Chapter 2 ZyBooks

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2.1 Introduction
The photograph below is of a gecko.
Geckos, harmless tropical lizards, are extremely fascinating and extraordinary animals. They have very
sticky feet (one of which is shown in the third photograph) that cling to virtually
©zyBooks any surface.
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characteristic makes it possible for them to run rapidly up vertical walls and along the undersides of
UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
horizontal surfaces. In fact, a gecko can support its body mass with a single toe! The secret to this
remarkable ability is the presence of an extremely large number of microscopically small hairs on
each of their toe pads. When these hairs come in contact with a surface, weak forces of attraction
(i.e., van der Waals forces) are established between hair molecules and molecules on the surface. The
fact that these hairs are so small and so numerous explains why the gecko grips surfaces so tightly.
To release its grip, the gecko simply curls up its toes and peels the hairs away from the surface.
Using their knowledge of this mechanism of adhesion, scientists have developed several ultrastrong
synthetic adhesives, one of which is an adhesive tape (shown in the second photograph) that is an
especially promising tool for use in surgical procedures as a replacement for sutures and staples to
close wounds and incisions. This material retains its adhesive nature in wet environments, is
biodegradable, and does not release toxic substances as it dissolves during the healing process.
Microscopic features of this adhesive tape are shown in the top photograph.
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https://learn.zybooks.com/zybook/UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023/chapter/2/print 1/73
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Some of the important properties of solid materials depend on geometric atomic arrangements and
also the interactions that exist among constituent atoms or molecules. This chapter, by way of
preparation for subsequent discussions, considers several fundamental and important concepts—
namely, atomic structure, electron configurations in atoms and the periodic table, and the various
types of primary and secondary interatomic bonds that hold together the atoms that compose a solid.
These topics are reviewed briefly, under the assumption that some of the material is familiar to the
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reader. DAKSH HATHI
Why study atomic structure and interatomic bonding?
An important reason to have an understanding of interatomic bonding in solids is that

in some instances, the type of bond allows us to explain a material's properties. For
example, consider carbon, which may exist as both graphite and diamond. Whereas
graphite is relatively soft and has a “greasy” feel to it, diamond is one of the hardest
known materials in nature. In addition, the electrical properties of diamond and
graphite are dissimilar: diamond is a poor conductor of electricity, but graphite is a
reasonably good conductor. These disparities in properties are directly attributable to
a type of interatomic bonding found in graphite that does not exist in diamond (see
Section 12.4).
Learning objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Name the two atomic models cited, and note the differences between them.
2. Describe the important quantum-mechanical principle that relates to electron
energies.
3. a. Schematically plot attractive, repulsive, and net energies versus
interatomic separation for two atoms or ions. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
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b. Note on this plot the equilibrium separation and the bonding energy.
4. a. Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen, and van der Waals
bonds.
b. Note which materials exhibit each of these bonding types.
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2.2 Atomic structure: Fundamental concepts

Each atom consists of a very small nucleus composed of protons and neutrons and is encircled by
moving electrons.1 Both electrons and protons are electrically charged, the charge magnitude being
1.602 × 10−19 C, which is negative in sign for electrons and positive for protons; neutrons are
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electrically neutral. Masses for these subatomic particles are extremely small; protons
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have approximately the same mass, 1.67 × 10 −27 kg, which is significantly larger than that of an
electron, 9.11 × 10 −31 kg.
Each chemical element is characterized by the number of protons in the nucleus, or the atomic
number (Z).2 For an electrically neutral or complete atom, the atomic number also equals the number
of electrons. This atomic number ranges in integral units from 1 for hydrogen to 92 for uranium, the
highest of the naturally occurring elements.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.2.1: Components of an atom.
Animation content:
One circle labeled P appears, which represents a proton. A circle labeled E, which represents an
electron, appears next to a larger circle that surrounds the proton. A circle labeled N appears next to
the proton. The N represents a neutron. The numbers of protons, electrons, and neutrons appear in
a table. Another two circles appear representing two protons in a helium atom. Two circles appear
representing the two electrons in a helium atom. Two neutrons appear next to the helium protons.
Animation captions:
1. Each chemical element has an atomic number that is equal to the number of protons in the
nucleus. Ex: Hydrogen (atomic number 1) has 1 proton.
2. A complete atom has an equal number of electrons and protons making the atom electrically
neutral. Ex: Hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron.
3. The number of neutrons may vary for some elements. Ex: Protium , deuterium , and
tritium have 0, 1, and 2 neutrons, respectively.
4. Helium , atomic number 2 has 2 protons, 2 electrons, and 2 neutrons.
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PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.2.2: Subatomic particles.
Select the definition that matches each term
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1) Proton
A negatively charged subatomic
particle outside the nucleus
An electrically neutral subatomic
particle in the nucleus
A positively charged subatomic
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particle in the nucleus DAKSH HATHI
2) Electron
3) Neutron
Reset
The atomic mass (A) of a specific atom may be expressed as the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons within the nucleus. Although the number of protons is the same for all atoms of a given
element, the number of neutrons (N) may be variable. Thus atoms of some elements have two or
more different atomic masses, which are called isotopes. The atomic weight of an element
corresponds to the weighted average of the atomic masses of the atom's naturally occurring
isotopes.3 The atomic mass unit (amu) may be used to compute atomic weight. A scale has been
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established whereby 1 amu is defined as of the atomic mass of the most common
DAKSH isotope of
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carbon, carbon 12 (12C) (A = 12.00000). Within this scheme, the masses
of protons and neutrons are
slightly greater than unity, and
(2.2a)
The atomic weight of an element or the molecular weight of a compound may be specified on the
basis of amu per atom (molecule) or mass per mole of material. In one mole of a substance, there are
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6.022 × 1023
(Avogadro's number) atoms or molecules. These two atomic weight schemes are related
through the following equation:
For example, the atomic weight of iron is 55.85 amu/atom, or 55.85 g/mol. Sometimes use of amu
per atom or molecule is convenient; on other occasions, grams (or kilograms) per mole is preferred.
The latter is used in this book. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
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PARTICIPATION 2.2.3: Average atomic weight computation for cerium (Example problem 2.1
ACTIVITY
in the 10th edition).
Animation content:
An image of the cerium atom appears. Cerium has 58 electrons surrounding the nucleus. A table
appears showing the four naturally occurring cerium isotopes, the fraction of occurence of each
isotope, and the atomic weight of each isotope. The equation appears below
the image of the cerium atom. The equation
appears below the
previous equation. The equation
appears below the previous equation. The equation
appears below the previous equation. The equation appears below the
previous equation.
Animation captions:
1. Cerium has four naturally occurring isotopes: of , of ,

of , and of .
2. The atomic weights of cerium isotopes are ,
, , and .
3. The average atomic weight of a hypothetical element, , is calculated by adding the fraction-
of-occurrence—atomic weight products for all the element's isotopes.
4. The average atomic weight of cerium (four isotopes) is ©zyBooks amu.
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PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.2.4: Fundamental concepts of atomic structure.
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1) Each carbon atom has __ protons.

6
12
18
2) Each naturally occurring carbon atom

has _____ neutrons.
exactly 6
either 6 or 7
exactly 12
3) A carbon atom has ___ electrons and

___ protons.
10, 6
6, 6
12, 6
4) The _____ of the carbon-12 isotope

represents the amount of carbon-12 in
relation to the amount of all isotopes of
carbon.
atomic number
atomic weight ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
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fraction of occurrence UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
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5) The average atomic weight of carbon is

___ amu.
6
12
12.011
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DAKSH HATHI
fitness_center EXERCISE 2.2.1: Concept Check help_outline
(a) Why are the atomic weights of the elements generally not integers? Cite two reasons.
CHALLENGE 2.2.1: Computing average atomic weight from multiple isotopes (Problem 2.2 in
ACTIVITY the 10th edition).
511506.3721882.qx3zqy7
Start
A hypothetical element X has three naturally occurring isotopes: 41.20% of 21X, with an
atomic weight of 21.016 amu, 7.04% of 22X, with an atomic weight of 21.942 amu, and 51.76%
of 24X, with an atomic weight of 23.974 amu. On the basis of these data, calculate the average
atomic weight of element X.
Ex: 12.34 amu
Check Try again
Section glossary ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

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atomic number (Z): For a chemical element, the number of protons within the atomic
nucleus.
isotope: Atoms of the same element that have different atomic masses.
atomic weight (A): The weighted average of the atomic masses of an atom's naturally
occurring isotopes. It may be expressed in terms of atomic mass units (on an atomic
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basis), or the mass per mole of atoms.

atomic mass unit (amu): A measure of atomic mass; 1/12 of the mass of an atom of
12C.
mole: The quantity of a substance corresponding to 6.022 × 1023 atoms or molecules.
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(*1) Protons, neutrons, and electrons are composed of other subatomic particles such as quarks,
neutrinos, and bosons. However, this discussion is concerned only with protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
(*2) Terms appearing in boldface type are defined in the section glossary.
(*3) The term atomic mass is really more accurate than atomic weight inasmuch as, in this context, we
are dealing with masses and not weights. However, atomic weight is, by convention, the preferred
terminology and is used throughout this book. The reader should note that it is not necessary to divide
molecular weight by the gravitational constant.
2.3 Atomic structure: Electrons in atoms
Atomic models
During the latter part of the nineteenth century, it was realized that many phenomena involving
electrons in solids could not be explained in terms of classical mechanics. What followed was the
establishment of a set of principles and laws that govern systems of atomic and subatomic entities
that came to be known as quantum mechanics. An understanding of the behavior of electrons in
atoms and crystalline solids necessarily involves the discussion of quantum-mechanical concepts.
However, a detailed exploration of these principles is beyond the scope of this text, and only a very
superficial and simplified treatment is given.
One early outgrowth of quantum mechanics was the simplified Bohr atomic model, in which electrons
are assumed to revolve around the atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of any
particular electron is more or less well defined in terms of its orbital. This model of the atom is
represented in Figure 2.3.1. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
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Figure 2.3.1: Schematic representation of the Bohr atom.
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Another important quantum-mechanical principle stipulates that the energies of electrons are
quantized—that is, electrons are permitted to have only specific values of energy. An electron may
change energy, but in doing so, it must make a quantum jump either to an allowed higher energy (with
absorption of energy) or to a lower energy (with emission of energy). Often, it is convenient to think of
these allowed electron energies as being associated with energy levels or states. These states do not
vary continuously with energy—that is, adjacent states are separated by finite energies. For example,
allowed states for the Bohr hydrogen atom are represented in Figure 2.3.2a. These energies are taken
to be negative, whereas the zero reference is the unbound or free electron. Of course, the single
electron associated with the hydrogen atom fills only one of these states.
Figure 2.3.2: (a) The first three electron energy states for the Bohr
hydrogen atom. (b) Electron energy states for the first three shells of the
wave-mechanical hydrogen atom.
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Adapted from W.G. Moffatt, G.W. Pearsall, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. I, Structure, John Wiley
& Sons, 1964. Reproduced with permission of Janet M. Moffatt.
Thus, the Bohr model represents an early attempt to describe electrons in atoms, in terms of both
position (electron orbitals) and energy (quantized energy levels).
This Bohr model was eventually found to have some significant limitations because of its inability to
explain several phenomena involving electrons. A resolution was reached with a wave-mechanical
model, in which the electron is considered to exhibit both wavelike and particle-like characteristics.
With this model, an electron is no longer treated as a particle moving in a discrete orbital; rather,
position is considered to be the probability of an electron being at various locations around the
nucleus. In other words, position is described by a probability distribution or electron cloud. Figure
2.3.3 compares Bohr and wave-mechanical models for the hydrogen atom. Both models are used
throughout the course of this text; the choice depends on which model allows the simplest
explanation.
Figure 2.3.3: Comparison of the (a) Bohr and (b) wave-mechanical atom
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DAKSH HATHI
models in terms of electron distribution. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
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DAKSH HATHI
Adapted from Z.D. Jastrzebski, The Nature and Properties of Engineering Materials, 3rd edition, p.4 Copyright © 1987 by John
Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.3.1: Atomic models.

