Q 3(2k19): A.What is binding energy of a nucleus? Obtain an expression for binding energy using mass defect. (3) Ans: Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy that would be required to disassemble or break the nucleus of an atom into its component parts. These component parts are neutrons and protons, which are collectively called nucleons. Expression of Binding Energy in terms of mass defects: The mass of an atomic nucleus is usually less than the sum of the individual masses of the constituent protons and neutrons (according to Einstein's equation E=mc2) and this 'missing mass’ is known as the mass defect, and represents the energy that was released when the nucleus was formed. Anuclide 4X has Z protons and N neutrons so that the difference in mass is Am = (Zm, + (A-Z)m,) ~ Mt. Thus, Binding Energy = (Am)c? = [(Zm, + Nm,) - mJc?, where m,, is the mass of the nuclide 4, m, is the mass of a proton, and m,, is the mass of a neutron. B.Draw the B.E/A versus A curve and explain 1) why the binding energy of a very light nucleus is law and 2) why B.E/A curve drops down for heavy nuclei? (4) Ans: B.E/A versus A curve-Most stable nucleus Fission — Region of very stable nuclides Binding energy per nucleon (MeV) ® T T T T T T T T 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 Mass number (A)The graph of BE/A reveals some very interesting aspects of nuclei, We see that the binding energy per nucleon averages about 8 MeV, but is lower for both the lightest and heaviest nuclei. This overall trend, in which nuclei with A equal to about 60 have the greatest BE/A and are thus the most tightly bound, is due to the combined characteristics of the attractive nuclear forces and the tepulsive Coulomb force. It is especially important to note two things—the strong nuclear force is about 100 times stronger than the Coulomb force, and the nuclear forces are shorter in range compared to the Coulomb force. So, for low-mass nuclei, the nuclear attraction dominates and each added nucleon forms bonds with all others, causing progressively heavier nuclei to have progressively greater values of BE/A. This continues up to A = 60, roughly corresponding to the mass number of iron. Beyond that, new nucleons added to a nucleus will be too far from some others to feel their nuclear attraction. Added protons, however, feel the repulsion of all other protons, since the Coulomb force is longer in range. Coulomb repulsion grows for progressively heavier nuclei, but nuclear attraction remains about the same, and so BE/A becomes smaller. This is why stable nuclei heavier than A ~ 40 have more neutrons than protons. Coulomb repulsion is reduced by having more neutrons to keep the protons farther apart.One of the important problem in the design of a reactor is the loss of neutrons through the surface of the reactor! Neutron leakage can be reduced by increasing the size of the reactor. (A large object has less surface area in proportion to its volume ) The escape of neutrons take place from the surface of the reactor while fission occurs through out its volume. So escape varies as r? [Area=4zr2] The production rate of neutrons varies as r? [volume==7r3] Escape rate z Therefore, ee Con Production rate —r Thus, the greater the size of the reactor, the lesser will be the probability of the leakage of neutrons. In most types of power reactors, a reflector is less important; this is due to the reactor’s large size, which reduces the proportion of neutrons that may leak from the core region.Mass Distribution in Fission Products The distribution of the masses of the fragments following the fission of 7°°,,U by thermal neutrons is shown in Figure. (1)The vast majority of *°°,U fissions result in one fragment with mass number 4 in the region 90 to 100 and yield/% (2) the other with a mass number in the region 130 to 145. Usually, two, three, or four neutrons accompany the two fission fragments with, on average, 2.5 neutrons emitted per 7°,U fission. 0 * 80 100 120 140 160 180 AEnergy distribution in Fission products 165 MeV ~ kinetic energy of fission products 7 MeV ~ gamma rays 6 MeV ~ kinetic energy of the neutrons 7 MeV ~ energy from fission products 6 MeV ~ gamma rays from fission products 9 MeV ~ anti-neutrinos from fission products 200 MeV ~ total energyNuclear Force: That the nucleus exists means that there is some force other than the electrostatic force or gravity which holds it together. The protons are all repelling each other electrically, the neutrons are electrically neutral, and the attractive gravitational force between protons is some 10° times weaker than the electrostatic repulsive force. The force that holds the nucleus together must be attractive and even stronger than the electrostatic repulsion. This attractive force is called the nuclear force. The nuclear force treats protons and neutrons equally, it does not differentiate between a proton and a neutron. The nuclear force is charge independent. For this reason we talk about the nuclear force between nucleons. The nuclear force does not act on electrons. The properties of the nuclear force can be deduced from the properties of the structures it creates, namely the atomic nuclei. The fact that protons and neutrons maintain their size while inside a nucleus means that the nuclear force is both attractive and repulsive. If we try to pull two nucleons apart, the attractive nuclear force holds them together, next to each other. But if we try to squeeze two nucleons into each other, we encounter a very strong repulsion, giving the nucleons essentially a solid core. It is the repulsive part of the nuclear force that makes nuclear matter nearly incompressible.Characteristics of Nuclear Force: 1. This force is fundamentally different from the gravitational and electrical forces 2. Nuclear force (NF) is effective only at short range( ~1075m). However at very short range (~less than 0.5x10" 15m) NF turns repulsive. Otherwise nucleons in a nucleus would mesh together. 