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EXERCISE
PSYCHOLOGY

HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE

 Exercise Psychology

03 CHAPTER 1
CONTENT
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 4
Effects of stress on the human body ..................................................................................... 4
Physiological responses to stress .............................................................................................. 5
Symptoms of stress ............................................................................................................................... 6
Coping with stress ................................................................................................................................... 7
Effective filters ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Determining your own stress level ............................................................................................ 10
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................... 11

12 CHAPTER 2
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Link between physical activity and well-being .............................................................. 13
Profile of the exercise dropout ..................................................................................................... 13
Understanding exercise behaviour ........................................................................................... 14
Stages of readiness ............................................................................................................................... 14
Factors contributing to exercise dropout ............................................................................ 15
The physiological advantage of a good physical setting ..................................... 22
Other considerations ............................................................................................................................ 23
Sports and exercise vs physical activity ............................................................................... 24
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................... 24

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 Exercise Psychology

CHAPTER 1: STRESS
MANAGEMENT

This chapter distinguishes between eustress and distress focusing on the role of exercise
in reducing stress and preventing stress-related diseases and, also, taking into account
the dangers of over-training.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

Define the condition referred to as stress.
Describe the symptoms of and physiological responses to stress.
Suggest methods of coping with stress.
Explain how personality types may respond differently to and are affected by stress.
Illustrate how exercise can combat stress or become a stressor

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 1: STRESS MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

1.1 EFFECTS OF STRESS ON THE HUMAN BODY

We live in a stressful world; environmental, physiological and emotional stress, together with the increasing demands
of everyday life; balancing work, family and social commitments, places enormous strain on us.

Environmental Stressors Psychological Stressors Emotional & psychosocial stressors

Heat Poverty Low self-image

Cold Family problems Daily-life pressures
Experiencing trauma
Noise Emotional neglect or
Drugs, alcohol, caffeine, medication
Crowds Exercise abuse
Traffic

Much research has been, and is still being done, on stress Stress

and its effects on the human body, particularly the

immune system. However, in this text we refer mainly to EUSTRESS
(GOOD STRESS)
DISTRESS
(BAD STRESS)
the findings of Dr Hans Selye who was the first person to
undertake significant research on the subject. Although
his research was done many years ago, the basic tenets Feeling excited, Feeling angry, scared or sad
Positive life changes - Having an injury or illness
of Selye’s work remain unchallenged. His findings have (Getting married, new job) Losing a loved one
Falling in love Lack of sleep
been corroborated and elaborated upon by work done Travelling Unemployment
Learning something new Negative relationships
in recent years in the scientific and medical fields.
Can lead to increased energy and Can lead to anxiety, lack of
motivation, improved performance motivation, decrease in
STRESS is interpreted in different ways by different and a positive state of mind performance, physical ailments

people, e.g. nervous tension, anxiety, depression,

emotional disturbances, etc. However, Selye, defined it Figure 5.1 Adapted from information in Gregson, 2000
as follows: “The non-specific response of the body to
any demand made upon it”. He further described it as NOTES
“the rate of wear and tear within the body”.

Stress is a by-product of living - to live without it is

neither possible nor desirable. We cannot avoid stress
so we must learn to cope with it.
Because “stress” is such a general word, Selye
differentiated between:

• Distress, i.e. harmful stress caused by negative and

destructive emotions
• Eustress, i.e. good, positive stress

To illustrate the difference; consider a businessman

under constant pressure who finds stimulation and
exhilaration in his work – he is under stress, but he enjoys
it and thrives on the pressure; this is eustress. However,
the same man forced into early retirement would find
the stress of inactivity frustrating and intolerable; this is
distress.

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 1: STRESS MANAGEMENT

1.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO STRESS

When we are exposed to stress certain physiological NOTES
changes take place in our bodies. In his work, Selye
noticed that these changes take place in a predictable
pattern; he called this pattern general adaption
syndrome.

1.2.1. General Adaption Syndrome - Phase 1: Alarm

In 1915, after conducting research on animals in stressful
situations, American psychologist Walter Cannon coined
the term ‘fight or flight’ to describe the body’s response to
stress. His theory was that, when exposed to a perceived
threat (stress), the body prepares itself to either fight off
the threat or flee from it. According to Selye, this is the
first phase of general adaption syndrome.

