Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Kirkuk
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Soil Mechanics

Third Stage
Semester (Fall 2023-2024)

By

Asst. Prof. Dr. Omer Muhie Eldeen Taha

Course Name: Soil Mechanics I

Course Code:

Name of Lecturer: Asst. Prof. Dr. Omer Muhie Eldeen Taha

Number of Hours: Three hours per week for theory and two hours per week for
laboratory.

Course Description:

This class presents the principles of soil mechanics. It considers the

following topics: the origin and nature of soils; volume-weight relations,
soil consistency, soil classification, the total and effective stresses,
hydraulic conductivity and seepage, compaction, and laboratory methods
used to evaluate soil properties.

Course Outcomes: Students who successfully complete this course will be able to:

1- Apply basic mathematics, science and engineering principles to solve engineering

problems.
2- Classify soil type according to its engineering properties.
3- Understand the basic phase relations of soil.
4- A close understanding of the special behavior of fine-grained soil
through studying its states‟ limits (liquid limit, Plastic limit and
Shrinkage limit), and/or its indices (Plasticity index, liquidity
index)
5- Can calculate the earth overburden pressure.
6- Perform common soil tests to identify physical and mechanical properties of soils.
7- Be familiar with soil mechanics tests and determines which test
is needed in designing civil engineering projects and/or solving
engineering problems.
8- Demonstrate the ability to write clear technical laboratory reports.
9- Demonstrate the ability to work in groups and understand and apply
ethical issues associated with decision making and professional
conduct in the lab and field environment.
 Course Contents:
1. Introduction
2. Origin of Rocks and Soil, and Soil formation and composition.
3. Description of an Assemblage of Particles.
4. The physical state of a soil sample (Volume-Weight Relations)
5. Atterberg and Soil consistency
6. Particle Size Analysis and Soil classification
7. Definitions of (Clay thixotropy, Types of samples, Soil sensitivity, Over consolidation
ratio).
8. Soil Compaction
9. Fluid flow though soils: one dimensional flow.
10. Continuity and Laplace Equation
11. Flow nets.
12. Effective Stress and Capillary.
13. Stress in a Soil Mass and Mohr’s circle
14. Induced stress from point and line loads
15. Induced stresses beneath area loads
16. Elastic settlement and primary consolidation
17. Computing consolidation settlement
18. Time rate of settlement
19. Settlement beneath footing.
20. Introduction to shear strength and direct shear test
21. Triaxial shear test
22. Method to measure undrained shear strength
23. Lateral Earth Pressure
24. PQ Diagrams, Sensitive clays, and Thixotropy.

References:

1- Das, B.M., Principle of Geotechnical Engineering, 8th edition.

2- Arora, K. R., Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 6th edition.
3- Craig, R.F., Craig‟s Soil Mechanics, 7th edition.
4- T. William Lambe Robert V. Whitman Soil Mechanics Wiley Series in
Geotechnical Engineering.
5- A. Aysen, Problem Solving in Soil Mechanics, 2003
6- Braja M. Das, Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual, 6th Edition.
Course Evaluation Criteria:

Method Percentage
Attendance +
5
Participations
Semester I and II Exams 15
Midterm Examination 15
Laboratory Reports 10
Final Examination 50
 Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 : Definition of Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics is the science that applies laws and principles of physics especially
continuous and particulate mechanics and hydraulics of porous media to solve problems
encountered in civil engineering related to force-deformation behavior of soil and the
flow of fluids through soil.

Or:

Soil mechanics is the science dealing with the behavior of soil in engineering practice
or how does a soil mass behave when acted on by external forces.

1.2 : Historical Background

• The properties and behavior of soils have exercised the minds of builders from
time immoral. The very little attempt appears to have been made to deal with soil
problems on a scientific basis until towards the end of the eighteenth century,
when Coulomb published his theory of earth pressure and suggested his
well-known law of failure of soils.

• Rankine’s theory followed about a century later, and these two classical
theories still form the basis underlying modern methods of estimating earth
pressure.