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DAKSH HATHI
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1) quantum mechanics
Electrons have a probability of being
at various locations around the
nucleus
Principles and laws that govern
atomic and subatomic entities
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Electrons are assumed to revolve DAKSH HATHI
around the nucleus in discrete UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
orbitals
2) Bohr atomic model

nucleus
Electrons are assumed to revolve
around the nucleus in discrete
orbitals
3) wave-mechanical model
nucleus
Electrons are assumed to revolve
around the nucleus in discrete
orbitals
Reset
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Quantum numbers DAKSH HATHI
In wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is characterized by four parameters called quantum
numbers. The size, shape, and spatial orientation of an electron's probability density (or orbital) are
specified by three of these quantum numbers. Furthermore, Bohr energy levels separate into electron
subshells, and quantum numbers dictate the number of states within each subshell. Shells are
specified by a principal quantum number n, which may take on integral values beginning with unity;
sometimes these shells are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O, and so on, which correspond,
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respectively, to n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …, as indicated in Table 2.3.1. Note also that this quantum number, and
it only, is also associated with the Bohr model. This quantum number is related to the size of an
electron's orbital (or its average distance from the nucleus).
Table 2.3.1: Summary of the relationships among the quantum numbers

, , and numbers of orbitals and electrons.
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Value of Value of Number of Number of
n l Values of ml Subshell Orbitals Electrons
1 0 0 1s 1 2
0 0 2s 1 2
2
1 −1, 0, +1 2p 3 6
0 0 3s 1 2
3 1 −1, 0, +1 3p 3 6
2 −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 3d 5 10
0 0 4s 1 2
1 −1, 0, +1 4p 3 6
4
2 −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 4d 5 10
3 −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, 4f 7 14

+3
Source: From J. E. Brady and F. Senese, Chemistry: Matter and Its Changes, 4th edition, 2004.
Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
The second (or azimuthal) quantum number, l, designates the subshell. Values of l are restricted by the
magnitude of n and can take on integer values that range from l = ©zyBooks
0 to l = (n 12/06/23 19:25
− 1). Each 1860941
subshell is
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denoted by a lowercase letter—an s, p, d, or f—related to l values UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
as follows:
Value of l Letter Designation
0 s
1 p
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Value of l Letter Designation
2 d
3 f
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Furthermore, electron orbital shapes depend on l. For example s orbitals are12/06/23 19:25
spherical and1860941
centered on
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the nucleus (Figure 2.3.4). There are three orbitals for a p subshell (as explained next); each has a
nodal surface in the shape of a dumbbell (Figure 2.3.5). Axes for these three orbitals are mutually
perpendicular to one another like those of an x-y-z coordinate system; thus, it is convenient to label
these orbitals px, py, and pz (see Figure 2.3.5). Orbital configurations for d subshells are more complex
and are not discussed here.
Figure 2.3.4: Spherical shape of an electron orbital.
Figure 2.3.5: Orientations and shapes of ( ) ,( ) , and ( ) electron

orbitals.
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DAKSH HATHI
The number of electron orbitals for each subshell is determined by the third (or magnetic) quantum
number, ml; ml can take on integer values between −l and +l, including 0. When l = 0, ml can only have
a value of 0 because +0 and −0 are the same. This corresponds to an s subshell, which can have only
one orbital. Furthermore, for l = 1, ml can take on values of −1, 0, and +1, and three p orbitals are
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possible. Similarly, it can be shown that d subshells have five orbitals, and f subshells have seven. In
the absence of an external magnetic field, all orbitals within each subshell are identical in energy.
However, when a magnetic field is applied, these subshell states split, with each orbital assuming a
slightly different energy. Table 2.3.1 presents a summary of the values and relationships among the n,
l, and ml quantum numbers.
Associated with each electron is a spin moment, which must be oriented either up or down. Related to
this spin moment is the fourth quantum number, ms, for which two©zyBooks 12/06/23
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possible: for spin
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up and for spin down. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Thus, the Bohr model was further refined by wave mechanics, in which the introduction of three new
quantum numbers gives rise to electron subshells within each shell. A comparison of these two
models on this basis is illustrated, for the hydrogen atom, in Figures 2.3.2a and 2.3.2b.
A complete energy level diagram for the various shells and subshells using the wave-mechanical
model is shown in Figure 2.3.6. Several features of the diagram are worth noting. First, the smaller the
principal quantum number, the lower the energy level; for example, the energy of a 1s state is less than
that of a 2s state, which in turn is lower than that of the 3s. Second, within each shell, the energy of a
subshell level increases with the value of the l quantum number. For example, the energy of a 3d state
is greater than that of a 3p, which is larger than 3s. Finally, there may be overlap in energy of a state in
one shell with states in an adjacent shell, which is especially true of d and f states; for example, the
energy of a 3d state is generally greater than that of a 4s.
Figure 2.3.6: Schematic representation of the relative energies of the

electrons for the various shells and subshells.
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From K.M Ralls, T.H. Courtney, and J. Wulff, Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering, p.22 Copyright © 1976 by
John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.3.2: Quantum numbers.
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Match the quantum number with the corresponding definition. DAKSH HATHI
1)
Relates to the size of an electron's
orbital shell
Relates to the spin orientation of an
electron
Relates to the shape of an electron's
orbital shell
Relates to an orbital's energy state
when a magnetic field is applied
2)
orbital shell
electron
orbital shell
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DAKSH HATHI
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3)
orbital shell
electron
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orbital shell DAKSH HATHI
4)
orbital shell
electron
orbital shell
Reset
Electron configurations
The preceding discussion has dealt primarily with electron states—values of energy that are permitted
for electrons. To determine the manner in which these states are filled with electrons, we use the Pauli
exclusion principle, another quantum-mechanical concept, which stipulates that each electron state
can hold no more than two electrons that must have opposite spins. Thus, s, p, d, and f subshells may
each accommodate, respectively, a total of 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons; the right column of Table 2.3.1
notes the maximum number of electrons that may occupy each orbital for the first four shells.
Of course, not all possible states in an atom are filled with electrons. For most atoms, the electrons fill
up the lowest possible energy states in the electron shells and subshells,
©zyBookstwo electrons
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opposite spins) per state. The energy structure for a sodium atom is represented schematically in
DAKSH HATHI
Figure 2.3.7. When all the electrons occupy the lowest possible energies in accord with the foregoing
restrictions, an atom is said to be in its ground state. However, electron transitions to higher energy
states are possible, as discussed in the chapters titled Electrical Properties and Optical Properties.
The electron configuration or structure of an atom represents the manner in which these states are
occupied. In the conventional notation, the number of electrons in each subshell is indicated by a
superscript after the shell-subshell designation. For example, the electron configurations for hydrogen,
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helium, and sodium are, respectively, and 1s1, 1s2, 1s22s22p63s1. Electron configurations for some of
the more common elements are listed in Table 2.3.2.
Figure 2.3.7: Schematic representation of the filled and lowest unfilled

energy states for a sodium atom.
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DAKSH HATHI
Table 2.3.2: Expected electron configurations for some common elements

.
Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Configuration
Hydrogen H 1 1s1
Helium He 2 1s2
Lithium Li 3 1s22s1
Beryllium Be 4 1s22s2 ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

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Boron B 5 2 2
1s 2s 2p 1
Carbon C 6 1s22s22p2
Nitrogen N 7 1s22s22p3
Oxygen O 8 1s22s22p4
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Fluorine F 9 1s22s22p5
Neon Ne 10 1s22s22p6
Sodium Na 11 1s22s22p63s1
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Magnesium Mg 12 1s22s22p63s2 DAKSH HATHI
Aluminum Al 13 1s22s22p63s23p1
Silicon Si 14 1s22s22p63s23p2
Phosphorus P 15 1s22s22p63s23p3
Sulfur S 16 1s22s22p63s23p4
Chlorine Cl 17 1s22s22p63s23p5
Argon Ar 18 1s22s22p63s23p6
Potassium K 19 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Calcium Ca 20 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Scandium Sc 21 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2
Titanium Ti 22 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2
Vanadium V 23 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2
Chromium Cr 24 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
Manganese Mn 25 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2
Iron Fe 26 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
Cobalt Co 27 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
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Nickel Ni 28 1s22s22p63s23p63d8DAKSH
4s2 HATHI
Copper Cu 29 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
Zinc Zn 30 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
Gallium Ga 31 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p1
Germanium Ge 32 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2
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Arsenic As 33 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p3
Selenium Se 34 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p4
Bromine Br 35 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
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Krypton Kr 36 1s22s22p63s23p63d10 4s24pHATHI
DAKSH 6
a
When some elements covalently bond, they form sp hybrid bonds. This is especially true for
C, Si, and Ge.
At this point, comments regarding these electron configurations are necessary. First, the valence
electrons are those that occupy the outermost shell. These electrons are extremely important; as will
be seen, they participate in the bonding between atoms to form atomic and molecular aggregates.
Furthermore, many of the physical and chemical properties of solids are based on these valence
electrons.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.3.3: Electron configurations.
Animation content:
8 levels of subshells, labeled from bottom to top as 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p. Two columns
consisting of 36 total boxes appear, which represent the orbitals in which electrons are placed. Each
s subshell has one orbital, each p subshell has 3 orbitals, and each d subshell has 5 orbitals. Each
orbital contains up to 2 arrows, each up arrow representing an electron with positive spin, and each
down arrow representing an electron with negative spin. Column 1 is oxygen, consisting of 18
boxes. Column 2 is potassium, consisting of 18 total boxes. Only some of the boxes in each column
contain arrows that represent electrons.
Animation captions:
1. Electron shells are divided into subshells of four types: , , , and . For this example, only ,
, and subshells are occupied. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
2. Oxygen has 8 electrons. Four electrons fill the and subshells. DAKSH HATHI
3. The subshell can accommodate 6 electrons. For oxygen, the remaining 4 electrons
(valence electrons) occupy the electron states with positive spin first.
4. A potassium atom has 19 electrons. 18 electrons fill the , , , , and subshells.
5. The remaining electron occupies the subshell before the subshell because the energy
of the subshell is lower than the energy of the subshell.
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PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.3.4: Titanium's electron configuration.
Consider titanium's electron configuration to fill in the number

of electrons for the following items.
1) ___ electrons occupy the

subshell. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Check Show answer

subshell.
Check Show answer

subshell.
Check Show answer

subshell.
Check Show answer

subshell.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Check Show answer
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks

subshell.
Check Show answer
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
subshell. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Check Show answer
fitness_center EXERCISE 2.3.1: Concept Check

help_outline
(a) Give electron configurations for the Fe3+ and S2− ions.
Section glossary
quantum mechanics: A branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic
systems; it allows only discrete values of energy. By contrast, for classical mechanics,
continuous energy values are permissible.
Bohr atomic model: An early atomic model in which electrons are assumed to revolve
around the nucleus in discrete orbitals.
wave mechanical model: An atomic model in which electrons are treated as being
wavelike.
quantum number: A set of four numbers, the values of which are used to label
possible electron states. Three of the quantum numbers are integers that specify the
size, shape, and spatial orientation of an electron's probability density; the fourth
number designates spin orientation. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
electron state (level): One of a set of discrete, quantized energies that are allowed for
electrons. In the atomic case, each state is specified by four quantum numbers.
Pauli exclusion principle: The postulate that for an individual atom, at most two
electrons, which necessarily have opposite spins, can occupy the same state.
ground state: A normally filled electron energy state from which an electron excitation
may occur.
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electron configuration: For an atom, the manner in which possible electron states are
filled with electrons.
valence electron: The electrons in the outermost occupied electron shell, which
participate in interatomic bonding.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
2.4 Atomic structure: The periodic table