These changes take place within seconds of being

exposed to the stress. The stress triggers hormones
(catecholamine, cortisol, oestrogen, testosterone and
adrenaline) to be released into the blood stream by
the sympathetic nervous system. These hormones, in
turn, trigger various changes within the body’s muscles,
blood-flow, air-flow, liver and other organs to help it
function optimally in the situation.

Although ‘fight or flight’ is usually described in dealing

with threatening situations (distress), the body also
responds to eustress in the same way. For example;
your hands become sweaty and you become short of
breath when you are both excited (eustress) and anxious
(distress). The difference comes in the way that you
perceive the stress; eustress is perceived in a positive
way creating positive feelings, while distress is perceived
in a negative or threatening way. Both, however, can
be taxing on the body; even good stress can become
overwhelming and cause harm.

Table 5.1 Summary of physiological responses to stress

Change in body Reasons for change

Increased heart rate and blood pressure More blood pumped to the muscles so that they can work more
quickly and powerfully to fight or run away
Increased blood sugar levels More fuel for increased energy production
Blood flow is withdrawn from the skin and intestines and Brain can make quick, clear choices and muscles can work harder
is diverted to the brain and active muscles to deal with the situation quickly and effectively
Appetite decreases and the mouth becomes dry Parasympathetic body functions are reduced so that resources
can be recruited where they are more urgently required
The pupils dilate To provide clear vision and focus
Activation of the adrenal gland releases adrenaline into Fear is decreased in order to take charge of the situation
the blood stream causing a feeling of excitement and
anticipation
Hormones that accelerate metabolism are secreted, More energy is produced for high intensity action (running away
ensuring energy provision quickly or fighting off the threat)
Perspiration increases To cool the body during intense exertion

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 1: STRESS MANAGEMENT

NOTES

Figure 5.2 Sympathetic and Parasympathetic responses to

stress

1.2.2 General Adaption Syndrome - Phase 2:

Adaptation/Resistance
The body naturally tries to maintain a balance
(homeostasis); immediately after the alarm reaction it
starts to restore the balance of hormones in an attempt
to adapt to or resist the stress.

1.2.3 General Adaption Syndrome - Phase 3: Exhaustion

After fighting the stress, the body’s energy is depleted
and it can no longer resist or adapt to the stress if the
stress still persists. The body becomes exhausted and is
vulnerable to burnout and disease.

1.3 SYMPTOMS OF STRESS

The body’s response to stress may be visible in cognitive,
emotional, physical and behavioural symptoms as
shown in the table below:

Table 5.2 Symptoms of stress

Cognitive symptoms Emotional symptoms Physical symptoms Behavioural symptoms

• Memory problems • Moodiness
• Inability to • Irritability or short
concentrate temper
• Poor judgement • Agitation or inability
• Negative outlook to relax
• Anxious or racing • Feeling overwhelmed
thoughts • Sense of loneliness or
• Constant worrying isolation
• Depression or general
unhappiness
• Aches or pains • Eating more or less than
• Diarrhoea or usual
constipation • Sleeping too much or
• Nausea too little
• Dizziness • Isolating yourself from
• Chest pain others
• Rapid heart beat • Procrastinating
• Loss of sex drive or neglecting
• Frequent colds responsibilities
• Using alcohol, cigarettes
or drugs to relax
• Nervous habits (nail
biting, pacing)

