Homework Set 9 Solutions Revised EECS 455 Dec.

11, 2006

1. Problem 8.3, p. 456.

*** Parts 1. & 2. As explained in class there are two ways to find an orthonormal basis -- by inspection
and by the Gram-Schmidt procedure. The former is easy, in this case the latter is tedious, so we'll use the
former. Specifically, we choose four ψi(t)'s, each a square pulse of width 1 and height 1 with ψi(t)
beginning at (i-1) and ending at i. That is,
ψ i(t) = ∏ (t-(i-1)-1/2) , i = 1, 2, 3, 4 , i
Then
s1(t) = 2 ψ 1(t) - ψ 2(t) - ψ 3(t) - ψ 4(t), so s1(t) ↔ s1 = (2, -1, -1, -1)
s2(t) = -2 ψ 1(t) + ψ 2(t) + ψ 3(t), so s2(t) ↔ s2 = (-2, 1, 1, 0)
s3(t) = ψ 1(t) - ψ 2(t) + ψ 3(t) - ψ 4(t), so s3(t) ↔ s3 = (1, -1, 1, -1)
s4(t) = ψ1(t) - 2ψ2(t) - 2ψ3(t) + 2ψ4(t), so s4(t) ↔ s4 = (1, -2, -2, 2)

Finally, the dimensionality of the waveforms (or dimension of the signal set) is the number of functions in
the orthonormal basis for the given signal set with fewest functions. This is not so easy to deduce directly.
(The dimensionality would be obvious if we had applied Gram-Schmidt.) An equivalent definition is that
the dimension is the number of linearly independent signals in the signal set. Since signals are linearly
independent iff their corresponding vectors are linearly independent, the dimension is the number of
linearly independent vectors in the set {s1, s2, s3, s4}. One can see that all four vectors are all linearly
independent.Thus, the dimension of the signal set is 4.
Another way to check if an orthonormal basis has fewest functions is to check if each member of the basis
is a linear combination of the original signals. For the orthonormal basis above we see that
s1(t) + s 2(t) = -ψ4(t) so ψ4(t) is a linear combination of s1(t), s2(t), s3(t), s4(t)
1
s2(t) + s4(t) = -2ψ3(t) +2ψ4(t) so ψ3(t) = 2 (2ψ4(t) - s2(t) - s4(t) )
so ψ3(t) is a linear combination of s1(t),s2(t), s3(t), s4(t), because ψ4(t) is
s3(t) - s4(t) = ψ2(t) +3ψ3(t) - ψ4(t) so ψ2(t) = s3(t) - s4(t) - 3ψ3(t) + ψ4(t)
so ψ2(t) is a linear combination of s1(t),s2(t), s3(t), s4(t), because ψ3((t) and ψ4(t) are
s1(t) - s2(t) = 4ψ1(t) - 2ψ2(t) - 2ψ3(t) - ψ4(t)
so ψ1(t) is a linear combin. of s1(t),s2(t), s3(t), s4(t), because ψ1(t), ψ3((t) and ψ4(t) are
Since we have shown that each of the ψ(t)'s is a linear combination of the si(t)'s, they are a minimal
basis, and we have again shown that the dimension of the signal set is 4.
*** Part 3. The minimum distance between signals may be computed from the signals themselves or from
their vector representations. In either case, the minimum distance is
dmin = d(s1,s3) = √
5

2. (a) Problem 8.4, p. 457, Use the Gram-Schmidt procedure to find the orthonormal functions.
*** It is easiest to rearrange the signals and apply Gram-Schmidt to the signals in the order s2(t), s4(t),
s1(t), s4(t). Here is the G-S procedure applied to s2(t), s4(t), s1(t), s4(t)

s2(t)  1, 0<t<1
ψ 1(t) = = 
||s2(t)|| 0, else
2, 1<t<2
φ2(t) = s4(t) - 〈s4(t),ψ 1(t)〉 ψ 1(t) = s4(t) - 2 ψ 1(t) = 
0, else

1
 φ 2 (t)  1, 1<t<2
ψ 2(t) = = 
||φ 2 (t)|| 0, else
2, 2<t<3
φ3(t) = s1(t) - 〈s1(t),ψ1(t)〉 ψ1(t) - 〈s1(t),ψ2(t)〉 ψ2(t) = s1(t) - 2ψ1(t) - 2ψ2(t) = 
0, else
φ 3 (t)  1, 2<t<3
ψ 3(t) = = 
||φ 3 (t)|| 0, else

φ3(t) = s3(t) - 〈s3(t),ψ1(t)〉 ψ1(t) - 〈s3(t),ψ2(t)〉 ψ2(t) - 〈s3(t),ψ3(t)〉 ψ3(t)

= s3(t) - 0.ψ1(t) + 2ψ2(t) + 2 ψ3(t) = 0
Hence we only need three orthonormal basis functions.
The G-S applied to the signals in the original order is shown on a hand-drawn addendum to this solution.
It illustrates the sorts of things that can arise when using Gram-Schmidt.