All the elements have been classified according to electron configuration in the periodic table as
shown in the participation activity below. Here, the elements are situated, with increasing atomic
number, in seven horizontal rows called periods. The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed in
a given column or group have similar valence electron structures, as well as chemical and physical
properties. These properties change gradually, moving horizontally across each period and vertically
down each column.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.4.1: Periodic table organization.
Animation content:
The periodic table appears, with the metals appearing first, then the nonmetals, then the
intermediate metals. The rare earth series and actinide series appear below the rest of the table. A
single element is shown above the table with the atomic number, symbol, and average atomic
weight. The group numbers appear at the top of each column of the periodic table. A box appears
highlighting group 0 which is labeled as inert gases.
Animation captions:
1. Elements in the periodic table are classified as metals, nonmetals, and intermediates. The rare
earth series and actinide series are classified as metals.
2. Each element's symbol, atomic number, and average atomic weight are also shown in the
periodic table. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
3. Elements in each column of the table are considered to be part of a DAKSH
group and all have similar
HATHI
valence electron structures.
4. Elements in each group also have similar chemical and physical properties. Ex: Elements in
group 0 are chemically unreactive.
The elements positioned in Group 0, the rightmost group, are the inert gases, which have filled electron
shells and stable electron configurations.4 Group VIIA and VIA elements are one and two electrons
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
deficient, respectively, from having stable structures. The Group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are
sometimes termed the halogens. The alkali and the alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be, Mg, Ca, etc.)
are labeled as Groups IA and IIA, having, respectively, one and two electrons in excess of stable
structures. The elements in the three long periods, Groups IIIB through IIB, are termed the transition
metals, which have partially filled d electron states and in some cases one or two electrons in the next
higher energy shell. Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA (B, Si, Ge, As, etc.) display characteristics that are
intermediate between the metals and nonmetals by virtue of their valence electron structures.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
As may be noted from the periodic table, most of the elements really come DAKSH HATHI
under the metal
classification. These are sometimes termed electropositive elements, indicating that they are capable
of giving up their few valence electrons to become positively charged ions. Furthermore, the elements
situated on the right side of the table are electronegative—that is, they readily accept electrons to
form negatively charged ions, or sometimes they share electrons with other atoms. Figure 2.4.1
displays electronegativity values that have been assigned to the various elements arranged in the
periodic table. As a general rule, electronegativity increases in moving from left to right and from
bottom to top. Atoms are more likely to accept electrons if their outer shells are almost full and if they
are less “shielded” from (i.e., closer to) the nucleus.
Figure 2.4.1: The electronegativity values for the elements.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH
In addition to chemical behavior, physical properties of the elements also tend HATHI
to vary systematically
with position in the periodic table. For example, most metals that reside in the center of the table
(Groups IIIB through IIB) are relatively good conductors of electricity and heat; nonmetals are typically
electrical and thermal insulators. Mechanically, the metallic elements exhibit varying degrees of
ductility—the ability to be plastically deformed without fracturing (e.g., the ability to be rolled into thin
sheets). Most of the nonmetals are either gases or liquids, or in the solid state are brittle in nature.
Furthermore, for the Group IVA elements [C (diamond), Si, Ge, Sn, and Pb], electrical conductivity
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
increases as we move down this column. The Group VB metals (V, Nb, and Ta) have very high melting
temperatures, which increase in going down this column.
It should be noted that there is not always this consistency in property variations within the periodic
table. Physical properties change in a more or less regular manner; however, there are some rather
abrupt changes when one moves across a period or down a group.
PARTICIPATION ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

2.4.2: The periodic table.
ACTIVITY DAKSH HATHI
1) Sulfur (S)
Metal
Intermediate
Nonmetal
2) Iron (Fe)
Metal
Intermediate
Nonmetal
3) Silicon (Si)
Metal
Intermediate
Nonmetal
Reset
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.4.3: Elemental groups.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
1) Krypton (Kr) is classified as a(n) _____.

halogen
transition metal
inert gas
2) Sodium (Na) is classified as a(n) _____.

alkaline earth metal
alkali metal
transition metal
3) Iodine (I) is classified as a(n) _____.

inert gas
halogen
alkaline earth metal
4) Uranium (U) is classified as a(n) _____. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
alkaline earth metal UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
alkali metal
transition metal
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Section glossary
periodic table: The arrangement of the chemical elements with increasing atomic
number according to the periodic variation in electron structure. Nonmetallic elements
are positioned at the far right-hand side of the table.
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DAKSH HATHI
electropositive: For an atom, having a tendency to release valence electrons. Also
used to describe metallic elements.
electronegative: For an atom, having a tendency to accept valence electrons. Also

used to describe nonmetallic elements.
(*4) Two different group designation schemes are used in the periodic table, which appear at the top
of each column. The convention used prior to 1988 was to label each group with a Roman numeral, in
most instances followed by an “A” or “B”. With the current system, devised by an international naming
convention, the groups are numbered numerically from 1 to 18, moving from with the leftmost column
(the alkali metals) to the rightmost column (the inert gases). These numbers appear in parentheses .
2.5 Atomic bonding in solids: Bonding forces

and energies
An understanding of many of the physical properties of materials is enhanced by a knowledge of the
interatomic forces that bind the atoms together. Perhaps the principles of atomic bonding are best
illustrated by considering how two isolated atoms interact as they are brought close together from an
infinite separation. At large distances, interactions are negligible because the atoms are too far apart
to have an influence on each other; however, at small separation distances, each atom exerts forces
on the others. These forces are of two types, attractive (FA) and repulsive (FR), and the magnitude of
each depends on the separation or interatomic distance (r); the animation below shows a schematic
plot of FA and FR versus r. The origin of an attractive force FA depends on the particular type of
bonding that exists between the two atoms, as discussed shortly. ©zyBooks
Repulsive12/06/23
forces arise
19:25from
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DAKSH HATHI
interactions between the negatively charged electron clouds for the two atoms and are important only
at small values of r as the outer electron shells of the two atoms begin to overlap.
PARTICIPATION 2.5.1: Dependence of force and potential energy on interatomic separation for
ACTIVITY
two isolated atoms.
Animation content:
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A graph of force versus interatomic separation appears on the animation screen. The attractive
force curve appears which begins very positive (which denotes attraction) and then decreases
nonlinearly, but remains positive, with increasing interatomic distance. The repulsive force curve
appears which begins very negative (which denotes repulsion) then increases rapidly with
increasing interatomic separation until reaching zero. The net force curve graphically shows the
sum of the attractive and repulsive force curves. A graph of potential energy versus interatomic
separation appears below the previous graph. The attractive energy curve appears beginning very
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
negative (showing attraction) and increasing nonlinearly, but remaining negative, with increasing
DAKSH HATHI
interatomic separation. The repulsive energy curve appears beginning very positive then decreasing
rapidly with increasing interatomic distance until reaching zero. The net energy curve appears, which
graphically represents the sum of the attractive energy and repulsive energy. A vertical dashed line
appears on both graphs at an interatomic separation of , where the net force is equal to zero and
the net energy reaches a minimum. A horizontal dashed line appears at attractive potential energy,
, which represents the bonding energy, where the net energy curve reaches a minimum.
Animation captions:
1. The net force, , between two isolated atoms is the sum of the attractive force, , and the
repulsive force, .
2. The net potential energy, , between two isolated atoms is the sum of the attractive energy,
, and the repulsive energy, .
3. At , , the atoms are in equilibrium with energy , where represents
the bonding energy.
The net force FN between the two atoms is just the sum of both attractive and repulsive components;
that is,
(2.5a)
which is also a function of the interatomic separation, as also plotted in the animation above. When FA
and FR are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, there is no net force—that is,
(2.5b)
and a state of equilibrium exists. The centers of the two atoms remain separated by the equilibrium
spacing r0, as indicated in the animation above. For many atoms, r0 is approximately 0.3 nm. Once in
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
this position, any attempt to move the two atoms farther apart is counteracted by the
DAKSH attractive force,
HATHI
while pushing them closer together is resisted by the increasing repulsive force.
Sometimes it is more convenient to work with the potential energies between two atoms instead of
forces. Mathematically, energy (E) and force (F) are related as
Force-potential energy relationship for two atoms
(2.5c)
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And, for atomic systems,
(2.5d)
(2.5e)
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(2.5f)
in which EN, EA, and ER are, respectively, the net, attractive, and repulsive energies for two isolated and
adjacent atoms.5
The second plot of the animation above shows attractive, repulsive, and net potential energies as a
function of interatomic separation for two atoms. From Equation 2.5f, the net curve is the sum of the
attractive and repulsive curves. The minimum in the net energy curve corresponds to the equilibrium
spacing, r0. Furthermore, the bonding energy for these two atoms, E0, corresponds to the energy at
this minimum point (also shown in the animation above); it represents the energy required to separate
these two atoms to an infinite separation.
Although the preceding treatment deals with an ideal situation involving only two atoms, a similar yet
more complex condition exists for solid materials because force and energy interactions among
atoms must be considered. Nevertheless, a bonding energy, analogous to E0 above, may be
associated with each atom. The magnitude of this bonding energy and the shape of the energy-
versus-interatomic separation curve vary from material to material, and they both depend on the type
of atomic bonding. Furthermore, a number of material properties depend on E0, the curve shape, and
bonding type. For example, materials having large bonding energies typically also have high melting
temperatures; at room temperature, solid substances are formed for large bonding energies, whereas
for small energies, the gaseous state is favored; liquids prevail when the energies are of intermediate
magnitude. In addition, as discussed in Section 6.3, the mechanical stiffness (or modulus of elasticity)
of a material is dependent on the shape of its force-versus-interatomic separation curve (Figure 6.3.3).
The slope for a relatively stiff material at the r = r0 position on the curve will be quite steep; slopes are
shallower for more flexible materials. Furthermore, how much a material expands upon heating or
contracts upon cooling (i.e., its linear coefficient of thermal expansion) is related to the shape of its E-
versus-r curve (see Section 19.3). A deep and narrow “trough,” which typically occurs for materials
having large bonding energies, normally correlates with a low coefficient of thermal expansion and
relatively small dimensional alterations for changes in temperature. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Three different types of primary or chemical bond are found in solids—ionic, covalent, and metallic.
For each type, the bonding necessarily involves the valence electrons; furthermore, the nature of the
bond depends on the electron structures of the constituent atoms. In general, each of these three
types of bonding arises from the tendency of the atoms to assume stable electron structures, like
those of the inert gases, by completely filling the outermost electron shell.
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Secondary or physical forces and energies are also found in many solid materials; they are weaker
than the primary ones but nonetheless influence the physical properties of some materials. The
sections that follow explain the several kinds of primary and secondary interatomic bonds.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.5.2: Bonding forces and energies.
1) The _____ for two atoms represents the ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
energy required to separate the two UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
atoms to an infinite separation.
bonding energy
electrical energy
kinetic energy
2) Bonding energy depends on the atom

types involved in the bond and the
material's_____.
melting temperature
interatomic separation
bonding type
3) Increasing the bonding energy will