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1.4 COPING WITH STRESS by genetics, family and social dynamics and personal
Since we cannot avoid stress in our daily lives, we experiences, all of which impact the way people
must learn to handle it effectively. Although increased respond to stress. Physicians, Friedman and Roseman,
exposure to stress can lead to all sorts of ailments, over categorised people into 2 main personality groups,
time the body can also adapt to stress physiologically adding that, while most people fall into one of the two
(its ability to maintain homeostasis is improved) and groups, the dividing line between the two is not always
psychologically (a person’s ability to cope with stress is absolute.
improved).
1.4.2.1.1 Type ‘A’ Personality
Worrying over things that we cannot control prevents This person is highly competitive and aggressive. He/
us from dealing effectively with the things that we can. she is energetic, driven and likes to maintain control
Stress management is therefore important to everyone. over situations. Type ‘A’ personalities are more prone to
There are 2 general ways of coping with stress: stress and often develop medical problems related to
stress, e.g. hypertension.
• A filter system that decreases the impact of the
stressors. This is a system of self-management and 1.4.2.1.2 Type ‘B’ Personality ‘
involves the development of skills and characteristics This person is the opposite of Type ‘A’, both in approach
that will fortify an individual in stressful situations. and reaction. Type ‘B’ personalities are more relaxed
• A release valve system that prevents stress from and, despite often being self-driven, generally have a
accumulating to the extent that it affects health and more balanced personality and are able to cope more
the quality of life. Positive thought, good nutrition, ‘quietly’ with life.
regular exercise, relaxation and sufficient rest are all
tools used to prevent stressors from accumulating While personality does influence the manner in which a
to a breakpoint. person responds to stress, the response can be modified
by using appropriate coping strategies.
1.4.2 Effective Filters
• A positive self-image – this can help you to deal with NOTES
situations in a confident and positive way
• Active listening - don’t jump to conclusions or take
offence easily
• Communication - effective communication avoids
misunderstandings
• Time management - schedule your time efficiently
and effectively to include both work and relaxation
• Accept people for who they are - do not try to fit
others into a preconceived idea of what you expect
them to be
• Good nutrition - ensure you maintain a nutritious
and balanced eating pattern
• Modification of temperament - try not let your
temper get the better of you. Be patient and
tolerable as much as possible.
• Rational thought - think things through before
rushing into action
• Emotional stability and self-control - handle conflict
calmly and efficiently
• Decisiveness - improve decision making capabilities.
Accept decisions already made; do not agonise over
them
• Courage, serenity and wisdom (as so well stated in
Avery’s prayer for “courage to change the things
that can be changed, serenity to accept those which
can’t and wisdom to know the difference”).

1.4.2.1 Personality and stress

Personality is a blend of attitude, behaviour, values,
philosophies, opinions, beliefs and much more that
make up a person’s core essence. Personality is shaped

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 1: STRESS MANAGEMENT

The test below is a self-evaluation test that you can use

to help determine how prone you are to stress. Provide NOTES
an answer from 0 to 3 for the questions below where
0=Never; 1=Rarely; 2=Sometimes; 3=Often. A score of
more than 30 points indicates that you most likely have
traits associated with the co-dependent personality, a
personality style known to be stress-prone.

Table 5.3 Stress Prone Personality Questionnaire (Seaward,

2016)

Behaviour Frequency
1. I tend to seek approval from others (e.g. friends,
colleagues, family members)
2. I have very strong perfection tendencies
3. I am usually involved in many projects at one
time
4. I rise to the occasion in times of crisis
5. Despite problems with my family, I will always
defend them
6. I have the tendency to put others before myself
7. I don’t feel appreciated for all the things I do
8. I tend to tell a lot of white lies
9. I will help most anyone in need
10. I tend to trust other’s perception rather than
my own
11. I have a habit of overreacting to situations
12. Despite great achievements, my self-esteem
usually suffers
13. My family background is better described as
victim rather than victor
14. I have been known to manipulate others with
acts of generosity and favours
15. I am really good at empathizing with my
friends and family
16. I usually try to make the best impression
possible with people
17. I like to validate my feelings with other’s
perceptions
18. I am an extremely well-organized individual
19. It’s easier for me to give love and much more
difficult to receive it

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The test below is a self-evaluation test that you can use to help determine how capable you are of resisting
stress. Provide an answer from 0 to 3 for the questions below where 0=Never; 1=Rarely; 2=Sometimes; 3=Often. A
score of more than 30 points indicates that you most likely have traits associated with the hardy, survivor and
calculated risktaker personalities; personality types known to be stress-resistant.

Table 5.4 Stress Resistance Personality Questionnaire (Seaward, 2016)