• However, it was Karl Terzaghi (1883-1963) who first brought theory and
empiricism together. By his researches and consulting work, Terzaghi has, with
justification, earned the title of „The Father of Soil Mechanics‟

1.3 : What Makes Soil Mechanics Interesting and Challenging?

Soil stands amongst most variable and difficult of all materials to understand and
model. Difficulties arise when one attempts to predict the behavior of soil based on a
mathematical model such as:

1. The material we are dealing with may be as weak as soft clay or as strong as
hard clay or clay shale.
2. Soil properties vary in both the horizontal and vertical directions and it can be
change with time, stress, and environment.
3. Every site has different soil conditions. We cannot specify in advance the
material properties that must be used for construction.
4. Soil "hidden" underground and data on small fraction of deposit.
1.4: Areas Involving the Application of Soil Mechanics
1. Foundation design and selection.
• Foundations "shallow" e.g., spread footings for buildings
• "deep" e.g., piles for offshore platform.

2. Slopes and Excavations.

• Cut slopes for highway
• Excavation for subway

3. Retaining Structures.

• Slurry wall with tieback anchors

• Gravity retaining wall

4. Earth Structures and Embankments

• Compacted earth fills for dam
• Landfill for waste storage.

5. Erosion control

6. Seepage under, through and into structures

7. Waste Disposal System

 Chapter Two: Soil Formation and Composition

2.1 : Formation and Nature of Soils

Soil is any uncemented or weakly cemented accumulation of mineral particles formed by

weathering of rocks, the void spaces between particles contains water and/or air. The
weak cementation can be due to carbonates or oxides precipitated between the particles
or due to organic matters.

Fig. 2.1 Soil skeleton containing solid particles (S) and voids with air (A) and water (W).

2.2: Rock Types

There are three main types of rocks:
• Igneous: - solidification of molten magma, Extrusive means that the rock formed on the ground
surface. Intrusive means that it formed below the ground surface.
• Sedimentary: - formed by compaction and cementation of sediments. Clastic cemented soils,
Chemical-deposits formed by chemical action.
• Metamorphic: - Transformation of sedimentary and igneous rocks due to heat and pressure.

2.3 Weathering
(A) Mechanical weathering
Disintegration of rocks into smaller particle sizes, the processes that cause physical or
mechanical weathering are:
1) Water
2) Glaciers
3) Wind (…. Interparticle contact)
4) Thermal expansion / contraction
5) Freeze / Thaw
6) Gravity / Landslide
Particles formed by in this type of weathering will retain the same properties as that of parent rock.
The shape of soil particles will be approximately equidimensional: angular, sub-angular, and
rounded. Each particle being in direct contact with adjoining particles. The structure of the resulting
 soil might be loose, medium, or dense depending on the way in which the particles are packed
together. The formed soil from this type of weathering is coarse grained soil (Gravel and Sand) or
cohesionless soil.

Fig. 2.2 Typical shapes of coarse grained bulky particles

(B) Chemical weathering

Acids and salts react with minerals to form smaller particles and clay minerals.
1) Oxidation: union of oxygen with minerals in rocks forming another mineral.
2) Hydration: water will enter the crystalline structure of minerals forming another group of
minerals
3) Hydrolysis: the release Hydrogen from water will union with minerals forming another
mineral.
4) Carbonation: when CO2 is available with the existence of water the minerals changed to
Carbonates.
The formed soil from this type of weathering is fine grained soil (silt and clay) or cohesive soil.

2.4 Soil Formation

There are two types of soil caused by the effect of erosion:
1) Sedimentary Soils:
a. Residual Soils: soils that formed in place by disintegration of underlying parent rock or
partially indurated materials.
i. Particle size assortment with depth
ii. Properties like parent rock
iii. Pretty uniform horizontally
 Fig. 2.3 Residual Soils Formation.

b. Organic Soils: Accumulation of highly organic material formed in place by the growth
and subsequent decay of plant life. It is very compressible, entirely unsuitable for
supporting building foundations. organic soils can be:
i. Peat: A somewhat fibrous aggregate of decayed and decaying vegetation matter
having a dark color and odor of decay.
ii. Muck: Peat deposits which have advanced in stage of decomposition to such
extent that the botanical character is no longer evident.