*** (b) Find the vectors representing the signals.

With respect to the basis found by applying G-S to s2(t), s4(t), s1(t), s4(t), the signal vectors are

s1 = (2,2,2), s2 = (2,0,0), s3 = (0,-2,-2), s4 = (2,2,0)

With respect to the basis found by appyling G-S to the signals in their original order, the signal vectors are

s1(t) = 2√
 3 ψ 1(t), s2(t) = 2/√
 3 ψ1(t) + 2√
 6 ψ2(t),
s3(t) = -4/√
 3 ψ1(t) +2√
 
2/3 ψ 2(t), s4(t) = 4/√
 3 ψ1(t) + √
 
2/3 ψ2(t) + 1/√
 2 ψ3(t).
Therefore,
s1 = (2√
 3, 0, 0) = (3.46, 0,0), s2 = (2/√
 3, 2√
 6, 0) = (1.15, 4.90, 0)
s3 = ( -4/√
 3, 2√
 
2/3, 0) = (-2.31, 1.63, 0), s4 = (4/√
 3, √
 
2/3, 1/√
 2) = (2.31, .82, .71)

*** (c) Make a plot of the signal vectors (as best you can).
With respect to the basis found by appyling G-S With respect to the basis found by appyling G-S
to the signals in order s2(t), s4(t), s1(t), s4(t), the to the signals in their original order, the signal
signal vectors are. vectors are
r2
r2
s1 5 s2
s4
2 r3
r3 s3
5
s4
-5
r1
-2 s2 s1 5
r1
2 -5

-2

-2

s3

2
3. Problem 8.9, p.458. When it says "sketch the output" it means "sketch the output when the input is the
signal to which the filter is matched.

T ,
t T-t, 0≤t≤T
1
0≤t≤T
(a) s1(t) =  , h 1(t) = s1(T-t) = T =
0, else 0, else t
T

The output of the filter when the input is s1(t) is

∞
s1(t) * h1(t) = ∫ s1(τ) h1(t-τ) dτ
-∞
Note: s1(τ) = 0 except when 0≤τ≤T and h1(t-τ) = 0 except when 0≤t-τ≤T, i.e. when t-T≤τ≤t
When t≤0 or t≥T, s1(τ) h(t-τ) = 0 for all τ so s1(t) * h1(t) = 0
When 0 ≤ t ≤ T,
t t
τ T-t+τ 1 t2 t3 t2 T-t t t2 t3
s1(t) * h1(t) = ∫ s1(τ) h1(t-τ) dτ = ∫ T T dτ = T 2 ( (T-t) 2 + 3 ) = T 2 ( 2 + 3) = 2T - 6T2
0 0
When T ≤ t ≤ 2T,
t T
τ T-t+τ t T 2-(t-T)2 T 3-(t-T)3
s1(t) * h1(t) = ∫ s1(τ) h1(t-τ) dτ = ∫ T T dτ = T 2 ((T-t) 2
+ 3
)
0 t-T
t 1 1 5 t3 - 3t2T + 4T3
= T2
( (T-t)3 6 - T2t 2 + 6 T3 ) =
6T2

*** In summary, s1(t) * h1(t) =

t
T

2, 0≤t≤T/2  -1, 0≤t≤T/2

2

(b) s2(t) = -1, T/2≤t≤T , h 2(t) = s2(T-t) = 2, T/2≤t≤T =

0, else 0, else

t
T
-1

T/2

Using graphical methods, we find s2(t) * h2(t) = t

/2 T/2 T
T

2, T/2≤t≤T
(c) s3(t) =  , h 3(t) = s3(T-t) = 2
0, else
 2, 0≤t≤T/2
 =
0, else t

2T

*** Using graphical methods we find h4(t) = s4(T-t) =

t
/2 T 3T/2

3
4. (a) Problem 8.10, p. 459

This is binary antipodal pulse amplitude modulation for which we know

P E = Q( √
2 E
No
) = Q( √
 2 A 2T
No
) = Q( √
 
2×10-3A2)

since T = 1/R = 10-5 and No = 10-2. Setting PE = 10-6 gives √

 
2×10-3A2 ≅ 4.75 and
A = 106.2
(b) Find the BSO and bandwidth.
× 104]
BSO = [0,1/2T] = [0, 5× × 104 hz.
and the bandwidth is 5×

5. (a) Problem 8.15, p. 460.