_____ the stiffness of a material.
decrease
increase
not change
4) Solids at room temperature typically

have _____ bonding energies.
low
medium
high
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Section glossary
bonding energy: The energy required to separate two atoms that are chemically
bonded to each other. It may be expressed on a per-atom basis or per mole of atoms.
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primary bonds: Interatomic bonds that are relatively strong and for which bonding
energies are relatively large. Primary bonding types are ionic, covalent, and metallic.
(*5) Force in the equation for calculating force-potential energy relationship for two atoms may also
be expressed as ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Likewise, the force equivalent of the equation for calculating force-potential energy relationship for
atomic systems is as follows:
2.6 Atomic bonding in solids: Primary

interatomic bonds
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is perhaps the easiest to describe and visualize. It is always found in compounds
composed of both metallic and nonmetallic elements, elements situated at the horizontal extremities
of the periodic table. Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their valence electrons to the
nonmetallic atoms. In the process, all the atoms acquire stable or inert gas configurations (i.e.,
completely filled orbital shells) and, in addition, an electrical charge—that is, they become ions.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the classic ionic material. A sodium atom can assume the electron structure
of neon (and a net single positive charge with a reduction in size) by a transfer of its one valence 3s
electron to a chlorine atom. After such a transfer, the chlorine ion acquires a net negative charge, an
electron configuration identical to that of argon; it is also larger than the chlorine atom.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
PARTICIPATION DAKSH HATHI
ACTIVITY
2.6.1: Ionic bonding in sodium chloride. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Animation content:
A sodium atom appears on the screen with a small circle representing the nucleus surrounded by 9
electrons. Eight electrons are in the inner shell with one valence electron in the outer shell. A chlorine
atom appears to the right of the sodium atom with a small circle representing the nucleus
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surrounded by an electron shell with 7 valence electrons. The one valence electron from the sodium
atom is transferred to the chlorine atom to fill the outer shell of the chlorine atom with eight
electrons. With the transfer of an electron, sodium becomes a positively charged ion and chlorine
becomes a negatively charged ion. The positively charged sodium ion and the negatively charged
ion are attracted to each other with a coulombic force that is depicted by an arrow pointing from the
left to the right with an arrow pointing from the right to the left immediately below. Two more
sodium ions and two more chlorine ions appear on the screen with the double arrows in between
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
adjacent chlorine and sodium ions. DAKSH HATHI
Animation captions:
1. The sodium atom has one valence electron. The chlorine atom has seven valence electrons.
2. Sodium becomes a positive ion (cation) when the valence electron is transferred to chlorine.
Chlorine becomes a negative ion (anion).
3. A coulombic force of attraction forms between a positively charged sodium ion and a
negatively charged chlorine ion to form NaCl.
4. Ionic bonds are nondirectional. All cations have anions as nearest neighbors and all anions
have cations as nearest neighbors.
The attractive bonding forces are coulombic—that is, positive and negative ions, by virtue of their net
electrical charge, attract one another. For two isolated ions, the attractive energy EA is a function of the
interatomic distance according to
Attractive energy—interatomic separation relationship
(2.6a)
Theoretically, the constant A is equal to
(2.6b)
Here ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum (8.85 × 10−12 F/m), |Z1| and |Z2| are absolute values of the
valences for the two ion types, and e is the electronic charge (1.602 × 10−19 C). The value of A in
Equation 2.6a assumes the bond between ions 1 and 2 is totally ionic (see Equation 2.8a). Inasmuch
as bonds in most of these materials are not 100% ionic, the value of A is normally determined from
experimental data rather than computed using Equation 2.6b. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
An analogous equation for the repulsive energy is6 UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Repulsive energy—interatomic separation relationship
(2.6c)
In this expression, B and n are constants whose values depend on the particular ionic system. The
value of n is approximately 8.
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Ionic bonding is termed nondirectional—that is, the magnitude of the bond is equal in all directions
around an ion. It follows that for ionic materials to be stable, all positive ions must have as nearest
neighbors negatively charged ions in a three-dimensional scheme, and vice versa. Some of the ion
arrangements for these materials are discussed in the chapter titled Structures and Properties of
Ceramics.
Bonding energies, which generally range between 600 and 1500 kJ/mol, are relatively large, as
reflected in high melting temperatures.7 Table 2.6.1 contains bonding energies
©zyBooks and melting
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DAKSH HATHI
temperatures for several ionic materials. Interatomic bonding is typified by ceramic materials, which
are characteristically hard and brittle and, furthermore, electrically and thermally insulative. As
discussed in subsequent chapters, these properties are a direct consequence of electron
configurations and/or the nature of the ionic bond.
Table 2.6.1: Bonding energies and melting temperatures for various

substances.
Substance Bonding Energy (kJ/mol) Melting Temperature (°C)
Ionic
NaCl 640 801
LiF 850 848
MgO 1000 2800
CaF2 1548 1418
Covalent
Cl2 121 −102
Si 450 1410
InSb 523 942
C (diamond) 713 >3550

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DAKSH HATHI
SiC 1230 2830
Metallic
Hg 62 −39
Al 330 660
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Substance Bonding Energy (kJ/mol) Melting Temperature (°C)
Ag 285 962
W 850 3414
van der Waalsa

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Ar 7.7 −189 (@ 69 kPa)
DAKSH HATHI
Kr 11.7 −158 (@ 73.2 kPa)
CH4 18 −182
Cl2 31 −101
Hydrogena
HF 29 −83
NH3 35 −78
H 2O 51 0
a Values for van der Waals and hydrogen bonds are energies between molecules or atoms
(intermolecular), not between atoms within a molecule (intramolecular).
PARTICIPATION 2.6.2: Computation of attractive and repulsive forces between two ions
ACTIVITY
(Example problem 2.2 in the 10th edition).
Animation content:
A potassium ion and a bromine ion appear on the screen. The nuclei are represented by circles
labeld as K+ for the potassium ion and Br- for the bromine ion. Both the potassium ion and the
bromine ion show eight electrons in the outer shell. The values of the atomic radii,
and appear below the two ions with arrows from the center
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
of each ion to the point where the two atoms meet. The equations DAKSHand
HATHI
appear on the right side of the animation screen. The equation
appears below the values of the atomic radii. The equation appears directly
to the right of the equation for in the previous step with the moving from the equation in
the previous step into this equation. The equation appears directly to the right of the previous
equation. The equation appears below the previous equations with
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
the \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}(|Z_1|e)(|Z_2|e)\) moving from the equation for A on the right side of
the animation screen. The equations , , and
\varepsilon_0=8.85 \times 10^{-12} F/m} appear below the equation for A to the right of the image.
The equation
appears below the equation on the left side of the animation screen. The equation
appears below the previous equation ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
A box appears around the equation toUCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
show that it is the answer. The
equation appears below the previous equation. The equation
appears below the previous equation. A box appears around the equation
to show that it is the answer.
Animation captions:
1. Potassium (K) and bromine (Br) form an ionic bond. The atomic radius of a potassium ion is,
, and the atomic radius of a bromine ion is, .
2. The equations , , and are used to
calculate the force of attraction between the and ions.

3. Taking the derivative of , , and substituting for results in the equation
4. For this problem, . Substituting the values for , , ,

, , and results in a force of attraction equal to .
5. The repulsive force is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the attractive force
.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.6.3: Ionic bonding.
1) A metallic atom tends to _____

electrons to have a filled outer electron
shell.
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give up
DAKSH HATHI
accept UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
keep
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2) A nonmetallic atom tends to _____

electrons to have a filled outer electron
shell.
give
receive
keep
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DAKSH HATHI
3) Ionic bonding occurs between _____. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
metals and metals
metals and nonmetals
nonmetals and nonmetals
4) Ionic bonding occurs when electrons

belonging to two different atoms are
_____.
transferred
shared
removed
5) A coulombic force of attraction is

found in ionic bonding when two ions
have _____ charges.
equal
opposite
no
Covalent bonding
A second bonding type, covalent bonding, is found in materials whose atoms have small differences
in electronegativity—that is, that lie near one another in the periodic table. For these materials, stable
electron configurations are assumed by the sharing of electrons between adjacent atoms. Two
covalently bonded atoms will each contribute at least one electron to the bond, and the shared
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
electrons may be considered to belong to both atoms. Covalent bonding is schematically illustrated in
DAKSH HATHI
Figure 2.6.1 for a molecule of hydrogen (H2). The hydrogen atomUCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
has a single 1s electron. Each of the
atoms can acquire a helium electron configuration (two 1s valence electrons) when they share their
single electron (right side of Figure 2.6.1). Furthermore, there is an overlapping of electron orbitals in
the region between the two bonding atoms. In addition, the covalent bond is directional—that is, it is
between specific atoms and may exist only in the direction between one atom and another that
participates in the electron sharing.
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Figure 2.6.1: Schematic representation of covalent bonding in a molecule

of hydrogen .
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DAKSH HATHI
Many nonmetallic elemental molecules (e.g., Cl2, F2), as well as molecules containing dissimilar
atoms, such as CH4, H2O, HNO3, and HF, are covalently bonded.8 Furthermore, this type of bonding is
found in elemental solids such as diamond (carbon), silicon, and germanium and other solid
compounds composed of elements that are located on the right side of the periodic table, such as
gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb), and silicon carbide (SiC).
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.6.4: Covalent bonding in methane.
Animation content:
A hydrogen atom with 1 electron appears on the screen and a carbon atom with 4 electrons appears
to the right of the hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom moves to the right and overlaps the carbon
atom with two electrons shared between the hydrogen atom and the carbon atoms. Three more
hydrogen atoms appear, one above, one below, and one to the right of the carbon atom. The
hydrogen atoms each share two electrons with the carbon atom. Each hydrogen atom and the
carbon atom now have filled outer electron shells.
Animation captions:
1. A hydrogen atom has 1 valence electron. A carbon atom has 4 valence electrons.
2. The hydrogen atom needs another valence electrons to have a filled outer shell, so the
hydrogen atom shares one of carbon's valence electrons.
3. The carbon atom needs 3 more valence electrons to fill the outer shell. The carbon atom will
share the 3 other valence electrons with 3 other hydrogen atoms to form
©zyBooks methane
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19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Covalent bonds may be very strong, as in diamond, which is very hard and has a very high melting
temperature, >3550°C (6400°F), or they may be very weak, as with bismuth, which melts at about
270°C (518°F). Bonding energies and melting temperatures for a few covalently bonded materials are
presented in Table 2.6.1. Inasmuch as electrons participating in covalent bonds are tightly bound to
the bonding atoms, most covalently bonded materials are electrical insulators, or, in some cases,
semiconductors. Mechanical behaviors of these materials vary widely: some are relatively strong,
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others are weak; some fail in a brittle manner, whereas others experience significant amounts of
deformation before failure. It is difficult to predict the mechanical properties of covalently bonded
materials on the basis of their bonding characteristics.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.6.5: Covalent bonding.
1) Covalent bonding occurs between ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
atoms that are _____ the periodic table. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
on opposite sides of
far apart in
close together in
2) Covalent bonding occurs when two

atoms _____ electrons
transfer
share
remove
3) A covalent bond is _____.

directional
nondirectional
multidirectional
Bond hybridization in carbon
Often associated with the covalent bonding of carbon (as well other nonmetallic substances) is the
phenomenon of hybridization—the mixing (or combining) of two or more atomic orbitals with the
result that more orbital overlap during bonding results. For example, consider the electron
configuration of carbon: 1s22s22p2. Under some circumstances, one of the 2s orbitals is promoted to
the empty 2p orbital , which gives rise to a 1s22s12p3 configuration . Furthermore, the 2s and 2p
orbitals can mix to produce four sp3 orbitals that are equivalent to one another, have parallel spins,
and are capable of covalently bonding with other atoms. This orbital mixing is termed hybridization,
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
which leads to the electron configuration shown in the animation below. ; here, sp3 orbital
eachHATHI
DAKSH
contains one electron, and, therefore, is half-filled. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.6.6: bond hybridization in carbon.
Animation content:
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
3 levels of subshells, labeled from bottom to top as 1s, 2s, 2p. One column consisting of 5 total
boxes appears, which represent the orbitals in which electrons are placed for carbon. Each s
subshell has one orbital and each p subshell has 3 orbitals. Each orbital contains up to 2 arrows,
each up arrow representing an electron with positive spin, and each down arrow representing an
electron with negative spin. Only some of the boxes in each column contain arrows that represent
electrons. The box representing the 2s orbital moves next to the 2p orbital boxes to create four
identical boxes containing one electron each with positive spin to create a orbital.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Animation captions: UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
1. Carbon (electron configuration: ) has six electrons.

