullet on the target
4) FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- the product of the application of ballistics to law
SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1) FIELD INVESTIGATION
- the job of the field investigator
- includes recognition, collection, markings, prevention, packing and transmittal of ballistics exhibit
2) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BALLISTICS EXHIBIT
- job performed by a firearm identification examiner
- includes markings of evidence, test-firing evidences, photomicrography, and preparation of reports
3) LEGAL PROCEEDING
- the most critical part in the field of firearm identification
- the firearm examiner goes to court to testify as an expert witness
TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
- an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of expansive force of gases coming
from the burning gun powder
LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
- “… includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons
from which a bullet, ball, shot shell or other missile may be discharged of by means of gunpowder or
other explosives. The term also include air rifles except such as being of small caliber and limited
range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes
hereof.”
- provided by Sec 877, Revised Administrative Code and Sec 290, National Internal Revenue Code
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
1) according to interior barrel construction:
a) smooth-bore firearm – those that do not have rifling inside their gun barrel
b) rifled-bore firearm – those that have rifling inside their gun barrel
2) according to the caliber of the projectile propelled:
a) artillery – those type that propel projectile with more than one inch diameter
b) small arms – those that propel projectile with less than one inch diameter; can be handled, moved
and operated by one man
1. machine guns – designed to fire, automatically or semiautomatically, more than one shot without
manual reloading, by a single press of the trigger
2. shoulder arms – normally fired from the shoulder
3. hand arms – designed or intended to be fired using one hand, either the right or the left
3) according to mechanical construction:
a) single shot firearm – those designed to fire only one shot every loading
b) repeating arm – those designed to fire several loads in one loading
c) automatic – those designed with continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and while the
trigger is pressed
d) slide action type – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under/over forearms
of the gun
e) bolt action type – reloading takes place by manipulating the bolt back and forth
f) lever type (break type) – loading takes place by lever action of the firearms
LOW-POWERED FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec
HIGH-POWERED FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec
HIGH-INTENSITY FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of over 2500 ft/sec
AUTOMATIC
- when the mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed
SEMI-AUTOMATIC (SELF-LOADING)
- when the mechanism ejects the fired shell and put on new one in the chamber and prepares the gun
to be fired
LEGAL DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION
- a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet,
shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives
TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION
- a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer; single round
ORIGIN OF THE WORD CARTRIDGE
- derived from the word, CHARTA, the Latin for paper
- derived from the word, CARTOUCHE, French for rolling paper
PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
1) BULLET
- the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of the expansive force of gases
coming from burning gunpowder
2) CARTRIDGE CASE
- the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder
- also called shell or casing
3) GUNPOWDER
- the powder charge which when ignited by the primer flash is converted into heated gas under high
pressure and propels the bullet or shots charge through the barrel and to the target
- also called propellant or powder charge
4) PRIMER
- the metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound which when
hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES
1) according to location of primer:
a) PIN FIRE – the ignition cap is concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it; the
pin protrudes radially through the side and the gun chamber has a notch for the pin to stand when
loaded and it will be struck by a falling hammer; no longer in use
b) RIM FIRE – the priming mixture is located at the rim of the case; this can be fired only if the
cartridge is struck by the hammer or firing pin on the rim of the case
c) CENTER FIRE – the primer cup is centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the
priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil
2) according to rim diameter:
a) RIMMED CASE TYPE – the case has a well-defined upstanding rim around the base or simply a
cartridge with a rim diameter greater than the body diameter of the shell
b) SEMI-RIMMED TYPE – the rim diameter is slightly greater than the body diameter of the case
