MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS Prof.Dr.

Erhan Budak
AND MEASUREMENT
 CONTENT

 Mechanical Vibrations
 Natural Frequency
 Frequency Response Function
 Modal Testing
 Modal Analysis
 Applications
 VIBRATIONS

 Oscillations of a system around a reference equilibrium point.

 These oscillations can be periodical such as the motion of a
pendulum or random such as the movement of a car on a gravel road
 BASIC VIBRATION MODEL
Displacement
Displacement
d = D sinnt
D
Amplitude time

T
1 Frequency
T

m
Period, Tn [second]
k
1
Frequency, fn= [Hz = 1/s]
Tn
k
n= 2  fn =
m
 AMPLıTUDE AND FREQUENCY

 Amplitude:  Frequency:
Represents how strong is the Number of waves in one
vibration. Can be defined by second. Can be defined by
- Velocity - RPM (rev/min)
- Acceleration - CPM (cycle/min)
- Displacement - Hz (1/s)
 BASIC VIBRATION TYPES

 Harmonic
 Response to run out or unbalance
 Constant frequency and amplitude
 Vibration amplitude depends on the
force and frequency

 Reaction to Impulse (Shock)

 Random Vibrations
 VıBRATION DOMAINS

 TIME DOMAIN  FREQUENCY DOMAIN

 NATURAL FREQUENCY

 A natural frequency is the frequency

at which the structure would oscillate if it
were disturbed from its rest position and
then allowed to vibrate freely
 Natural frequency decreases with mass of
the system and increases with the modal
stiffness
k
n 
m
 Resonance occurs when the applied force or base excitation frequency coincides
with a structural natural frequency
 During resonant vibration, the response displacement may increase until the
structure experiences buckling, yielding, fatigue, or some other failure
mechanism.
 For the forced vibrations frequency must be changed in order to eliminate
resonance
 This cannot be applied to chatter since the characteristics is different.
MASS AND MODAL STıFFNESS (SPRING)

Time

m1
k
n  2f n 
m  m1 m

Increasing mass
reduces frequency
 EFFECT OF DAMPING

 Damping decreases the vibration amplitude as it consumes the

energy of the vibration.
 Occurs from the system or elemental frictions.
 Blue mass has a damper below.
 MASS, SPRING AND DAMPER

time

Increasing damping
reduces the amplitude m

k c1 + c2
 HARMONIC VIBRATIONS

Natural frequencies of
the masses = 1.

Frequencies of the
applied forces:
f0=0.4,
f0=1.01,
f0=1.6
 SıNGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM MODEL

f(t)
x(t)
m

c k

M x( t )  C x ( t )  K x ( t )  f ( t )
x( t )  Acceleration Vector
M = mass (force/acc)
 (t ) 
x Velocity Vector
C = damping (force/velocity)
x( t )  Displacement Vector
K = modal stiffness (force/displacement)
f (t )  Applied Force Vector
 TıME AND FREQUENCY DOMAıN

F() H() X()

|H()| 1 1
2m c
f(t) 1
k
x(t)
m

c k  H() 0 =  k/m
0º 
– 90º
– 180º

X ( ) 1
f (t )  mx(t )  cx
 (t )  kx(t ) H ( )  
F ( )   2m  jc  k
MULTIPLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM MODEL
Amplitude

1+2

d1 + d 2
2 1
Frequency
m
d1
Phase
Frequency
dF 0°

1 2
-90°
1+2
-180°
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTION

F(f) H(f) X(f)

F H X

f H f f

H(f )  X(f )
F(f )
H(f) :Frequency Response Function
F(f) is the Fourier Transform of the Input f(t)
X(f) is the Fourier Transform of the Output x(t)
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTıON

 There are many tools available for performing vibration analysis and
testing. The frequency response function is a particular tool.
 A frequency response function (FRF) is a transfer function, expressed in
the frequency domain.
 Frequency response functions are complex functions, with real and
imaginary components. They may also be represented in terms of
magnitude and phase.
 A frequency response function can be formed from either measured data
or analytical functions.
 A frequency response function expresses the structural response to an
applied force as a function of frequency. The response may be given in
terms of displacement, velocity, or acceleration.
 3 physical parameters are needed in order to calculate FRF :
1. Natural frequencies
2. Damping ratio
3. Modal stiffness
 ANALYTıCAL FORMULATıON OF FRF

1   / n 
2
1

 
HR
k 1   /  2 2  2c /  2
n n

H R  H R  iH I
1  2c / n
HI 
 
k 1   /  2 2  2c /  2
n n
 TYPES OF MODAL ANALYSIS

1. Impact Hammer Test

– Impact hammer and accelerometers (laser sensors) are used
– Excites wide frequency range quickly
– Most commonly used technique
2. Shaker Testing
– Modal Exciter ’shakes’ product
– Many types of excitation techniques
– Often used in more complex structures
3. Operational Modal Analysis
– Uses natural excitation of structure
– ’Cutting’ edge technique
 FREQUENCY RESPONSE FUNCTıON