Behaviour Frequency
1. I wake up each morning ready to face the new day

2. I tend not to let fear ruin my life

3. I would consider myself to be an optimist

4. I tend to see “problems” as opportunities for personal growth and success

5. Although I like to be in control, I know when to go with the flow if things are out of my control

6. Curiosity is one of my stronger attributes

7. Life isn’t always fair, but I still manage to enjoy myself

8. When things knock me off balance, I am resilient and get back on my feet quickly

9. My friends would say that I have the ability to turn misfortune into luck

10. I believe that if you don’t take risks, you live a boring life and won’t get far

11. I like to think of myself being a creative person

12. I believe in the philosophy that “one person truly can make a difference”

13. I am both organized and flexible with my life’s day-to-day schedule

14. Sometimes having nothing to do is the best way to spend the day

15. I trust that I am part of a greater force of life in the universe

16. I believe in the philosophy that “you make your own breaks”

17. I approach new knowing that I will learn something valuable, regardless of the outcome

18. When I start a project, I see it through to its successful completion.

19. I am strong willed, which I see as positive characteristic to accomplish hard tasks

20. I am committed to doing my best in most everything in life

1.4.3 RELEASE SYSTEMS According to Collinge and associates, exercise produces

1.4.3.1 Exercise and stress
Exercise and stress have an almost ‘co-dependent’
relationship. Exercise is a form of stress (stressor),
breaking down muscle tissue to build new, stronger
tissue. It is also a stress releaser associated with, not only
health improvements, but psychological improvements
too.
When exercise forms part of an individual’s regular
routine resting heart rate and blood pressure decreases,
along with decreases in muscle tension. Physical fitness
increases the body’s resistance to illness and improves
the ability to cope with changing temperatures. It is
also associated with psychological improvements
such as increased self-esteem, cognitive functioning,
mental awareness, and problem solving ability.
neurotransmitters called endorphins which act as natural
tranquilizers and can result in feelings of calmness and
relaxation for up to 3 hours post exercise (Collinge et al.,
2015).
Remember, the body rebuilds stronger structures as a
result of exercise and the rebuilding takes place during
rest periods between exercise sessions. Each person
has an individual breakdown point or tolerance level for
physical stress – overstep the mark and you will become
an exercise casualty. The Trainer has a responsibility to
his/her clients to ensure that this does not happen to
them.
When under stress, the adrenal cortex releases the
hormone cortisol that stimulates recovery. However,
over-training fatigues the adrenal cortex reducing the

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 1: STRESS MANAGEMENT

amount of cortisol released. In some cases of excessive
stress, cortisol production may cease entirely leaving
the body unable to recover unless the stress is removed.
Having reached this stage of exhaustion it may take
many weeks of rest before damaged tissue heals and
the adrenal cortex once more releases normal quantities
of cortisol. The longer the period of over-training, the
longer the recuperation period must
be.
Symptoms of over-training
• Chronic muscle soreness
• Weight loss
• Loss of appetite
• Fatigue
• Thirst
• Amenorrhoea
• Interrupted sleep patterns and insomnia
• Depression, anxiety and irritation
• Minor illnesses and wounds take longer than usual
to heal
• Allergies and swollen glands from a breakdown in
the immune system
contagious. By giving in to a minor irritation, one person
can set up a chain reaction that can influence a whole
family or community. By using the positive tools of
patience, love, mutual trust and consideration and by
utilising stress management techniques, each of us, in
our own small way, can help impede the progress of
harmful stress.
There are several tests that can help you determine your
stress profile. The following are some basic questions
to help determine your stress level - if your answer to
some of these questions is ‘yes’, it suggests that you are
experiencing excess stress in your life:
• Do you suffer from insomnia?
• Do minor problems throw you off balance?
• Are you disinterested, unenthusiastic or bored by
the small pleasures of life?
NOTES

1.4.3.2 Relaxation and Stress

The ability and time to relax are two vitally important
factors in stress management. Relaxation is an art that
must be learned and practised, but once mastered, it
is one of the most effective ways of reducing stress.
The health club is the ideal place to teach relaxation
techniques. You can use the below techniques to help
your client relax before or after an exercise session:

• “Lie flat on your back and feel your body getting

heavier and heavier. Imagine yourself sinking into
the floor”. As you talk your clients through the
relaxation exercise, conjure up images of places
and situations that induce relaxation, e.g. lying on
the beach soaking up the sun, basking in the garden
amid beautiful surroundings - describe the sounds
you hear. “Breathe deeply, relax your face into a
smile and think beautiful
• thoughts”.
• “Lie flat on your back on the floor. Slowly contract
every muscle in your body including your face”. Let
your client hold the contraction for a few seconds
and then let go. Repeat this 3 times and then let
them relax completely. “Let all the tension out of
your muscles, sink into the floor. Breathe deeply
through your nose and exhale completely”. In a
quiet, relaxing tone you can talk your clients into a
state of relaxation, your tone gradually becoming
softer and slower until complete silence evolves.

Soothing music is conducive to relaxation and can be

used with any of these relaxation techniques.

1.5 DETERMINING YOUR OWN STRESS LEVEL

It is important to note that psychological stress is

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 1: STRESS MANAGEMENT

• Do you feel inadequate? publishers.