c) RIMLESS TYPE – the rim diameter is equal to the body diameter of the case
d) REBATED TYPE – has a rimless pattern but which has rim diameter smaller than the body
diameter of the case
e) BELTED TYPE – with prominent raise belt around its body just in front of the extraction groove
3) according to caliber:
THREE SYSTEMS OF MEASURING CALIBER
a) English system – expressed in thousandths of an inch ( cal. 380)
b) American system – expressed in hundredths of an inch ( cal. 38 )
c) European or continental system – expressed in millimeter
CALIBER
- the bore diameter measured between two opposite lands
BULLET
- metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm
- also called projectile, slugs
- derived from the French word, BOULETTE, which means small ball
GENERAL TYPES OF BULLETS
1) LEAD TYPE
- composed of lead metal
2) JACKETED TYPE
- consist of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the
barrel
TYPES OF BULLET ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECT ON TARGETS
1) BALL TYPE
- intended for anti-personnel and general use
2) ARMOUR PIERCING
- designed to penetrate light steel armour
3) EXPLOSIVE
- small arms bullet containing a charge of explosive which will detonate on impact
4) INCENDIARY
- used to cause fire in a target
5) TRACER BULLET
- capable of leaving visible marks or traces while in flight, giving the gunner the chance to observe
the strike of the shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss
CARTRIDGE CASE
- the metallic or non-metallic tubular container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and
primer
- the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing
and this remains at the scene of the crime
- also called shell, casing
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
1) BASE
- the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp containing the caliber,
manufacturer, and in some cases, the date, trade name and batch number
2) RIM
- the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to chamber
3) EXTRACTING GROOVES
- the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the
chamber
4) PRIMER POCKET
- the part which provides the means for the primer to be put in the central position
5) BODY
- the cylindrical part of the shell which houses the gunpowder
6) SHOULDER
- supports the neck of the cartridge
7) CANNELURE
- the cylindrical groove formed in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the shell
to the chamber as well as prevent the bullet from being pushed down to the powder charge
NECK
- the part actually occupied by the bullet
9) CRIMP
- the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed to hold the bullet and prevent it from
being pulled out from the shell
10) VENT OR FLASH HOLE
- the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket serving as the passage way for the priming mixture to
impart an ignition to the propellant charge
PRIMER
- the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical
compound that would easily ignite or burst into flames when struck by the firing pin
- also known as the percussion cup
PARTS OF THE PRIMER
1) PRIMER CUP
o the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil
2) PRIMING MIXTURE
o the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin
3) ANVIL
o that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin
causing friction that would initiate ignition
4) DISC
o a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture
attack
GUN POWDER
- that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of the
expansive force of gas when burned
- also called propellant or powder charge
TYPES OF GUN POWDER
1) BLACK POWDER
- the oldest of the propellants
- composition is the following:
potassium nitrate = 75%
sulphur = 10%
charcoal = 15%
2) SMOKELESS POWDER
- the most powerful of propellants
FIREARMS CHARACTERISTICS
1) CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
- those properties or attributes of firearms which can be determined even before the manufacture of
the gun
- these are factory specifications
- these serve as basis for identifying a certain group or class of firearms
- examples of which are bore diameter or caliber, number of lands or grooves, width of lands, width
of grooves, direction of twist, pitch of riflings and depth of grooves
2) INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- those characteristic markings peculiar and not found in all other firearms
- these serve as basis in identifying a particular firearm
- these are determinable only after the manufacture
BORE DIAMETER (CALIBER)
- the diameter in which the bore was reamed
- the distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore
NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES
- the number of lands and grooves are always the same
LANDS – the elevated portions
GROOVES – the depressed portions
DIRECTION OF TWIST
- the rifling inside the gun barrel may twist either to the right or to the left
- the twist of the rifling cause the bullet to “rotate” as it passes through the bore, for the bullet to have
gyroscopic stability during its flight from muzzle to target
PITCH OF RIFLINGS
- the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves
- the distance advanced by the riflings in one complete turn
RIFLINGS
- consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore
- the purpose is to impart a motion of rotation to a bullet during its passage inside the barrel in order
to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight and so that it will travel nose-on towards the target
STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF A BARREL
1) DRILLING
o boring of deep-hole
2) REAMING
o the removal of the scars and scratches left by the drilling process
3) RIFLING
o making of the helical grooves or riflings
4) LAPPING
o polishing operation; the removal of large imperfections on the inside surface of the barrel
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
1) LAND MARKS
- marks made by the lands of the barrel
2) GROOVE MARKS
- marks made by the grooves of the barrel
3) SKID MARKS
- marks generally found on bullets fired from a revolver
4) STRIPPING MARKS
- marks found on bullets fired from a loose-fit barrel riflings of which are already worn out
5) SHAVING MARKS
- marks found on bullets fired from a revolver
6) SLIPPAGE MARKS
- marks found on fired bullets passing through either an oily or oversized barrel
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS
1) FIRING PIN MARKS
- marks found at the base portion of the cartridge case made by the firing pin
2) BREECH FACE MARKS
- marks found at the base portion of the cartridge case caused by the backward movement of the
breech face
3) EXTRACTOR MARKS
- marks found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case caused by its withdrawal from the
chamber
4) EJECTOR MARKS
- marks found on a cartridge case fired from an automatic firearm
5) SHEARING MARK
- mark found in the primer near the firing pin mark
6) CHAMBER MARK
- mark found around the body of the fired cartridge case caused by the irregularities of nips inside the
walls of the chamber
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
1) analytical or torsion balance
o instrument used for determining weight of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible determination of
type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired
2) bullet comparison microscope
o an optical instrument consisting of two compound microscope with a single microscope field or
monocular eyepiece capable of viewing two objects side by side
3) bullet recovery box
o an instrument used for test firing
o used in collecting test bullets safely and without damage
4) chronograph
o an instrument designed to measure velocity of the bullet
5) caliper
o used to measure caliber of firearms, bullets and shells
6) helixometer
o used to examine the bore of the firearm, more specifically the pitch of rifling
7) onoscope
o used to examine the inner surface of the barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore
stereoscopic microscope
o used for preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells as to determine the relative class
characteristics
THE SEVEN PROBLEMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1) Given a fired bullet, to determine the caliber, type, and make of the firearm from which it was
fired
2) Given a fired shell, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from which it was fired
3) Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired
from the suspected firearm
4) Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired shell was fired
from the suspected firearm
5) Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm
6) Given two or more fired shells, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same
firearm
7) Given a suspected firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not
HANDLING OF EVIDENCE
DON’T M-A-C THE EVIDENCE:
M – utilate; A – lter the nature, and C – contaminate
MARKING OF EVIDENCE
A. FIRED BULLETS
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
- marks should be made at its nose or ogive or at the base, with the use of any pointed instrument
- never use the letter “X”
B. FIRED SHELLS
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
- marks may be made in any of the following parts:
1. inside, near the open mouth
2. outside, near the open mouth
3. on the body of the shell
- never place the marks at the base
- never use the letter “X”
C. SUSPECTED FIREARM
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials
- markings should be made on all of the three main and inseparable parts:
1. barrel
2. cylinder ( if revolver) or slide ( in pistol)
3. frame
- a tag should be made with the following information:
1. type of firearm
2. make or model
3. caliber
4. serial number ( very important)
5. date of recovery
6. name of victim (if known)
7. name of suspect (if known)
8. other features of value
- always put your markings on the parts that can never be replaced
- never use the letter “X”
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
BALLISTICS
- the science of the motion of projectiles and the condition that affects their motion
- science of firearms identification
ORIGIN OF THE WORD “BALLISTICS”
- derived from two Greek words: BALLO, BALLEIN, which means “to throw”
- derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called BALLISTA
COL. CALVIN H GODDARD M.D.