3. Nuclear forces have saturation character. Each nucleon interacts with only a limited no of nucleons nearest to it. 4. Nuclear force is charge independent. (NF is same p-p, n-p and n-n interactions). 5. Spin dependent of NF. 6. Strongest known forces in nature (~8 MeV). 1 2 3 $-103om Separation (r)Comparison between nuclear fission and fusion: Definition Fi ission is the splitting of a large atom into two or [Fusion is the fusing of two or more lighter atoms into a larger more smaller ones. one. Natural Fission reaction does not normally occur in nature. Fusion occurs in stars, such as the sun. occurrence of the process Byproducts of [Fission produces many highly radioactive particles] Few radioactive particles are produced by fusion reaction, the reaction but if a fission “trigger” is used, radioactive particles will result from that. Critical mass of the substance and acurate-speed | High density, high temperature environment is required neutrons are required Energy Takes little energy to split two atoms ina fission | Extremely high energy is required to bring two or more Requirement reaction. protons close enough that nuclear forces overcome their electrostatic repulsion. Energy Released) The energy released by fission is a million times | The energy released by fusion is three to four times greater greater than that released in chemical reactions, than the energy released by fission. but lower than the energy released by nuclear fusion. One class of nuclear weapon is a fission bomb, | One class of nuclear weapon Is the hydrogen bomb, which also known as an atomic bomb or atom bomb. uses a fission reaction to “trigger” a fusion reaction. Conditions Nuclear weapon) Energy Fission is used in nuclear power plants. Fusion is an experimental technology for producing power. production Fuel Uranium is the primary fuel used in power plants. Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium and Tritium) are the primaryBinding energy per nucleon (MeV) T T T T T T T T T T 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 Mass number (A)Important features of the graph: + (1) Excluding the lighter nuclei, the average binding energy per nucleon is about 8 MeV. + (2) The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs at around mass number A = 50, and corresponds to the most stable nuclei. Iron nucleus Fe% is located close to the peak with a binding energy per nucleon value of approximately 8.8 MeV. It's one of the most stable nuclides that exist. +(3) Nuclei with very low or very high mass numbers have lesser binding energy per nucleon and are less stable because the lesser the binding energy per nucleon, the easier it is to separate the nucleus into its constituent nucleons. +(4) Nuclei with low mass numbers may undergo nuclear fusion, where light nuclei are joined together under certain conditions so that the final product may have a greater binding energy per nucleon. +(5) Nuclei with high mass numbers may undergo nuclear fission, where the nucleus split to give two daughter nuclei with the release of neutrons. The daughter nuclei will possess a greater binding energy per nucleon.Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two nuclei are combined, or fused, to form a larger nucleus. We know that all nuclei have less mass than the sum of the masses of the protons and neutrons that form them. The missing mass times c equals the binding energy of the nucleus—the greater the binding energy, the greater the missing mass. We also know that BE/A, the binding energy per nucleon, is greater for medium-mass nuclei and has a maximum at Fe (iron). This means that if two low-mass nuclei can be fused together to form a larger nucleus, energy can be released. The larger nucleus has a greater binding energy and less mass per nucleon than the two that combined. Thus mass is destroyed in the fusion reaction, and energy is released (see Figure 2). On average, fusion of low-mass nuclei releases energy. but the details depend on the actual nuclides involved.The Sun produces energy by fusing protons or hydrogen nuclei 'H (by far the Sun’s most abundant nuclide) into helium nuclei ‘He. The principal sequence of fusion reactions forms what is called the profon-proton cycle: 1H+'H—*H+e*+ v, (0.42 MeV) 1H +?H— 3He +) (5.49 MeV) 3He +He > “He +'H+'H — (12.86 MeV) The proton-proton cycle is not a practical source of energy on Earth, in spite of the great abundance of hydrogen ('H). The reaction 'H + 'H + 7H +e” + v, has a very low probability of occurring. (This is why our Sun will last for about ten billion years. {immense Main Form of Proton-Proton (pp) Chain in Sun 7 iii neve OW roowow ucvay. (i) electron emission form nucleus (- decay), (ii) positron emission from nucleus (B* decay), and (iii) electron capture B- decay occurs when a nucleus emits an electron. An example is the decay of carbon14: 4c — YN + e + aneutrino The final nucleus still has 14 nucleons, but it has one more proton and one fewer neutron. The electron in beta decay is not an atomic orbital electron; it is created during the time of decay.8° decay: the nucleus emits a positron rather than an electron lyNe > {F + et +7 A nucleus can also capture one of its inner electrons. jiBe +e > {Li+vThe fundamental process is a neutron decaying to a proton, electron, and antineutrino: n—-> pte + aneutrino The need for a particle such as the neutrino was discovered through analysis of energy and momentum conservation in beta decay — it could not be a two particle decay. Neutrinos are notoriously difficult to detect, as they interact only weakly, and direct evidence for th existence was not available until more than 20 yrs had passed after they were ‘predicted’. The sym! for the neutrino is the Greek letter nu, v We can write the beta decay of carbon14 as: 4C>'UN+e +”