• Are you easily frustrated and impatient with other Tomporowski, P.D., (2003). Effects of acute bouts of
people? exercise on cognition. Acta Psychologica, 112:397-324.
• Are you a compulsive eater/smoker/drinker?
• Do you grind your teeth? CHAPTER 1 ONLINE ASSIGNMENTS
• Are you a workaholic?
• Do you suffer from tension and pains in your neck
and/or solar plexus? All online assignments are available on the HFPA
• Are you afraid of new situations and meeting new Online Learning Platform.
people?
To access this site go to: www.hfpa.co.za
CONCLUSION
Exercise is a stress on the body; in moderation it is
considered as eustress (beneficial), while over-training NOTES
(that can cause over-use injuries) is considered as
distress. To avoid the harmful effects of stress, one must
exercise within the boundaries of one’s own fitness level,
capabilities, potential and limitations.

Educating clients about stress and stress-management

techniques and assisting them to cope with the normal
stresses of daily living falls within the scope of a personal
trainer, however, clients showing symptoms of severe
stress (emotional, psychological or physical) must
be referred to an appropriate specialist for treatment
(psychologist, counsellor or physician).

References
• American Psychological Association. (2012). Stress
is America: Our health as risk. Available at https://
www.apa.org/news/press/releases/stress/2011/
final-2011.pdf (Accessed 2016/05/19).
• Berchtold, N.C. (2008). Exercise, stress mechanisms,
and cognition. In Exercise and Its Mediating Effects
on Cognition. Edited by Spirduso, W.W., Poon, L.W. &
Chodzko-Zajko.
• Champaign: Human Kinetics. Churchill, J.D.,
Galvez, R., Colcombe, S., Swain, R.A., Kramer, A.F. &
Greenough, W.T. (2002). Exercise, experience and
the aging brain. Neurobiology of Aging, 23:941-955.
• Davranche, K., Audiffren, M. & Denjean, A. (2006).
A distributional analysis of the effect of physical
exercise on a choice reaction time task. Journal of
Sport Sciences, 24(3):323-329.
• Gregson, S.R. (2000). Stress management.
Minnesota:Capstone.
• Kavitha, G. (2009). Occupational stress and coping
strategies. Delhi:Discovery publishing house.
• Mayer, D.P. (2008). Overcoming school anxiety:
How to help your child deal with separation, tests,
homework, bullies, math phobia, and other worries.
New York: AMACOM.
• Martini, F.F. (2004). Fundamentals of anatomy &
physiology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummins.
• Seaward, B.L. (2016). Essentials of managing stress.
Massachusetts :Jones & Bartlett publishers.
• Stinson, A. (2010). Anxiety and stress: How poor
performance and absenteeism affect the workplace.
Florida:Universal

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 Exercise Psychology

CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL
WELLBEING

A client’s adherence to an exercise programme is affected by a number of factors. These

factors are addressed in this chapter with advice on how to motivate clients to commit to
their exercise programmes.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

Describe common exercise behaviour i.e. exercise dropouts, motivation, etc.
Assist clients in incorporating physical activity into their daily lives.
Combine Prochaska and DiClemente’s (1983) model of change with goal setting practices.
Describe and demonstrate the multi-dimensional role of the personal trainer.

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

INTRODUCTION efficacy theory, those who perceive themselves as

2.1 LINK BETWEEN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND WELL- efficacious with respect to their physical capabilities
BEING are more likely to begin and maintain an exercise
It has been shown that there is a positive association regimen than their counterparts who have low levels of
between a physically active lifestyle and physical and self-efficacy. Although the relationship is modest, it is
psychological well-being. Optimal levels of physical nevertheless consistent (Sallis et al, 1986). McAuley and
exercise can promote health and vitality by controlling Jacobson (1991) found that self-efficacy is a predictor of
body mass, toning skeletal muscles, strengthening the adherence three months into an exercise programme,
heart and improving respiratory function. Exercise also but at five months, past exercise experience was a better
has a positive effect on blood pressure and can assist predictor.
in the control of health problems such as low back
pain, diabetes and osteoporosis. In fact, some exercise NOTES
physiologists suggest that exercise can add years to
your life. As to the psychological advantages, it appears
that exercise can reduce certain types of anxiety and
depression and make one more productive, improve
cognitive function and generally enhance psychological
wellbeing. There are even indications that it can change
temperament for the better (Dienstbier, 1984).