- the “father of modern ballistics”
FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- branch of science which actually involves the investigation and identification of firearms by means
of ammunition fired through them
- study of the motion of projectiles as applied to law
PROJECTILE
- refers to metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1) INTERIOR OR INTERNAL BALLISTICS
o treats of the motion of the projectile while it is still inside the firearm which extends from the
breach to the muzzle
2) EXTERIOR OR EXTERNAL BALLISTICS
o treats of the attributes or movement of the projectile after leaving the gun muzzle
a) muzzle blast – the noise created at muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of the
expanding gas and its contact with the air
b) muzzle energy – energy generated at the muzzle point
c) trajectory – the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until it hits
the target; the actual curve path taken by a bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target
d) range – the imaginary straight distance between the muzzle of the gun and the target
1. accurate range – the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control of his shots
2. maximum range – the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm; the farthest
distance the bullet could travel
e) velocity – the rate of speed of the bullet during its flight per unit of time usually expressed as feet
per second (ft/sec)
f) pull of gravity – downward reaction of the bullet towards the earth surface due to its weight
g) air resistance – that force of the air encountered by the bullet in its flight
3) TERMINAL BALLISTICS
- that branch of ballistics which deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile on the target
a) terminal accuracy – the size of the bullet grouping on the target
b) terminal energy – the energy or force of the projectile when it strikes the target; same as striking
energy
c) terminal velocity – the speed of the bullet upon striking the target
d) terminal penetration – the depth of entry of the bullet on the target
4) FORENSIC BALLISTICS
- the product of the application of ballistics to law
SCOPE OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1) FIELD INVESTIGATION
- the job of the field investigator
- includes recognition, collection, markings, prevention, packing and transmittal of ballistics exhibit
2) TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BALLISTICS EXHIBIT
- job performed by a firearm identification examiner
- includes markings of evidence, test-firing evidences, photomicrography, and preparation of reports
3) LEGAL PROCEEDING
- the most critical part in the field of firearm identification
- the firearm examiner goes to court to testify as an expert witness
TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
- an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of expansive force of gases coming
from the burning gun powder
LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM
- “… includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly weapons
from which a bullet, ball, shot shell or other missile may be discharged of by means of gunpowder or
other explosives. The term also include air rifles except such as being of small caliber and limited
range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a complete firearm for all purposes
hereof.”
- provided by Sec 877, Revised Administrative Code and Sec 290, National Internal Revenue Code
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
1) according to interior barrel construction:
a) smooth-bore firearm – those that do not have rifling inside their gun barrel
b) rifled-bore firearm – those that have rifling inside their gun barrel
2) according to the caliber of the projectile propelled:
a) artillery – those type that propel projectile with more than one inch diameter
b) small arms – those that propel projectile with less than one inch diameter; can be handled, moved
and operated by one man
1. machine guns – designed to fire, automatically or semiautomatically, more than one shot without
manual reloading, by a single press of the trigger
2. shoulder arms – normally fired from the shoulder
3. hand arms – designed or intended to be fired using one hand, either the right or the left
3) according to mechanical construction:
a) single shot firearm – those designed to fire only one shot every loading
b) repeating arm – those designed to fire several loads in one loading
c) automatic – those designed with continuous firing in a single press of the trigger and while the
trigger is pressed
d) slide action type – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under/over forearms
of the gun
e) bolt action type – reloading takes place by manipulating the bolt back and forth
f) lever type (break type) – loading takes place by lever action of the firearms
LOW-POWERED FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of less than 1850 ft/sec
HIGH-POWERED FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity between 1925 and 2500 ft/sec
HIGH-INTENSITY FIREARM
- firearms using cartridges giving a muzzle velocity of over 2500 ft/sec
AUTOMATIC
- when the mechanism is so arranged that it will fire continuously while the trigger is depressed
SEMI-AUTOMATIC (SELF-LOADING)
- when the mechanism ejects the fired shell and put on new one in the chamber and prepares the gun
to be fired
LEGAL DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION
- a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet,
shot, shell or other missile may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives
TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF AMMUNITION
- a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer; single round
ORIGIN OF THE WORD CARTRIDGE
- derived from the word, CHARTA, the Latin for paper
- derived from the word, CARTOUCHE, French for rolling paper
PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
1) BULLET