2) Transported Soils:
It constitutes when the products of weathering don’t remain at their original location (moved from
the place of origin). During the transportation the size and shape of particles can undergo changes
and sorted into certain size range.
1) Alluvial soils – Material transported and deposited by stream, running water
2) Lacustrine soils – Material transported and deposition in lakes
3) Glacial soils -- Material transported and deposited by glaciers, or by melt water from the
glacier.
4) Marine soils -- by Ocean deposition and formation
5) Aeolian soils -- Material transported and deposited by wind.
6) Colluvial soils -- Material transported and deposited by gravity, rockfall, land slide.
2.5 Description of Individual Soil Particles

A sample of soil consists of an assemblage of many individual soil particles with air and/or water filling
the voids among the particles. The physical properties of the soil can be described using the following
categories:
1. Particle Size (Grain Size)
It can be determined by sieve analysis and hydrometer tests.

Fig. 2.4 Soil particle sizes.

Fig. 2.5 Soil Classification Based on Size Particle.

2. Particle Shape:
A sample of soil consists of an assemblage of many individual soil particles with air and / or
water filling the voids among the particles. The physical properties of the soil can be described
by using the following categories:

• Particle Shape:
Equidimensional, disk, sphere, plate, and rod.

• Degree of Roundness or Angularity:

The degree of roundness refers to the sharpness of the edges and corners of particles.
Angular particle soils generally exhibit better engineering properties (Fig. 2.5).
a) Angular
b) Sub-Angular
c) Rounded
d) Well rounded
e) Flanky particles
f) Needle like particles

Fig. 2.5 Particle shape.

3. Surface Texture:
• Dull or polished
• Smooth or rough

4. Color:
Color is a useful particle character to the geologists, those how works in mining. There are
standard cards that specify each type of soil.
 Soil Cohesion

Cohesionless Soils Cohesive Soils

• Generally, are granular or coarse grained • Generally, are fine grained
• Particles do not naturally adhere to each other • Particles have natural adhesion
• Have higher permeability to each other due to presence of clay
minerals
• Have low permeability

Coarse-grained, Granular or Cohesionless Soils:

• Excellent foundation material for supporting structures and roads.

• The best embankment material.
• The best backfill material for retaining walls.
• Might settle under vibratory loads or blasts.
• Dewatering can be difficult due to high permeability.

Fine-Grained or Cohesive Soils:

• Very often, possess low shear strength.

• Plastic and compressible.
• Loses part of shear strength upon wetting.
• Loses part of shear strength upon disturbance.
• Shrinks upon drying and expands upon wetting.
• Very poor material for backfill.
• Poor material for embankments.
• Practically impervious.
• Clay slopes are prone to landslides.
Silts:
• Characteristics:
- Relatively low shear strength
- High Capillarity and frost susceptibility
- Relatively low permeability
-Difficult to compact
• Compared to Clays:
-Better load sustaining qualities
- Less compressible
- More permeable
- Exhibit less volume change
2.5 : Clay Minerals Particles

Clay minerals are very tiny crystalline substances evolved primarily from chemical
weathering of certain rock forming minerals; they are complex alumina – silicates plus
other metallic ions.

There are several clay minerals, but three that are most common: Kaolinite, Illite, and
Montmorillonite (Smectite or Bentonite). The basic structure units of the most clay
minerals consist of silica tetrahedron, alumina octahedron (Fig. 2.6)

Fig. 2.6: Structure of tetrahedral and octahedral unit.

 The various clay minerals are formed by the stacking of combination of the basic sheet
structures with different forms of bonding between the combined sheets. Clay minerals
tend to form flat, plate like shape.
The Silica Tetrahedron and Alumina Octahedron form molecular “sheet” that together
constitute “clay”

Fig. 2.7 Silica Tetrahedron Sheet and Alumina Octahedron sheet

Various combination of these sheets makes different clays and explain their various properties.

Kaolinite
Illite and Montmorillonite

Fig. 2.8: Various clay structures.