All in all, the beneficial effect of optimal amounts of

exercise is universally acknowledged. Yet, despite the
apparent rewards, many people fail to persist with
exercise programmes. It is estimated that less than 20%
of the adult population in the USA exercise enough to
accrue health and fitness benefits. A further 40% report
that they exercise, but it is suspected that the frequency,
duration and intensity of the reported activities are
insufficient to have a significant impact on health.
The remaining 40% of the population are sedentary
(inactive). This does not imply that people reject the
benefits of regular physical activity, in fact, many people
embark on an exercise regimen for health
reasons, but relatively few manage to maintain this
active lifestyle. Studies have shown that approximately
50% drop out within the first three to six months,
following the same trend as for other health promotion
programmes such as smoking cessation and weight
loss programmes.

2.2 PROFILE OF THE EXERCISE DROPOUT

Some individuals are more prone to non-compliance
than others. Achievement orientated and self-driven
people (Type ‘A’ personalities) are prone to drop out
of exercise programmes as they simply do not allow
themselves time to exercise as it interferes with other
“more important” work commitments. At the other end
of the scale people who lack motivation and self-esteem
also find it difficult to maintain a disciplined
exercise regimen.

The irony of these findings is that the very people who

need exercise most are the ones most prone to drop out.

There seems to be a link between self-efficacy and

exercise adoption and adherence. Self-efficacy pertains
to the individual’s belief that he/she has the ability to
perform a task successfully. According to the self-

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 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

This implies that factors that determine exercise
adherence vary according to the stage of participation.
In the initial stages of exercise adoption a strong belief in
one’s capabilities seems to be important. Dzewaltowski
(1989) reported that subjects who express high self-
efficacy are more likely to adhere to exercise regimens
in the presence of obstacles such as fatigue and the
demands that exercise has on valuable time. However,
as the exerciser becomes more accustomed to physical
activity, factors other than self-efficacy become more
important. At this stage, there is no empirical proof that
self-efficacy enhancing strategies improve long term
exercise adherence. Nevertheless, it would be advisable
for the fitness practitioner to view the development of
the client’s self-efficacy in the exercise setting as an
important objective.
It appears that lifestyle is also an important indicator of
exercise dropout - smoking, blue-collar employment, an
inactive leisure time and being overweight are lifestyle
factors that correlate highly with exercise dropout –
smoking being the highest.
2.4 STAGES OF READINESS
Prochaska and DiClemente (1983) developed a model
of change that illustrates the process through which a
client will go before making lifetime changes. Each stage
is briefly described below:
2.4.1 Pre-contemplation
Individuals in this stage are not physically active and are
not considering being active within the next 6 months.
2.4.2 Contemplation
Individuals are not currently active, but are considering
becoming active in the next 6 months.
2.4.3 Preparation
Individuals have started taking part in some physical
activity but not on a regular basis. The intention is to
become more physically active in the next month.
2.4.4 Action
Individuals have become physically active in the last 6
months.

2.3 UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE BEHAVIOUR 2.4.5 Maintenance

Why do so many people find it difficult to stay in an Individuals are engaging in physical activity on a regular
exercise programme despite the many purported fitness basis and have been doing so for at least six months.
and health benefits? This question is of vital importance
to the fitness practitioner. How can clients be motivated NOTES
to continue with fitness programmes after the initial
enthusiasm has worn off? Fitness instructors quickly
realise that they cannot rely on their personalities alone
to motivate their clients, a sound knowledge of exercise
behaviour is also essential.

Before confronting the problem of exercise dropout,

one must take note of some basic facts about exercise
behaviour and adherence. Like other behaviours, it is
complex and multifaceted.

To the exercise instructor a client’s behaviour may

appear illogical or even irrational - perhaps the instructor
and client do not share the same perspectives, attitudes
and expectations regarding exercise. For example,
Sonstroem, in his early research, found that regular
exercisers had different attitudes from those who
had problems with exercise maintenance. Dedicated
exercisers negate the idea that exercise requires a great
deal of discipline, takes up valuable
time, tires the individual unduly and is unpleasant. They
also have a stronger belief that exercise makes them
feel good psychologically.

It follows that understanding exercise behaviour is not

simple and exercise personnel must be prepared to
accept the fact that motivating the public to exercise
entails more than encouragement, a friendly smile or a
free T-shirt.