1. Determine the structure of the optimal receiver.
We must describe how an optimum receiver processes R(t) and produces I^ . As you know, there are
several ways to implement an optimum receiver. Any of these is fine. Moreover, there are a number of
ways to describe a given implementation. One can use block diagrams, equations, words, or some
combination of these. However, the description must be sufficiently complete that someone who knows
nothing about digital communications can follow the description and process R(t) to produce ^I. (You
can assume they know about signals and systems.) For one thing, no parameters or functions can be left
unspecified. And if you draw a block diagram, the input output relation for each block must be specified.
The simplest form of the receiver to design and describe is the implementation discussed in class in which
one correlates R(t) with each signal. Specifically, given received signal R(t)
 1, <s1(t),R(t)> - 1 E1 < <s2(t),R(t)> - 2 E2
1
^
I =  2
2, else
T T
A A2 A2 T3 A 2T
where <s1(t),R(t)> = ∫ T t R(t) dt, E1 = ∫ T 2 t dt = T 2 3 = 3
2
0 0
T T
A A2 A 2T
<s2(t),R(t)> = ∫ T (T-t) R(t) dt, E2 = ∫ T 2 (T-t) dt = 3
2
0 0
The above is a sufficient answer. However, one may also simplify it somewhat to

^  1, <s1(t)-s2(t),R(t)> < 0
I = 
2, else

2. Determine the probability of error.

In class we found that error probability for a binary signal set with an optimum receiver is


√ 
√
 d2   A2T
P E = Q  
2No = Q

6No 
∞ T T T
 A t - A (T-t) 2 dt = A A2
2 1
since d2 = ∫ (s1(t) - s2(t))2 dt = ∫ T T  T2 ∫ ( 2t - T)2 dt = T2 ∫ u2 2du, u=2t-T
-∞ 0 0 -T
A2 T3 A 2T
= T2 3 = 3

(b) Find the energy efficiency of this system.

First we convert the formula for PE into an expression in terms of Eb. Since E1 = E2, we have


√
A 2T  Eb 
E b = E1 = 3 . Hence, PE = Q 2N 
o

4
 
√ √

 Eb  -5 Eb
Setting PE = Q  = 10 , we find from the Q-function table that
2No 2No ≅ 4.25.
E
Therefore, Nb ≅ 36.1 or 15.6 dB
o

6. Problem 8.21, p. 462 s1(t) s2(t) s3(t)

1 1 T 1
The signals are
T -1 -1 T

1. & 2. By inspection we see that an orthonormal basis is:

ψ 1(t) = √
 
1/T s1(t) and ψ 2(t) = √
 
1/T s2(t)
Since s1(t) and s2(t) are orthogonal, one can't have an orthonormal basis with fewer signals.
Consequently, the dimensionality is N = 2.

3. & 4. With respect to this basis the signal vectors are:

s 1 = (√
 T,0), s2 = (0,√
 T), s3 = (0,-√
 T)
R2 s2 = (0,√T)
R1
These vectors (i.e. the signal constellation) and the decisions
s1 = (√T,0)
regions R1, R2, and R3 are plotted to the right.
R3 s3 = (0,-√T)
5. Signal s1(t) is more vulnerable to errors. Its two
neighbors are at distance √
 2T from it. Whereas the other
signals have one neighbor at distance √  2T and the other at
the greater distance of 2√ T. Thus, it is more likely that
noise will make s1(t) be confused with one of the other signals, than that say s2(t) will be confused with
one of the other signals.
6. There are three acceptable ways to answer this question:
(a) The union bound derived in class is


√
 2 
1 M  di,j 
P E ≤ M ∑ ∑ Q 2No ,
where M=3 is the number of signals, di,j = ||si-sj||
i=1 j≠i
We find d1,2 = d2,1 = d1,3 = d3,1 = √
 2T and d2,3 = d3,2 = 2√
 T. Therefore,
1

√ 
√ 
√ √2T

 T  2T  4  T 2  
P E ≤ 3 4Q  
No + 2Q
 
N o  = 3 Q
 
N o  + 3Q 

No 
(b) In class we also proposed approximating this upper bound by the dominate terms corresponding to the
signal separated by dmin = d1,2 = √
 2T. In this case we have


√
 2 
~ K 

√
dmin 4  T
PE ≤ M Q  = Q 
2No  3  N o
Notice that this is the first and dominate term in answer (a).
(c) Finally, the book upper bounds K by K ≤ M(M-1), in which case