Types of Clay Minerals

a) Kaolinite:
The combined silica-alumina sheets are hold together fairly tightly by Hydrogen bonding.

Fig. 2.9: Kaolinite Particles.

b) Illite:
The combined sheets are linked together by fairly weak bonding due to Potassium Ions held
between them.

Fig. 2.10 Illite Structure.

c) Montmorilonite:
The space between the combined sheets is occupied by water (H2O). Properties of Montmorilonite:
1- weak bonding.
2- Considerable swelling due to additional water being adsorbed between the combined sheets.

Fig. 2.11 Montmorilonite Structure.

The Double Layer
The surface of the clay particle is charged. This charge attracts both cations and water molecules.

Fig. 2.12 The Double Layer of clay particles.

Why do we care about the Double Layer:

The thickness of the double layer relative to the clay particle size determines how the particle will interact with
other particles and with water.
Soil Structure:
1. Thick double layer = Dispersive Soil
• Settles in water slower, more dense
• Lower permeability, less compressible
• Weaker strength

2. Thin double layer = Flocculated Soil

• Settle in water faster, Open structure
• Higher permeability, more compressible
• Higher strength

Shrink / Swell Potential

1. Dispersive = High shrink / swell potential
2. Can jack foundation and pavements
3. Prone in high plasticity clay
Erosive Potential
1. Dispersive = high erosive potential
2. Can lead to piping in dam and levees.

Fig. 2.13 Some problems of dispersive clay soil.

2.6: A preview of Soil Behavior

The sandy soil composed of deserted particles; the particles are not strongly bounded
together so it is free to move. Thus, soil is considered as a particulate system, and soil is
a multiphase nature dry (solid + air), partially saturated (solid + air + water), and fully
saturated (solid + water).

Soil Deformation Nature:

The deformation that occurs in soil mass, results from an accumulation of several forces
acting on the soil particles which causes a compression pressure on the particles that will
move above each other to decreasing the voids, which eventually will lead to deform the
contact surface of the soil particles, and changing the particle shape as well. The load
applied on a soil particle has two components:

Normal force (N) and Tangential force (T).

1. Deformations in Dry Soil:

a. Deformation due to contact

b. Bending of plate-like particles.

c. Inter-particle sliding
2- Chemical Interaction:

Since the soil is a multiphase system consisting of a mineral phase called the mineral
skeleton, plus a fluid phase called the pore fluid, so the quantity of fluid effect on the
shear resistance between the soil particles.

Fig. 2.14 Fluid films surrounding very small soil particles. (a) Before load. (b) Particles squeezed
close together by load.

3- Physical Interaction:
In saturated soil, the pores are filled with water therefore sustain a pressure on the particles called
(pore pressure):
Hydrostatic pressure: The pressure in the pore water, at any point equals to the unit weight of water
times the depth of the point below the water surface and there is no flow of water. Since the soil is
permeable thus the water can flow through soil and interact with mineral skeleton, altering the
magnitude of force at the contacts between particles and influencing the compression and shear
resistance of the soil.
Sharing the load: When load is applied to a soil, it’ll have sudden changes, these changes are carried
jointly by pore fluid and by the mineral skeleton, the change in pore pressure will cause water to move
through the soil, hence the properties of the soil will change with time (Consolidation Settlement).

Fig. 2.15 Pore water pressure in soil.

Soil Structure: the way the soil particles arrange themselves has an effect on the shear strength,
compressibility and permeability of soils.
Factors that effect the soil structure are:
1. The shape, size, and mineralogical composition of soil particles,
2. The nature and composition of soil water.
Structures in Cohesionless Soil
The structures generally encountered in cohesionless soils can be divided into two major categories:

1. Single – grained structure

2. Honeycombed structure
In this structure, relatively fine sand and silt form small arches with chains of particles as shown in the
figure below. Soils exhibiting honeycombed structure have large void ratios and they can carry
ordinary static load. However, under heavy load or when subjected to shock loading, the structure
breaks down, resulting in large settlement.

Structures in Cohesive Soils

1. Dispersed structure
2. Flocculated structure