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2.4.6 Termination
This refers to old behaviour now being terminated and NOTES
new behaviour being firmly established. The process of
change is now complete.

A number of behavioural processes have been developed

to help clients move through these stages:
• Promoting self-efficacy
• Decisional balance - weighing up pros and cons
• Fitness testing
• Positive relationships - help and support from others
• Counter-conditioning - replace negative with
positive habit
• Reinforcement management - rewards for
maintaining exercise behaviour
• Relapse prevention and stimulus control – identify
and avoid situations that encourage inactivity
• Promoting adherence

2.5 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO EXERCISE

DROPOUT

2.5.1 Outside Commitments and Attractions

Exercise does not take place in isolation; it has to
compete with other priorities and responsibilities in the
lives of clients - after all, there is a life outside the health
club. Exercise adherence weakens when the investment
of time, energy and money in exercising does not
compensate for missed opportunities and neglected
commitments.

The role of family, friends and business associates

in the lives of clients should not be underestimated.
Spouse support and approval appear to be particularly
important for a husband or wife’s adherence to an
exercise programme (Franklin, 1984; Wankel 1985).
Regular attendance at an exercise facility can even be
a cause of conflict when viewed as a potential threat to
the non-active spouse (Gavin 1992). Fitness practitioners
may find it worthwhile to involve the spouse to some
extent in the programme. Husbands/wives could, for
example, be encouraged to attend health talks or social
functions and/or to take out “family membership” at the
club.

Other examples of barriers that may lead to exercise

dropout are inclement weather, excessive travel
commitments, injury and change of job or relocating.
A change of trainer can be the final straw that leads
to dropping out. Instructors should prepare clients for
these potential problems and offer valid suggestions as
how to deal with them.
Difficulties such as those mentioned, underline one of
the most important jobs of the fitness practitioner –
encouraging the client to take responsibility for his/her
own health and fitness in a balanced manner despite
other attractions and distractions.
2.5.2 Clients Have Their Own Hierarchy of Needs and
Values
The more they value exercise, the less inclined they
will be to allow unnecessary social and environmental
barriers to stand in the way. In other words they will
not be guilty of setting up self-constructed barriers to
exercise.
2.5.3 Exercise Is Not Always Rewarding
Exercise is voluntary, clients have the choice of
continuing or dropping out of a programme. They are
likely to persist if the programme offers something of

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value. Unfortunately, some people find that exercise of positive feedback or reinforcement, inflexible exercise
offers few short-term rewards, in fact it can be negative, goals, poor exercise leadership, etc.
unpleasant and punishing. People hear that exercise is
supposed to make one more energetic and adds zest 2.5.7 The Client Wants to Feel Good When Exercising
and vitality to life, yet, instead of feeling refreshed after A programme that initially is too taxing may be
exercise, they feel tired and may have counterproductive. Obviously perceptions of intensity
even less energy than usual to fulfil their daily tasks. not only differ from person to person, but also depend
Under such circumstances exercise becomes a form of on the individual’s current fitness level. In order to
selfinduced punishment. sort out these individual differences, clients should be
encouraged to cultivate an awareness of how hard they
Solomon (1984:83) says: are exercising. Borg (1985) hypothesised that people
There’s nothing wrong with the experience of those who are fairly accurate in their perceptions of work intensity.
hate to exercise and there’s nothing inherently right After many years of research he developed the Rate
about the experience of those who love to. To assume of Perceived Exertion Scale (RPE) (See Borg’s Scale of
that all people will get pleasure from what pleases you Perceived Exertion in Module 2 Chapter 2).
is as foolish as assuming that your children will eat their
spinach because you happen to love it. Your delight and During cardiovascular work the client should use the
their distaste are equally valid, and equally arguable. scale to estimate how hard he/she is exercising – it is
recommended that an individual should exercise at a
2.5.4 The Result of Exercise is Not Immediately rate of 12 to 16 points on the RPE scale.
Noticeable
It may take months or even years to reach certain goals
NOTES
- there is evidence that adults do not benefit optimally
from an exercise programme prior to completing twenty
or more weeks of exercise. It is therefore not surprising
that it is difficult to motivate clients to suffer for the sake
of something that they may only gain in a few months
or a year’s time. Many clients are “now” orientated, they
have unreasonable demands and expect too much too
soon from the exercise programme. These clients want
quick results and become impatient and dissatisfied
when they do not make significant progress in a few
sessions.