√ 
√
 2   2 
~ K 

√
dmin  dmin  T
PE ≤ M Q  
2No  ≤ (M-1) Q 2No  = 2 Q N o

5
7. (a) Problem 8.28, p. 464.
From the description in Chapter 8, biorthogonal signals have equal energy (let E denote the energy of a
signal), and for each signal there is one signal that is the antipodal of it, and all other signals are
orthogonal to it. Thus if there are 8 signals, then for signal si(t), the antipodal signal sj(t) has
di,j = ||si(t)-sj(t)|| = ||2si(t)|| = 2||si(t)|| = 2√
 E.
On the other hand if sj(t) is one of the 6 signals orthogonal to si(t), then
di,j = ||si(t)-sj(t)|| = √
 2E.
M
1 dm,m'
The union bound is P(E) ≤ M ∑ ∑ Q(√
2No
)
m=1 m'≠i

In the present situation, the antipodal signal is at distance 2√

 E from si; the six orthogonal signals are at
distance √ 2E. Therefore,
M M
2
√E
) + (M-2)Q(√√
2E
√
 ) + 6 Q( √
 NEo)
d 1 2E
∑ ∑ Q(√ ) ∑ ( Q(√ )) = Q(
i,j'
PE ≤ = M No
2No 2No 2No
i=1 j'≠i i=1

Since E = 3 Eb, we have

√
 ) + 6 Q( √
 Nob)
6Eb 3E
P E ≤ Q( No

Alternatively, one can use use the approximate upper bound

~ K dmin
PE ≤ M Q( ) where dmin = √
 2E and K = M(M-2), so

√ 2No

~
√
 √

E 3Eb
P E ≤ 6 Q( No ) = 6 Q( No ).
Or one can use the upper bound stated in the book


√
 2 
 dmin
~
√
 √

E 3Eb
2No  = 7 Q(
PE ≤ (M-1) Q No ) = 7 Q( No ).
(b) Find the energy efficiency for M = 8.

Equating 6 Q( √

3Eb
No ) = 10-5, we find from the Q-function table that √
 3Eb
2No ≅ 4.25.
E
Therefore, Nb ≅ 12.0 or 10.8 dB
o
(c) Compare M-ary biorthogonal and M-ary orthogonal signal sets on the basis of energy efficient. Which
is more efficient? Is there a simple way to quantitatively compare them?
For M-ary biorthogonal signals, there are M-2 signals at distance dmin = √
 2E = √
 
2 (log2 M) Eb from each
signal, so the approximate union bound gives
~
P E ≤ (M-2) Q( √
 E
No ) = (M-2) Q( √

( ) log2 M Eb
No ).
For M-ary orthogonal signals, there are M-1 signals at distance dmin = √
 2E = √
 
2 (log2 M) Eb from each
signal, so the approximate union bound gives
~
P E ≤ (M-1) Q( √
 E
No ) = (M-1) Q( √

( ) log2 M Eb
No ).
M-2
We see that biorthogonal is better in that the upper bound for biorthogonal is fraction M-1 less. This is
rather significant if M=2, somewhat significant if M=4, and not significant if M≥8.

6
8. A binary modulator uses the two signals
1, 0≤t≤T/2 1, T/2≤t≤T
s1(t) =  s2(t) = 
0, else 0, else

Design an optimum receiver that has as its first stage one and only one matched filter, and no other analog
filters and no analog correlators.
An orthonormal basis for the given signals is:
√(2/T) √( 2/T)
ψ 1(t) = and ψ2(t) =
T/2 T T/2 T

With the respect to this basis, the signal vectors are s1 = (A√
T/2,0) and s2 = (0,A T/2).
√
A block diagram of one potential optimal receiver is:
sample at T
R1
matched
R(t) filter h1 (t) ^I
sample at T decision
R2 device
matched
filter h2 (t)

where h1(t) = ψ1(T-t) = ψ2(t), h2(t) = ψ2(T-t) = ψ1(t) and the decision device chooses ^I = 1 if
||(R1,R2) - s1|| ≤ ||(R1,R2) - s2||, which simplifies to ^I = 1 if R1 > R2, and ^I = 2 if R2 > R1.
Here are two acceptable answers:

(a) The following receiver, with only one matched filter, but with a sampler that samples twice produces
exactly the same decisions as the one above (because R1 and R2 are always the same as in the above).
Therefore, it too is an optimum receiver.
R(t) sample at T/2 and T
matched R1 R2 I
filter h2(t) decision
device
The matched filter is h2(t) = ψ1(t) and the decision device is the same as in part 2).
(b) Alternatively, we see that the original receiver with two matched filters decides ^I = 1 if R1 > R2,
and ^I = 2 if R2 > R1. Equivalently, it decides ^I = 1 if R1 - R2 > 0, and ^I = 2 if R1 - R2 < 0.
Moreover, a sample at time T of a single filter with impulse response h(t) = h1(t) - h2(t) will be R1-R2.
Therefore, one can use the system shown below:
R(t)
sample
sample at T/2atand
T T
R = R1 -R2 ^
matched
filter I
filterh(th2(t) decision
device

where the decision device produces 1 if R>0 and 2 if R<0.