2. One electron in the orbital can be promoted to the empty orbital with positive spin
leading to the configuration.
3. The orbital combines with the three orbitals to create four equivalent hybridized
orbitals.
Bonding hybrid orbitals are directional in nature—that is, each extends to and overlaps the orbital of an
adjacent bonding atom. Furthermore, for carbon, each of its four sp3 hybrid orbitals is directed
symmetrically from a carbon atom to the vertex of a tetrahedron—a configuration represented
schematically in Figure 2.6.2; the angle between each set of adjacent bonds is 109.5°.9 The bonding of
sp3 hybrid orbitals to the 1s orbitals of four hydrogen atoms, as in a molecule of methane (CH4), is
presented in Figure 2.6.3.
Figure 2.6.2
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
Schematic diagram showing four sp3 hybrid orbitals that point to the corners of a
tetrahedron; the angle between orbitals is 109.5°.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Figure 2.6.3
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
Schematic diagram that shows bonding of carbon sp3 hybrid orbitals to the 1s orbitals of
four hydrogen atoms in a molecule of methane (CH4).
For diamond, its carbon atoms are bonded to one another with sp3 covalent hybrids—each atom is
bonded to four other carbon atoms. The crystal structure for diamond is shown in Figure 12.4.1.
Diamond's carbon-carbon bonds are extremely strong, which accounts for its high melting
temperature and ultrahigh hardness (it is the hardest of all materials). Many polymeric materials are
composed of long chains of carbon atoms that are also bonded together using sp3 tetrahedral bonds;
these chains form a zigzag structure (Figure 14.4.1b) because of this 109.5° interbonding angle.
Other types of hybrid bonds are possible for carbon, as well as other substances. One of these is sp2,
in which an s orbital and two p orbitals are hybridized. To achieve this configuration, one 2s orbital
mixes with two of the three 2p orbitals—the third p orbital remains unhybridized; this is shown in the
participation activity below. Here, 2pz denotes the unhybridized p orbital.10 Three sp2 hybrids belong to
each carbon atom, which lie in the same plane such that the angle between adjacent orbitals is 120°
(Figure 2.6.4); lines drawn from one orbital to another form a triangle. Furthermore, the unhybridized
2pz orbital is oriented perpendicular to the plane containing the sp2 hybrids.
PARTICIPATION
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
ACTIVITY 2.6.7: bond hybridization in carbon. DAKSH HATHI
Animation content:
3 levels of subshells, labeled from bottom to top as 1s, 2s, 2p. One column consisting of 5 total
boxes appears, which represent the orbitals in which electrons are placed for carbon. Each s
subshell has one orbital and each p subshell has 3 orbitals. Each orbital contains up to 2 arrows,
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
each up arrow representing an electron with positive spin, and each down arrow representing an
electron with negative spin. Only some of the boxes in each column contain arrows that represent
electrons. The two outer boxes of the 2p orbital move next to the 2s orbital box to create three
identical boxes containing one electron each with positive spin to create a orbital.
Animation captions:
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
1. Carbon (electron configuration )has six electrons. DAKSH HATHI
2. One electron in the UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
orbital can be promoted to the empty orbital with positive spin
leading to the configuration.
3. The orbital combines with two orbitals to form three equivalent hybridized orbitals.
The remaining orbital becomes leading to the electron configuration.
Figure 2.6.4
Schematic diagram showing three sp2 orbitals that are coplanar and point to the corners of a
triangle; the angle between adjacent orbitals is 120°.
These sp2 bonds are found in graphite, another form of carbon, which has a structure and properties
distinctly different from those of diamond (as discussed in Section 12.4). Graphite is composed of
parallel layers of interconnecting hexagons. Hexagons form from planar sp2 triangles that bond to one
another in the manner presented in Figure 2.6.5—a carbon atom is located at each vertex. In-plane sp2
bonds are strong; by way of contrast, weak interplanar bonding results from van der Waals forces that
involve electrons originating from the unhybridized 2pz orbitals. The structure of graphite is shown in
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
Figure 12.4.2. DAKSH HATHI
Figure 2.6.5
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©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
The formation of a hexagon by the bonding of six sp2 triangles to one

another.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.6.8: Bond hybridization.
1) Bond hybridization can occur _____.

only in carbon
in some elements
in any element
2) Bond hybridization in carbon can take

the form of _____ hybrid bonds.
and
3) There is (are) ___ hybrid orbital(s)

present in each hybridized carbon
atom.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
1 DAKSH HATHI
3
4
Metallic bonding
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Metallic bonding, the final primary bonding type, is found in metals and their alloys. A relatively simple
model has been proposed that very nearly approximates the bonding scheme. With this model, these
valence electrons are not bound to any particular atom in the solid and are more or less free to drift
throughout the entire metal. They may be thought of as belonging to the metal as a whole, or forming
a “sea of electrons” or an “electron cloud.” The remaining nonvalence electrons and atomic nuclei form
what are called ion cores, which possess a net positive charge equal in magnitude to the total valence
electron charge per atom. Figure 2.6.6 illustrates metallic bonding. The free electrons shield the
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
positively charged ion cores from the mutually repulsive electrostatic forcesDAKSH
that they would otherwise
HATHI
exert upon one another; consequently, the metallic bond is nondirectional in character. In addition,
these free electrons act as a “glue” to hold the ion cores together. Bonding energies and melting
temperatures for several metals are listed in Table 2.6.1. Bonding may be weak or strong; energies
range from 62 kJ/mol for mercury to 850 kJ/mol for tungsten. Their respective melting temperatures
are −39°C and 3414°C (−39°F and 6177°F).
Figure 2.6.6: Schematic illustration of metallic bonding.
Metallic bonding is found in the periodic table for Group IA and IIA elements and, in fact, for all
elemental metals.
Metals are good conductors of both electricity and heat as a consequence of their free electrons (see
Sections 18.5, 18.6, and 19.4). Furthermore, in Section 7.4, we note that at room temperature, most
metals and their alloys fail in a ductile manner—that is, fracture occurs after the materials have
experienced significant degrees of permanent deformation. This behavior
©zyBooksis12/06/23
explained in terms
19:25 of a
1860941
deformation mechanism (Section 7.2), which is implicitly related to the characteristics
DAKSH HATHI of the metallic
bond. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.6.9: Metallic bonds.
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1) Valence electrons in metallic bonds are

_____.
bound to a single atom
shared between two atoms
free to move throughout the
metallic solid
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DAKSH HATHI
2) The free valence electrons in metallic UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
solids cause metallic solids to be good
_____ of electricity.
insulators
conductors
semiconductors
3) An ion core composed of the atom's

nucleus and remaining nonvalence
electrons has a _____ charge.
neutral
negative
positive
fitness_center EXERCISE 2.6.1: Concept Check help_outline

(a) Explain why covalently bonded materials are generally less dense than ionically or
metallically bonded ones.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.6.10: Primary bonding types.
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DAKSH HATHI
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
1) Ionic bonding
Two elements with similar
electronegativity share at least one
electron each
A valence electron is transferred
from a metal atom to a nonmetal
atom ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
The mixing of two or more atomic UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
orbitals
Electrons exist in an electron cloud
and are not bound to a single atom
2) Covalent bonding
electron each
atom
The mixing of two or more atomic
orbitals
3) Bond hybridization
electron each
atom
The mixing of two or more atomic
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orbitals DAKSH HATHI
Electrons exist in an electron cloud UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
4) Metallic bonds
electron each
atom ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
The mixing of two or more atomic UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
orbitals
Reset
CHALLENGE 2.6.1: Calculating the force of attraction between two ions (Problem 2.15 in the
ACTIVITY
10th edition).
511506.3721882.qx3zqy7
Start
Calculate the force of attraction between a cation with a valence of + 1 and an anion with a va
centers of which are separated by a distance of 2.0 nm.
16
F = 1.11 × 10
Check Try again
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

CHALLENGE 2.6.2: Calculating forces of attraction and repulsion betweenDAKSH
two ions at
HATHI
ACTIVITY UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
equilibrium separation (Problem 2.16 in the 10th edition).
511506.3721882.qx3zqy7
Start
The atomic radii of a divalent cation and a monovalent anion are 0.15 nm and
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0.138 nm, respectively.

(a) Calculate the force of attraction between these two ions at their equilibrium
interionic separation (i.e., when the ions just touch one another).
Ex: 4
Ex: 1.23 × 10 N
(b) What is the force of repulsion at this same separation distance?