- the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of the expansive force of gases
coming from burning gunpowder
2) CARTRIDGE CASE
- the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder
- also called shell or casing
3) GUNPOWDER
- the powder charge which when ignited by the primer flash is converted into heated gas under high
pressure and propels the bullet or shots charge through the barrel and to the target
- also called propellant or powder charge
4) PRIMER
- the metal cup containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of chemical compound which when
hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGES
1) according to location of primer:
a) PIN FIRE – the ignition cap is concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it; the
pin protrudes radially through the side and the gun chamber has a notch for the pin to stand when
loaded and it will be struck by a falling hammer; no longer in use
b) RIM FIRE – the priming mixture is located at the rim of the case; this can be fired only if the
cartridge is struck by the hammer or firing pin on the rim of the case
c) CENTER FIRE – the primer cup is centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the
priming mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil
2) according to rim diameter:
a) RIMMED CASE TYPE – the case has a well-defined upstanding rim around the base or simply a
cartridge with a rim diameter greater than the body diameter of the shell
b) SEMI-RIMMED TYPE – the rim diameter is slightly greater than the body diameter of the case
c) RIMLESS TYPE – the rim diameter is equal to the body diameter of the case
d) REBATED TYPE – has a rimless pattern but which has rim diameter smaller than the body
diameter of the case
e) BELTED TYPE – with prominent raise belt around its body just in front of the extraction groove
3) according to caliber:
THREE SYSTEMS OF MEASURING CALIBER
a) English system – expressed in thousandths of an inch ( cal. 380)
b) American system – expressed in hundredths of an inch ( cal. 38 )
c) European or continental system – expressed in millimeter
CALIBER
- the bore diameter measured between two opposite lands
BULLET
- metallic or non-metallic cylindrical ball propelled from a firearm
- also called projectile, slugs
- derived from the French word, BOULETTE, which means small ball
GENERAL TYPES OF BULLETS
1) LEAD TYPE
- composed of lead metal
2) JACKETED TYPE
- consist of the regular lead core, coated with a copper alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the
barrel
TYPES OF BULLET ACCORDING TO THEIR MAXIMUM EFFECT ON TARGETS
1) BALL TYPE
- intended for anti-personnel and general use
2) ARMOUR PIERCING
- designed to penetrate light steel armour
3) EXPLOSIVE
- small arms bullet containing a charge of explosive which will detonate on impact
4) INCENDIARY
- used to cause fire in a target
5) TRACER BULLET
- capable of leaving visible marks or traces while in flight, giving the gunner the chance to observe
the strike of the shot or make adjustments in the event of a miss
CARTRIDGE CASE
- the metallic or non-metallic tubular container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and
primer
- the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing
and this remains at the scene of the crime
- also called shell, casing
PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE
1) BASE
- the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp containing the caliber,
manufacturer, and in some cases, the date, trade name and batch number
2) RIM
- the part of the cartridge designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge to chamber
3) EXTRACTING GROOVES
- the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for automatic withdrawal of the case from the
chamber
4) PRIMER POCKET
- the part which provides the means for the primer to be put in the central position
5) BODY
- the cylindrical part of the shell which houses the gunpowder
6) SHOULDER
- supports the neck of the cartridge
7) CANNELURE
- the cylindrical groove formed in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to secure the shell
to the chamber as well as prevent the bullet from being pushed down to the powder charge
NECK
- the part actually occupied by the bullet
9) CRIMP
- the cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed to hold the bullet and prevent it from
being pulled out from the shell
10) VENT OR FLASH HOLE
- the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket serving as the passage way for the priming mixture to
impart an ignition to the propellant charge
PRIMER
- the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a highly sensitive chemical
compound that would easily ignite or burst into flames when struck by the firing pin
- also known as the percussion cup
PARTS OF THE PRIMER
1) PRIMER CUP
o the brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the disc and the anvil
2) PRIMING MIXTURE
o the highly sensitive chemical compound which ignites by the mechanical blow of the firing pin
3) ANVIL
o that portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow of the firing pin
causing friction that would initiate ignition
4) DISC
o a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to protect it from moisture
attack
GUN POWDER
- that mixture of chemicals of various compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of the
expansive force of gas when burned
- also called propellant or powder charge
TYPES OF GUN POWDER
1) BLACK POWDER
- the oldest of the propellants
- composition is the following:
potassium nitrate = 75%
sulphur = 10%
charcoal = 15%
2) SMOKELESS POWDER
- the most powerful of propellants
FIREARMS CHARACTERISTICS
1) CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
- those properties or attributes of firearms which can be determined even before the manufacture of
the gun
- these are factory specifications
- these serve as basis for identifying a certain group or class of firearms