[m/ s ²] Time( Res po ns e) - Input

Wo rk ing : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer

80

40

Output Motion Response

0

FFT
H   
-40

-80

0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m

[s ]

Input Force Excitation

Output
[m/ s ²] A uto s pec tr um(R es po ns e) - Input
Wo rk ing : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer

Input 10

100m
[(m / Fr
s ²)/N
equenc
] y Res po ns e H 1(R es po ns e,Exc itatio n) - Input (M agnitude)
Wo r k ing : Input : Input : FF T A nalyzer
Inverse [(m /s ²)/N
Impuls
/s ] e Res po ns e h1(R espo ns e,Exc it atio n) - Input (R eal P art)


Wo rk ing : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer
10m 2k

FFT
10

1m 1k
0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k
[H z]
0
100m
-1k
[N ] A uto s pec tr um(Exc itatio n) - Input
Wo rk ing : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer -2k
1 0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k 0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m
[H z] [s ]
100m

10m

1m

100u
0 200 400 600 800 1k 1,2k 1,4k 1,6k
[H z]

Frequency domain Time domain

[N ]

200
Time( Excitat io n) - Input
Wo rk ing : Input : Input : FFT A nalyzer
FFT
100

-100

-200
0 40m 80m 120m 160m 200m 240m
[s ]
 HAMMER TEST ON FREE-FREE BEAM

Roving hammer methodu

 Response measured at one point
 Excitation of the structure at a number of points
by hammer with force transducer
 FRF’s between excitation points and measurement point calculated
• Modes of structure identified
Amplitude First
Mode Second
Mode Third
Mode
Beam
Acceleration
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
Force
 ACCELEROMETER

 A piezoelectric accelerometer is an accelerometer that

employs the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to
measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables
(e.g., acceleration, vibration, and mechanical shock).

 The output may be in gravitation (g) or mm/s 2 .

 Frequency measurement range, linearity and mass

are important factors when selecting an accelerometer.

 There are several mounting techniques including,

mechanical mounting, permanent magnet or tapes.

 All accelerometers has a calibration certificate that

also includes the specific gain for that accelerometer.
 IMPACT HAMMER

 Impact hammers have also piezoelectrical crystal that use to measure the
impulse forces during the impact.
 In machining generally 3 different sizes are used.
 DATA ACQUISITON (DAQ) SETUP

DAQ is used to convert

analog signal to digital
with minimum loss of real
data.
After the data is gathered
modal analysis is used to
obtain the FRF.
 IMPACT EXCITATION

a(t)

t
• Magnitude and pulse duration depends on:
– Weight of hammer
– Hammer tip (steel, plastic or rubber)
– Dynamic characteristics of surface
– Velocity at impact

• Frequency bandwidth inversely proportional to the pulse duration

a(t) 1 GAA(f) 1
2 2

t f
 TEST FOR VALIDITY OF DATA

2
GFX ( f )
Coherence  2( f ) 
GFF ( f ) G XX ( f )

– Measures how much energy put in to the system caused the response
– The closer to ‘1’ the more coherent
– Less than 0.75 is bordering on poor coherence
 REASONS FOR LOW COHERENCE

Difficult Measurements:
 Noise in measured output signal
 Noise in measured input signal
 Other inputs not correlated with measured input signal
 Low applied impact force
 Improper selection of accelerometer (with low sensitivity)

Bad Measurements:
 Leakage
 Time varying systems
 Non-linearities of system
 MODAL ANALYSIS

H( f )
Measured
FRF

Frequency

Curve Fitting

H( f )

Modal Analysis

Frequency
 MODAL ANALYSIS

H( f )

Modal Analysis

Frequency

f(t) f(t) f(t)

x(t) x(t) m x(t)
m m
SDOF Models
c k c k c k
 MODE CHARACTERIZATIONS

All Modes Can Be

Characterized By:
1. Natural Frequency
2. Modal Damping
3. Mode Shape
 MODAL ANAYLSIS AND BEYOND

Experimental
Modal Analysis

Dynamic Model
based on
Modal Parameters

F
Structural Response
Modification Simulation

Hardware Modification Simulate Real

Resonance Specification World Response
FRF EXAMPLES
 REFERENCES

 Structural Testing Part 1: Mechanical Mobility Measurements

Brüel & Kjær Primer

 Structural Testing Part 2: Modal Analysis and Simulation

Brüel & Kjær Primer

 Modal Testing: Theory, Practice, and Application, 2 nd Edition by D.J. Ewin

Research Studies Press Ltd.

 Dual Channel FFT Analysis (Part 1)

Brüel & Kjær Technical Review # 1 – 1984

 Dual Channel FFT Analysis (Part 1)

Brüel & Kjær Technical Review # 2 – 1984