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
Ex: 4
Ex: 1.23 × 10 N DAKSH HATHI
Check Try again
CHALLENGE
ACTIVITY 2.6.3: Computing the ionic radius (Problem 2.17 in the 10th edition).
511506.3721882.qx3zqy7
Start
The force of attraction between a divalent cation and a divalent anion is

1.08 × 10 − 8 N. If the ionic radius of the cation is 0.074 nm, what is the anion
radius?
Ex: 0.456 nm
Check Try again
Section glossary
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DAKSH HATHI
ionic bond: A coulombic interatomic bond that exists between two adjacent and
oppositely charged ions.
coulombic force: A force between charged particles such as ions; the force is
attractive when the particles are of opposite charge.
covalent bond: A primary interatomic bond that is formed by the sharing of electrons
between neighboring atoms.
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metallic bond: A primary interatomic bond involving the nondirectional sharing of

nonlocalized valence electrons (“sea of electrons”) that are mutually shared by all the
atoms in the metallic solid.
©zyBooks 12/06/23
(*6) In the equation, the value of the constant B is also fit using experimental data. 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(*7) Sometimes bonding energies are expressed per atom or per ion. Under these circumstances, the
electron volt (eV) is a conveniently small unit of energy. It is, by definition, the energy imparted to an
electron as it falls through an electric potential of one volt. The joule equivalent of the electron volt is
as follows: 1.602 × 10−19 J = 1 eV.
(*8) For these substances, the intramolecular bonds (bonds between atoms in a molecule) are
covalent. As noted in the next section, other types of bonds can operate between molecules, which are
termed intermolecular.
(*9) Bonding of this type (to four other atoms) is sometimes termed tetrahedral bonding.
(*10) This 2pz orbital has the shape and orientation of the pz shown in the participation activity. In
addition, the two p orbitals found in the sp2 hybrid correspond to the px and py orbitals of this same
figure. Furthermore, px, py, and pz are the three orbitals of the sp3 hybrid.
2.7 Atomic bonding in solids: Secondary

bonding or van der Waals bonding
Secondary bonds, or van der Waals (physical) bonds, are weak in comparison to the primary or
chemical bonds; bonding energies range between about 4 and 30 kJ/mol. Secondary bonding exists
between virtually all atoms or molecules, but its presence may be obscured if any of the three primary
bonding types is present. Secondary bonding is evidenced for the inert gases, which have stable
electron structures. In addition, secondary (or intermolecular) bonds are possible between atoms or
groups of atoms, which themselves are joined together by primary (or intramolecular) ionic or
covalent bonds.
Secondary bonding forces arise from atomic or molecular dipoles. In essence, an electric dipole exists
whenever there is some separation of positive and negative portions ©zyBooks 12/06/23
of an atom 19:25 1860941
or molecule. The
DAKSH HATHI
bonding results from the coulombic attraction between the positive end of one dipole and the negative
region of an adjacent one, as indicated in Figure 2.7.1. Dipole interactions occur between induced
dipoles, between induced dipoles and polar molecules (which have permanent dipoles), and between
polar molecules. Hydrogen bonding, a special type of secondary bonding, is found to exist between
some molecules that have hydrogen as one of the constituents. These bonding mechanisms are
discussed briefly next.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Figure 2.7.1: Schematic illustration of van der Waals bonding between two
dipoles.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.7.1: van der Waals bonds.
1) Van der Waals bonds are _____ ionic,

covalent, and metallic bonds.
weaker than
stronger than
as strong as
2) Bonds involving atomic or molecular

dipoles are _____ bonds.
covalent
metallic
van der Waals
3) Van der Waals bonds can exist _____.

only between induced dipoles
only between two induced
dipoles or two polar molecules
between two induced dipoles, an ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
induced dipole and a polar DAKSH HATHI
molecule, or two polar
molecules.
Fluctuating induced dipole bonds
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A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically symmetric—
that is, the overall spatial distribution of the electrons is symmetric with respect to the positively
charged nucleus, as shown in the animation below. All atoms experience constant vibrational motion
that can cause instantaneous and short-lived distortions of this electrical symmetry for some of the
atoms or molecules and the creation of small electric dipoles. One of these dipoles can in turn
produce a displacement of the electron distribution of an adjacent molecule or atom, which induces
the second one also to become a dipole that is then weakly attracted or bonded to the first; this is one
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
type of van der Waals bonding. These attractive forces, which are temporaryDAKSH and fluctuate
HATHI with time,
may exist between large numbers of atoms or molecules. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
PARTICIPATION 2.7.2: Electric dipole inducing change in symmetric atom/molecule to

ACTIVITY
become a dipole creating a van der Waals bond.
Animation content:
An electrically symmetric atom/molecule appears on the right side of the animation screen. The
electrically symmetric atom/molecule is represented by a small circle with a + sign surrounded by a
larger shaded circle labeled with a - sign. The circle with the + sign is labeled as the atomic nucleus.
The larger shaded circle represents the electron cloud. An electric dipole appears to the left of the
symmetric atom/molecule. The electric dipole is represented by a shaded ellipse with a + sign in a
small circle toward the left of the ellipse and a - sign towards the right of the ellipse. The circle with a
+ sign is labeled atomic nucleus and the shaded area with a - sign is labeled electron cloud. The
circle representing the electrically symmetric atom/molecule changes shape to an ellipse to
resemble the electric dipole with the atomic nucleus on the left of the ellipse and the electron cloud
toward the right. The label changes from "electrically symmetric atom/molecule" to "induced dipole".
An arrow pointing from left to right and an arrow pointing from right to left appear between the
dipole and the induced dipole. The arrows are labeled "van der Waals bond".
Animation captions:
1. The electron cloud is symmetric with respect to the positively charged nucleus in an
electrically symmetric atom or molecule.
2. An electric dipole adjacent to an electrically symmetric atom/molecule can displace the
electron cloud of the symmetric atom/molecule forming an induced dipole.
3. The two dipoles are now attracted to each other by a coulombic force leading to the formation
of a van der Waals bond. ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
The liquefaction and, in some cases, the solidification of the inert gases and other electrically neutral
and symmetric molecules such as H2 and Cl2 are realized because of this type of bonding. Melting
and boiling temperatures are extremely low in materials for which induced dipole bonding
predominates; of all possible intermolecular bonds, these are the weakest. Bonding energies and
melting temperatures for argon, krypton, methane, and chlorine are also tabulated in Table 2.6.1.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.7.3: Fluctuating induced dipole bonds.
1) Induced electric dipoles in an atom are

created by vibrations that change the
atom's electrical _____.
charge
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
symmetry DAKSH HATHI
energy
2) Materials for which intermolecular

bonds are mainly induced dipole bonds
have _____ melting temperatures and
_____ boiling temperatures.
high / high
high / low
low / low
3) The weakest type of intermolecular

bonding is a(n) _____.
permanent dipole bond
induced dipole bond
ionic bond
Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds
Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an asymmetrical arrangement of

positively and negatively charged regions; such molecules are termed polar molecules. The animation
below shows a schematic representation of a hydrogen chloride molecule; a permanent dipole
moment arises from net positive and negative charges that are respectively associated with the
hydrogen and chlorine ends of the HCl molecule.
PARTICIPATION 2.7.4: The presence of an HCl molecule induces an electrically symmetric

ACTIVITY ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
molecule to become a dipole. DAKSH HATHI
Animation content:
An electrically symmetric atom/molecule appears on the right side of the animation screen. The
electrically symmetric atom/molecule is represented by a small circle with a + sign surrounded by a
larger shaded circle labeled with a - sign. The circle with the + sign is labeled as the atomic nucleus.
The larger shaded circle represents the electron cloud. A polar molecule appears to the left of the
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
symmetric atom/molecule. The polar molecule is represented by a large circle labeled Cl-
representing a chlorine atom and a smaller circle on the left side of the larger circle which is labeled
H+ representing a hydrogen ion. The circle representing the electrically symmetric atom/molecule
changes shape to an ellipse with the + circle representing the atomic nucleus on the left of the
ellipse and - sign representing the electron cloud toward the right. The label changes from
"electrically symmetric atom/molecule" to "induced dipole". An arrow pointing from left to right and
an arrow pointing from right to left appear between the polar molecule and the induced dipole. The
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
arrows are labeled "van der Waals bond". DAKSH HATHI
Animation captions:
1. The electron cloud is symmetric with respect to the positively charged nucleus in an
electrically symmetric atom or molecule.
2. A polar molecule adjacent to the symmetric atom/molecule can displace the electron
distribution of the symmetric atom/molecule, creating an induced dipole.
3. The polar molecule and the induced dipole are attracted to each other with a coulombic force,
forming a van der Waals bond.
Polar molecules can also induce dipoles in adjacent nonpolar molecules, and a bond forms as a result
of attractive forces between the two molecules. Furthermore, the magnitude of this bond is greater
than for fluctuating induced dipoles.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.7.5: Polar molecule-induced dipole bonds.
1) Polar molecules have a(n) _____

arrangement of positively and
negatively charged regions.
symmetrical
asymmetrical
random
2) Polar molecules can induce dipoles in

_____.
only symmetrical atoms ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
only nonpolar molecules UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
both symmetrical atoms and
nonpolar molecules
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
3) Polar-molecule induced dipole bonds

are _____ fluctuating induced dipole
bonds.
weaker than
stronger than
equally as strong as
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Permanent dipole bonds
Coulombic forces also exist between adjacent polar molecules as in Figure 2.7.1. The associated
bonding energies are significantly greater than for bonds involving induced dipoles.
The strongest secondary bonding type, the hydrogen bond, is a special case of polar molecule
bonding. It occurs between molecules in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to fluorine (as in HF),
oxygen (as in H2O), or nitrogen (as in NH3). For each , , or bond, the single hydrogen
electron is shared with the other atom. Thus, the hydrogen end of the bond is essentially a positively
charged bare proton unscreened by any electrons. This highly positively charged end of the molecule
is capable of a strong attractive force with the negative end of an adjacent molecule, as demonstrated
in Figure 2.7.2 for HF. In essence, this single proton forms a bridge between two negatively charged
atoms. The magnitude of the hydrogen bond is generally greater than that of the other types of
secondary bonds and may be as high as 51 kJ/mol, as shown in Table 2.6.1. Melting and boiling
temperatures for hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, and water are abnormally high in light of their low
molecular weights, as a consequence of hydrogen bonding.
Figure 2.7.2: Schematic representation of hydrogen bonding in hydrogen

fluoride (HF).
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DAKSH HATHI
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.7.6: Permanent dipole bonds.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
1) A polar molecule can bond with a(n)

_____ polar molecule.
random
distant
adjacent
2) _____ bonding can occur between ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
molecules of HF, H O, or NH . UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Hydrogen
Induced dipole
Metallic
3) _____ bonds are the strongest

secondary bonds.
Fluctuating induced dipole
Polar molecule-induced
Hydrogen
In spite of the small energies associated with secondary bonds, they nevertheless are involved in a
number of natural phenomena and many products that we use on a daily basis. Examples of physical
phenomena include the solubility of one substance in another, surface tension and capillary action,
vapor pressure, volatility, and viscosity. Common applications that make use of these phenomena
include adhesives—van der Waals bonds form between two surfaces so that they adhere to one
another (as discussed in the chapter opener for this chapter); surfactants—compounds that lower the
surface tension of a liquid and are found in soaps, detergents, and foaming agents; emulsifiers—
substances that, when added to two immiscible materials (usually liquids), allow particles of one
material to be suspended in another (common emulsions include sunscreens, salad dressings, milk,
and mayonnaise); and desiccants—materials that form hydrogen bonds with water molecules (and
remove moisture from closed containers—e.g., small packets that are often found in cartons of
packaged goods); and finally, the strengths, stiffnesses, and softening temperatures of polymers, to
some degree, depend on secondary bonds that form between chain molecules.
©zyBooks 12/06/23
Material of importance 2.7.1: Water (its volume expansion 19:25 1860941
upon freezing).
DAKSH HATHI
Upon freezing (i.e., transforming from a liquid to a solid upon cooling), most substances
experience an increase in density (or, correspondingly, a decrease in volume). One exception
is water, which exhibits the anomalous and familiar expansion upon freezing—approximately
9 volume percent expansion. This behavior may be explained on the basis of hydrogen
bonding. Each H2O molecule has two hydrogen atoms that can bond to oxygen atoms; in
addition, its single O atom can bond to two hydrogen atoms of other H2O molecules. Thus,
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
for solid ice, each water molecule participates in four hydrogen bonds, as shown in the three-
dimensional schematic of Figure 2.7.3a; here, hydrogen bonds are denoted by dashed lines,
and each water molecule has 4 nearest-neighbor molecules. This is a relatively open
structure—that is, the molecules are not closely packed together—and as a result, the density
is comparatively low. Upon melting, this structure is partially destroyed, such that the water
molecules become more closely packed together (Figure 2.7.3b)—at room temperature, the
average number of nearest-neighbor water molecules has increased to approximately 4.5;
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
this leads to an increase in density. DAKSH HATHI
Consequences of this anomalous freezing phenomenon are familiar; it explains why icebergs
float; why, in cold climates, it is necessary to add antifreeze to an automobile's cooling
system (to keep the engine block from cracking); and why freeze-thaw cycles break up the
pavement in streets and cause potholes to form.
Figure 2.7.3: The arrangement of water molecules in solid ice

and liquid water.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
Section glossary
secondary bonds: Interatomic and intermolecular bonds that are relatively weak and
for which bonding energies are relatively small. Normally, atomic or molecular dipoles
are involved. Examples of secondary bonding types are van der Waals forces and
hydrogen bonding.
van der Waals bond: A secondary interatomic bond between adjacent molecular
dipoles that may be permanent or induced.
dipole (electric): A pair of equal and opposite electrical charges separated by a small
distance.
hydrogen bond: A strong secondary interatomic bond that exists between a bound
hydrogen atom (its unscreened proton) and the electrons of adjacent atoms.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
polar molecule: A molecule in which there exists a permanent electricDAKSH
dipole moment
HATHI
by virtue of the asymmetrical distribution of positively and negatively charged regions.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
2.8 Atomic bonding in solids: Mixed bonding