- examples of which are bore diameter or caliber, number of lands or grooves, width of lands, width
of grooves, direction of twist, pitch of riflings and depth of grooves
2) INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
- those characteristic markings peculiar and not found in all other firearms
- these serve as basis in identifying a particular firearm
- these are determinable only after the manufacture
BORE DIAMETER (CALIBER)
- the diameter in which the bore was reamed
- the distance measured between two opposite lands inside the bore
NUMBER OF LANDS AND GROOVES
- the number of lands and grooves are always the same
LANDS – the elevated portions
GROOVES – the depressed portions
DIRECTION OF TWIST
- the rifling inside the gun barrel may twist either to the right or to the left
- the twist of the rifling cause the bullet to “rotate” as it passes through the bore, for the bullet to have
gyroscopic stability during its flight from muzzle to target
PITCH OF RIFLINGS
- the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves
- the distance advanced by the riflings in one complete turn
RIFLINGS
- consist of a number of helical grooves cut in the interior surface of the bore
- the purpose is to impart a motion of rotation to a bullet during its passage inside the barrel in order
to ensure gyroscopic stability in its flight and so that it will travel nose-on towards the target
STAGES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF A BARREL
1) DRILLING
o boring of deep-hole
2) REAMING
o the removal of the scars and scratches left by the drilling process
3) RIFLING
o making of the helical grooves or riflings
4) LAPPING
o polishing operation; the removal of large imperfections on the inside surface of the barrel
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
1) LAND MARKS
- marks made by the lands of the barrel
2) GROOVE MARKS
- marks made by the grooves of the barrel
3) SKID MARKS
- marks generally found on bullets fired from a revolver
4) STRIPPING MARKS
- marks found on bullets fired from a loose-fit barrel riflings of which are already worn out
5) SHAVING MARKS
- marks found on bullets fired from a revolver
6) SLIPPAGE MARKS
- marks found on fired bullets passing through either an oily or oversized barrel
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS
1) FIRING PIN MARKS
- marks found at the base portion of the cartridge case made by the firing pin
2) BREECH FACE MARKS
- marks found at the base portion of the cartridge case caused by the backward movement of the
breech face
3) EXTRACTOR MARKS
- marks found at the extracting groove of the fired cartridge case caused by its withdrawal from the
chamber
4) EJECTOR MARKS
- marks found on a cartridge case fired from an automatic firearm
5) SHEARING MARK
- mark found in the primer near the firing pin mark
6) CHAMBER MARK
- mark found around the body of the fired cartridge case caused by the irregularities of nips inside the
walls of the chamber
SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS USED IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION
1) analytical or torsion balance
o instrument used for determining weight of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible determination of
type, caliber and make of firearm from which it was fired
2) bullet comparison microscope
o an optical instrument consisting of two compound microscope with a single microscope field or
monocular eyepiece capable of viewing two objects side by side
3) bullet recovery box
o an instrument used for test firing
o used in collecting test bullets safely and without damage
4) chronograph
o an instrument designed to measure velocity of the bullet
5) caliper
o used to measure caliber of firearms, bullets and shells
6) helixometer
o used to examine the bore of the firearm, more specifically the pitch of rifling
7) onoscope
o used to examine the inner surface of the barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore
stereoscopic microscope
o used for preliminary examination of fired bullets and fired shells as to determine the relative class
characteristics
THE SEVEN PROBLEMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS
1) Given a fired bullet, to determine the caliber, type, and make of the firearm from which it was
fired
2) Given a fired shell, to determine the caliber, type and make of the firearm from which it was fired
3) Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired
from the suspected firearm
4) Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired shell was fired
from the suspected firearm
5) Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm
6) Given two or more fired shells, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same
firearm
7) Given a suspected firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not
HANDLING OF EVIDENCE
DON’T M-A-C THE EVIDENCE:
M – utilate; A – lter the nature, and C – contaminate
MARKING OF EVIDENCE
A. FIRED BULLETS
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
- marks should be made at its nose or ogive or at the base, with the use of any pointed instrument
- never use the letter “X”
B. FIRED SHELLS
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials and the date of recovery
- marks may be made in any of the following parts:
1. inside, near the open mouth
2. outside, near the open mouth
3. on the body of the shell
- never place the marks at the base
- never use the letter “X”
C. SUSPECTED FIREARM
- marked by the recovering officer with his initials
- markings should be made on all of the three main and inseparable parts:
1. barrel
2. cylinder ( if revolver) or slide ( in pistol)
3. frame
- a tag should be made with the following information:
1. type of firearm
2. make or model
3. caliber
4. serial number ( very important)
5. date of recovery
6. name of victim (if known)
7. name of suspect (if known)
8. other features of value
- always put your markings on the parts that can never be replaced
- never use the letter “X”
Ballista
Trebuchet