Sometimes it is illustrative to represent the four bonding types—ionic, covalent, metallic, and van der
Waals—on what is called a bonding tetrahedron—a three-dimensional tetrahedron with one of these
“extreme” types located at each vertex, as shown in Figure 2.8.1a. Furthermore, we should point out
that for many real materials, the atomic bonds are mixtures of two or more of these extremes (i.e.,
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
mixed bonds). Three mixed bond types—covalent-ionic, covalent-metallic, and metallic-ionic—are
DAKSH HATHI also
included on edges of this tetrahedron; we now discuss each of them.
Figure 2.8.1: Bonding tetrahedron and material-type tetrahedron.
(a) Bonding tetrahedron: Each of the four extreme (or pure) bonding types is located at one
corner of the tetrahedron; three mixed bonding types are included along tetrahedron edges.
(b) Material-type tetrahedron: correlation of each material classification (metals, ceramics,
polymers, etc.) with its type(s) of bonding.
For mixed covalent-ionic bonds, there is some ionic character to most covalent bonds and some
covalent character to ionic ones. As such, there is a continuum between these two extreme bond
types. In Figure 2.8.1 a, this type of bond is represented between the ionic and covalent bonding
vertices. The degree of either bond type depends on the relative positions of the constituent atoms in
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
the periodic table or the difference in their electronegativities (see Figure 2.4.1).
DAKSH TheHATHI
wider the
separation (both horizontally—relative to Group IVA—and vertically) from the lower left to the upper
right corner (i.e., the greater the difference in electronegativity), the more ionic is the bond. Conversely,
the closer the atoms are together (i.e., the smaller the difference in electronegativity), the greater is the
degree of covalency. Percent ionic character (%IC) of a bond between elements A and B (A being the
most electronegative) may be approximated by the expression
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
(2.8a)
where and are the electronegativities for the respective elements.

Another type of mixed bond is found for some elements in Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA of the periodic
table (viz., B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, and At). Interatomic bonds for these elements are mixtures of
metallic and covalent, as noted on Figure 2.8.1a. These materials are called the metalloids or semi-
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
metals, and their properties are intermediate between the metals and nonmetals. DAKSHInHATHI
addition, for
Group IV elements, there is a gradual transition from covalent to UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
metallic bonding as one moves
vertically down this column—for example, bonding in carbon (diamond) is purely covalent, whereas for
tin and lead, bonding is predominantly metallic.
Mixed metallic-ionic bonds are observed for compounds composed of two metals when there is a
significant difference between their electronegativities. This means that some electron transfer is
associated with the bond inasmuch as it has an ionic component. Furthermore, the larger this
electronegativity difference, the greater the degree of ionicity. For example, there is little ionic
character to the titanium-aluminum bond for the intermetallic compound TiAl3 because
electronegativities of both Al and Ti are the same (1.5; see Figure 2.4.1). However, a much greater
degree of ionic character is present for AuCu3; the electronegativity difference for copper and gold is
0.5.
PARTICIPATION 2.8.1: Percent ionic character for the C-H bond (Example Problem 2.3 in the
ACTIVITY
10th edition).
Animation content:
The C--H bond consisting of a carbon atom shown with eight total electrons including two shared
electrons and a hydrogen atom with two total electrons, both of which are shared, appears on the
top left of the animation screen. The equation appears to the
right of the C-H bond. The equation appears below the carbon atom and the equation
appears below the hydrogen atom. A duplicate of the two values (2.5 and 2.1) move
over to take their place in the equation which appears below
the equation on the right side of the animation screen. The equation appears
below the previous equation.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Animation captions: DAKSH HATHI
1. Interatomic bonds form between carbon and hydrogen atoms.
2. The percent ionic character of the carbon-hydrogen bond is a
function of electronegativities and .
3. Substituting and results in a percent ionic character of
. The C-H bond is covalent.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.8.2: Bonding type by material type.
Match the material type with the corresponding bonding type.

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
1) polymers DAKSH HATHI
Covalent-ionic
Ionic-metallic
Covalent-metallic
Covalent
2) metalloids
Covalent-ionic
Ionic-metallic
Covalent-metallic
Covalent
3) ceramics
Covalent-ionic
Ionic-metallic
Covalent-metallic
Covalent
4) intermetallics
Covalent-ionic
Ionic-metallic
Covalent-metallic
Covalent
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Reset
CHALLENGE 2.8.1: Computing the percent ionic character of the interatomic bonds of a given
ACTIVITY
compound (Problem 2.25 in the 6th edition).
511506.3721882.qx3zqy7
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Start
Using the electronegativity values from Figure 2.4.1, compute the percent ionic
character of the interatomic bonds for the following compound: GaP.
Ex: 99.9 %
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
1
Check Try again
2.9 Atomic bonding in solids: Molecules

Many common molecules are composed of groups of atoms bound together by strong covalent
bonds, including elemental diatomic molecules (F2, O2, H2, etc.), as well as a host of compounds (H2O,
CO2, HNO3, C6H6, CH4, etc.). In the condensed liquid and solid states, bonds between molecules are
weak secondary ones. Consequently, molecular materials have relatively low melting and boiling
temperatures. Most materials that have small molecules composed of a few atoms are gases at
ordinary, or ambient, temperatures and pressures. However, many modern polymers, being molecular
materials composed of extremely large molecules, exist as solids; some of their properties are
strongly dependent on the presence of van der Waals and hydrogen secondary bonds.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY
2.9.1: Bonds in common molecules.
Animation content:
A carbon atom with an oxygen atom on each side appears on the screen. The image disappears and
a written out molecule appears in its place (basically O=C=O with two slightly longer lines instead of
equals signs). Another CO2 molecule appears below the first one (not nearby). Other molecules
appear, spread out around the animation screen.The label "Gas" appears at the top of the animation
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
screen in the middle. DAKSH HATHI
Animation captions:
1. Groups of atoms in common molecules are bound together with strong covalent bonds. Ex:
Covalent bonds between C and O in .
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
2. Bonds between molecules are weak secondary bonds. Ex: Secondary bonds between adjacent
molecules.
3. Weak secondary intermolecular bonds result in a gas at ambient temperature. Ex: is a
gas at ambient temperature.
PARTICIPATION
ACTIVITY 2.9.2: Molecules.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
1) Materials composed of _____
molecules are generally liquids or
gases at room temperature.
large
medium
small
2) Most modern polymers are composed

of large molecules and are _____ at
room temperature.
solids
liquids
gases
2.10 Atomic bonding in solids: Bonding type-

material classification correlations
In previous discussions of this chapter, some correlations have been drawn between bonding type and
material classification—namely, ionic bonding (ceramics), covalent bonding (polymers), metallic
bonding (metals), and van der Waals bonding (molecular solids). We summarized these correlations in
the material-type tetrahedron shown in Figure 2.8.1b—the bonding tetrahedron of Figure 2.8.1a, on
which is superimposed the bonding location/region typified by each of the four material classes.11
©zyBooks
Also included are those materials having mixed bonding: intermetallics 12/06/23 19:25 Mixed
and semi-metals. 1860941
ionic-
DAKSH HATHI
covalent bonding for ceramics is also noted. Furthermore, the predominant bonding type for
semiconducting materials is covalent, with the possibility of an ionic contribution.
CHALLENGE 2.10.1: Identifying primary bonding type(s) of various materials (Problem 2.27 in
ACTIVITY the 10th edition).
511506.3721882.qx3zqy7
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Start
What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials? For bonds th
and covalent character, choose the one that would predominate.
(a) Barium sulfide (BaS) ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
(b) Bronze
Check Try again
(*11) Although most atoms in polymer molecules are covalently bonded, some van der Waals bonding
is normally present. We chose not to include van der Waals bonds for polymers because they (van der
Waals) are intermolecular (i.e., between molecules) as opposed to intramolecular (within molecules)
and not the principal bonding type.
2.11 Summary
Electrons in atoms
The two atomic models are Bohr and wave mechanical. Whereas the Bohr model assumes
electrons to be particles orbiting the nucleus in discrete paths, in wave mechanics we consider
them to be wavelike and treat electron position in terms of a probability distribution.
The energies of electrons are quantized—that is, only specific values of energy are allowed.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
The four electron quantum numbers are n, l, ml, and ms. They specify, DAKSH
respectively,
HATHIelectron
orbital size, orbital shape, number of electron orbitals, and UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
spin moment.
According to the Pauli exclusion principle, each electron state can accommodate no more than
two electrons, which must have opposite spins.
The periodic table
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Elements in each of the columns (or groups) of the periodic table have distinctive electron
configurations. For example:
Group 0 elements (the inert gases) have filled electron shells.
Group IA elements (the alkali metals) have one electron greater than a filled electron shell.
Bonding forces and energies

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
Bonding force and bonding energy are related to one another according to Equations 2.5c and
DAKSH HATHI
2.5d. UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Attractive, repulsive, and net energies for two atoms or ions depend on interatomic separation
per the schematic plot of the animation in Section 2.5.
Primary interatomic bonds
For ionic bonds, electrically charged ions are formed by the transference of valence electrons
from one atom type to another.
There is a sharing of valence electrons between adjacent atoms when bonding is covalent.
Electron orbitals for some covalent bonds may overlap or hybridize. Hybridization of s and p
orbitals to form sp3 and sp2 orbitals in carbon was discussed. Configurations of these hybrid
orbitals were also noted.
With metallic bonding, the valence electrons form a “sea of electrons” that is uniformly dispersed
around the metal ion cores and acts as a form of glue for them.
Secondary bonding or van der Waals bonding
Relatively weak van der Waals bonds result from attractive forces between electric dipoles,
which may be induced or permanent.
For hydrogen bonding, highly polar molecules form when hydrogen covalently bonds to a
nonmetallic element such as fluorine.
Mixed bonding
In addition to van der Waals bonding and the three primary bonding types, covalent-ionic,
covalent-metallic, and metallic-ionic mixed bonds exist.
The percent ionic character (%IC) of a bond between two elements (A and B) depends on their
electronegativities (X's) according to Equation 2.8a.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Bonding type-material classification correlations UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
Correlations between bonding type and material class were noted:

Polymers—covalent
Metals—metallic
Ceramics—ionic/mixed ionic-covalent
Molecular solids—van der Waals
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Semi-metals—mixed covalent-metallic
Intermetallics—mixed metallic-ionic
Equation summary
Equation
Number Equation Solving 19:25
©zyBooks 12/06/23 For 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
Potential energy
2.5c
between two atoms
Section 2.5, Force between two

Footnotes atoms
Attractive energy
2.6a
between two atoms
Repulsive energy
2.6c
between two atoms
Force of attraction
Section 2.6 between two isolated
ions
2.8a Percent ionic character
List of symbols
Symbol Meaning
A, B, n Material constants
E Potential energy between two atoms/ions
EA Attractive energy between two atoms/ions
ER Repulsive energy between two atoms/ions

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
e Electronic charge UCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
ε0 Permittivity of a vacuum
F Force between two atoms/ions
r Separation distance between two atoms/ions
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
Symbol Meaning
XA Electronegativity value of the more electronegative element for compound BA
XB Electronegativity value of the more electropositive element for compound BA
Z1, Z2 Valence values for ions 1 and 2

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
2.12 References
Most of the material in this chapter is covered in college-level chemistry textbooks. Two are listed here
as references.
Ebbing, D. D., S. D. Gammon, and R. O. Ragsdale, Essentials of General Chemistry, 2nd edition, Cengage
Learning, Boston, MA, 2006.
Jespersen, N. D., and A. Hyslop, Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 7th edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2014.
2.13 Questions and problems
Fundamental concepts
fitness_center EXERCISE 2.13.1 help_outline

(a) Cite the difference between atomic mass and atomic weight.

(a) Chromium has four naturally-occurring isotopes: 4.34% of 50Cr, with an atomic weight of
49.9460 amu; 83.79% of 52Cr, with an atomic weight of 51.9405 amu; 9.50% of 53Cr, with an
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
atomic weight of 52.9407 amu; and 2.37% of 54Cr, with an atomic weight
DAKSH ofHATHI
53.9389 amu. On
the basis of these data, confirm that the average atomic weight of Cr is 51.9963 amu.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
(a) Hafnium has six naturally occurring isotopes: 0.16% of 174Hf, with an atomic weight of
173.940 amu; 5.26% of 176Hf, with an atomic weight of 175.941 amu; 18.60% of 177Hf, with
an atomic weight of 176.943 amu; 27.28% of 178Hf, with an atomic weight of 177.944 amu;
13.62% of 179Hf, with an atomic weight of 178.946 amu; and 35.08% of 180Hf, with an atomic
weight of 179.947 amu. Calculate the average atomic weight of Hf.

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(a) Bromium has two naturally occurring isotopes: 79Br, with an atomic weight of 78.918 amu,
and 81Br, with an atomic weight of 80.916 amu. If the average atomic weight for Br is 79.903
amu, calculate the fraction-of-occurrences of these two isotopes.

(a) How many grams are there in one amu of a material?
Solution keyboard_arrow_down
(b) Mole, in the context of this book, is taken in units of gram-mole. On this basis, how many
atoms are there in a pound-mole of a substance?

(a) Cite two important quantum-mechanical concepts associated with the Bohr model of the
atom.
(b) Cite two important additional refinements that resulted from the wave-mechanical atomic
model.

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(a) Relative to electrons and electron states, what does each of the four quantum numbers
specify?
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
(a) For the K shell, the four quantum numbers for each of the two electrons in the 1s state, in the
order of nlmlms, are and . Write the four quantum numbers for all of the
electrons in the L and M shells, and note which correspond to the s, p, and d subshells.

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(a) 2+, Al3+, Cu+, Ba2+, Br−, and O2−.
Give the electron configurations for the following ions: FeUCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023

(a) Sodium chloride (NaCl) exhibits predominantly ionic bonding. The Na+ and Cl− ions have
electron structures that are identical to which two inert gases?
The periodic table
fitness_center EXERCISE 2.13.11

help_outline
(a) With regard to electron configuration, what do all the elements in Group VIIA of the periodic
table have in common?

(a) To what group in the periodic table would an element with atomic number 119 belong?

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH
Without consulting the periodic table or Table 2.3.2, determine whether each HATHI
of the following
electron configurations is an inert gas, a halogen, an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or a
transition metal. Justify your choices.
(a) 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
(b) 1s22s22p63s23p6
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
(c) 1s22s22p5
(d) 1s22s22p63s2
(e) 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2
(f) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(a) What electron subshell is being filled for the rare earth series of elements on the periodic
table?
(b) What electron subshell is being filled for the actinide series?
Bonding forces and energies

(a) Calculate the force of attraction between a K+ and an O2− ion the centers of which are
separated by a distance of 1.5 nm.

The atomic radii of Li+ and O2− ions are 0.068 and 0.140 nm, respectively.
(a) Calculate the force of attraction between these two ions at their equilibrium interionic
separation (i.e., when the ions just touch one another).
(b) What is the force of repulsion at this same separation distance?

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(a) The force of attraction between a divalent cation and a monovalent anion is 8.02 × 10−9 N. If
the ionic radius of the cation is 0.060 nm, what is the anion radius?
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
(a) The net potential energy between two adjacent ions, EN, may be represented by the sum of
Equations 2.6a and 2.6c; that is,
(2.13a)
Calculate the bonding energy E0 in terms of the parameters A, B, and n using the following
procedure:
©zyBooks
1. Differentiate EN with respect to r, and then set the resulting 12/06/23 19:25
expression equal1860941
to zero,
DAKSH HATHI
because the curve of EN versus r is a minimum at EUCALGARYENGG204EgbertsFall2023
0.
2. Solve for r in terms of A, B, and n, which yields r0, the equilibrium interionic spacing.
3. Determine the expression for E0 by substituting r0 into the equation above .

For a K+−Cl− ion pair, attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER, respectively, depend on the
distance between the ions r, according to
For these expressions, energies are expressed in electron volts per K+−Cl− pair, and r is the
distance in nanometers. The net energy EN is just the sum of the preceding two expressions.
(a) Superimpose on a single plot EN, ER, and EA versus r up to 1.0 nm.
(b) On the basis of this plot, determine (i) the equilibrium spacing r0 between the K+ and Cl− ions,
and (ii) the magnitude of the bonding energy E0 between the two ions.
(c) Mathematically determine the r0 and E0 values using the solutions to the previous problem
and compare these with the graphical results from the previous step.
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
(a) Consider a hypothetical X+−Y− ion pair for which the equilibrium interionic spacing and
bonding energy values are 0.35 nm and −6.13 eV, respectively. If it is known that n in
Equation 2.6c has a value of 10, using the results of Problem 2.13.18, determine explicit
expressions for attractive and repulsive energies EA and ER of Equations 2.6a and 2.6c.
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks

The net potential energy between two adjacent ions is sometimes represented by the
expression ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(2.13b)
in which is the interionic separation and , , and ρ are constants whose values depend on the
specific material.
(a) Derive an expression for the bonding energy in terms of the equilibrium interionic
separation and the constants and using the following procedure:
1. Differentiate with respect to , and set the resulting expression equal to zero.
2. Solve for in terms of , , and .
3. Determine the expression for by substitution for in Equation 2.13b.
(b) Derive another expression for in terms of , , and using a procedure analogous to
the one outlined in part (a).
Primary interatomic bonds

(a) Briefly cite the main differences among ionic, covalent, and metallic bonding.
(b) State the Pauli exclusion principle.

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
(a) Make a plot of bonding energy versus melting temperature for the metals
DAKSHlisted
HATHIin Table
2.6.1. Using this plot, approximate the bonding energy for copper, which has a melting
temperature of 1085°C.
Secondary bonding or van der Waals bonding
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks

(a) Explain why hydrogen fluoride (HF) has a higher boiling temperature than hydrogen chloride
(HCl) (19.4°C vs. −85°C), even though HF has a lower molecular weight.
Mixed bonding ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
(a) Compute the %IC of the interatomic bond for each of the following compounds: TiO2, ZnTe,
CsCl, InSb, and MgCl2.

(a) Calculate the %IC of the interatomic bond for the intermetallic compound TiAl3.
(b) On the basis of this result, what type of interatomic bonding would you expect to be found in
TiAl3?
Bonding type-material classification correlations

(a) What type(s) of bonding would be expected for each of the following materials: brass (a
copper-zinc alloy), epoxy, barium sulfide (BaS), solid xenon, bronze, nylon, and aluminum
phosphide (AlP)?
Spreadsheet problems ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
Generate a spreadsheet that allows the user to input values of A, B, and n in the equation below
and then does the following:
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
(a) Plots on a graph of potential energy versus interatomic separation for two atoms/ions,
curves for attractive (EA), repulsive (ER), and net (EN) energies.
(b) Determines the equilibrium spacing (r0) and the bonding energy (E0).
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941
DAKSH HATHI
(a) Generate a spreadsheet that computes %IC of a bond between atoms of two elements, once
the user has input values for the elements' electronegativities.
Fundamentals of engineering questions and problems

(a) Which of the following electron configurations is for an inert gas?
1. 1s22s22p63s23p6
2. 1s22s22p63s2
3. 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
4. 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2

(a) What type(s) of bonding would be expected for steel (an alloy composed of iron with a very
small amount of carbon)?
1. Ionic bonding
2. Metallic bonding
3. Covalent bonding with some van der Waals bonding
4. van der Waals bonding
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
fitness_center EXERCISE 2.13.32
help_outline
(a) What type(s) of bonding would be expected for rubber?
1. Ionic bonding
2. Metallic bonding
3. Covalent bonding with some van der Waals bonding
12/6/23, 7:26 PM zyBooks
4. van der Waals bonding
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI
©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

DAKSH HATHI

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Why study atomic structure and interatomic bonding?

An important reason to have an understanding of interatomic bonding in solids is that

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

2.2 Atomic structure: Fundamental concepts

Select the definition that matches each term

appears below the previous equation. The equation

1. Cerium has four naturally occurring isotopes: of , of ,

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

1) Each carbon atom has __ protons.

2) Each naturally occurring carbon atom

3) A carbon atom has ___ electrons and

4) The _____ of the carbon-12 isotope

5) The average atomic weight of carbon is

Ex: 12.34 amu

Check Try again

Section glossary ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

basis), or the mass per mole of atoms.

mole: The quantity of a substance corresponding to 6.022 × 1023 atoms or molecules.

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

2.3 Atomic structure: Electrons in atoms

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Select the definition that matches each term

2) Bohr atomic model

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Table 2.3.1: Summary of the relationships among the quantum numbers

2 −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 3d 5 10

3 −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, 4f 7 14

Value of l Letter Designation

Value of l Letter Designation

Figure 2.3.4: Spherical shape of an electron orbital.

Figure 2.3.5: Orientations and shapes of ( ) ,( ) , and ( ) electron

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Figure 2.3.6: Schematic representation of the relative energies of the

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Select the definition that matches each term

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Figure 2.3.7: Schematic representation of the filled and lowest unfilled

Table 2.3.2: Expected electron configurations for some common elements

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Configuration

Beryllium Be 4 1s22s2 ©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Configuration

Element Symbol Atomic Number Electron Configuration

Consider titanium's electron configuration to fill in the number

1) ___ electrons occupy the

Check Show answer

2) ___ electrons occupy the

Check Show answer

3) ___ electrons occupy the

Check Show answer

4) ___ electrons occupy the

Check Show answer

5) ___ electrons occupy the

6) ___ electrons occupy the

Check Show answer

©zyBooks 12/06/23 19:25 1860941

Check Show answer

fitness_center EXERCISE 2.3.1: Concept Check