2.5.5 Client’s Needs Are Not Satisfied

Research has shown that one of the main reasons for
dissatisfaction with exercise programmes is that the
client’s needs are not met. One of the basic principles of
motivation is that each client is unique. If a skinny client
wants to build bigger muscles and sees no change, he/
she is bound to drop out. On the other hand, if an obese
client wants to lose weight and fails, he/she will also drop
out. The client asks him/herself: “Is this hard work and
punishment really worthwhile?” If the answer is negative
the programme is producing nothing of value for him/
her – it does not satisfy his/her needs. Although most
clients have faith in the advantages of exercise, some
may believe that they are not the exercising type. Their
clumsy attempts at exercising and their lack of progress
reinforce this perception.

2.5.6 Programme Factors and Non-Compliance

Programme factors can also contribute to non-
adherence. Offering exercise programmes at
inconvenient times and inaccessible venues makes
it easier for a client to drop out, especially if there
are other distractions. Additional programme factors
that can accelerate drop-out are excessive cost, high
intensity exercise, lack of variety, lack of enjoyment, lack

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Researchers, Rejeski and Kenney, point out that novices
may find it difficult to use this scale and recommend
that clients rather use the conventional measurement
of heart rate at the beginning stages of an exercise
programme.
They suggest that clients use the RPE-scale to monitor
personal exertion once they have gained a fair amount
of exercise experience. Although the RPE scale is effective
for most people, problems may be encountered with
Type A individuals who may deny or suppress feelings
of discomfort in order to exercise maximally.
Trainers serve as role models and must practice
what they preach. They should be well prepared,
knowledgeable, punctual and dependable. They should
be enthusiastic, positive, well groomed, and have a
concern for their own health. Obviously smoking or
poor eating habits create a bad impression.
Professionalism extends to relations with clients and
colleagues. Fitness instructors should show respect for
fellow trainers’ work and should never contradict one
another in public. If there is any disagreement it must
be sorted out in private.

Because the RPE-scale does not indicate feelings during Relations with clients should be kept on a professional
exertion, Rejeski and Kenney developed the Feeling basis. A genuine interest in, and concern for, the client’s
Scale - an eleven-point scale with a range of feelings wellbeing should be shown. One of the most important
between +5 to –5: things is to know clients by name and, by word and
body language, show interest and “accessibility” to
Feeling Scale clients. The trainer must show a willingness to listen
+5 Very good and to help. Trainers should also be available before
+4 and after training sessions, which means being there
+3 Good ahead of time and providing for some time after the
+2 session for discussion.
+1 Slightly good
0 Neutral
-1 Slightly bad
NOTES
-2
-3 Bad
-4
-5 Very bad

Clients are asked to record a number on the scale that

indicates how they feel about the exercise at a specific
moment. This can provide useful information about
boredom or dissatisfaction with exercise. Rejeski and
Kenney recommend using both the RPE and Feeling
scales. Clients should be encouraged to make two or
three recordings during an exercise session, evenly
spacing them throughout the session.

2.5.8 The Fitness Practitioner and Non-Compliance

The fitness practitioner is the most critical variable in
adherence to formal exercise programmes. Despite
this, many trainers ignore the phenomenon of non-
compliance while others put the blame solely on the
client. Some trainers are truly concerned and try hard to
motivate exercisers, but become disillusioned when they
find that trying harder does not automatically ensure
success. In fact, overenthusiasm of the trainer may
actually accelerate non-compliance.

2.6 THE ROLE OF THE FITNESS INSTRUCTOR/

TRAINER
2.6.1 Professionalism
Clients expect their fitness trainers to be professional.
The first noticeable sign of professionalism is outward
appearance. The trainer should be well groomed and
wear a uniform of some sort. This is an important aspect
of marketing and public relations.

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Trainers should avoid becoming involved in the personal
lives of clients. While it is possible that they may form
friendships outside the gym with certain clients, they
should remember that, in the health club, there are
many others who have a claim on their guidance and
attention. Obviously when giving personal one-on-one
training, the exercising client must have the trainer’s full
attention.
It is important to have respect for the privacy of the
client during training sessions. It is good practice to
refrain from touching clients unnecessarily. Also, when
correcting a client it is recommended that the instructor
should first ask, “May I show you something?” By doing
this the instructor indicates a willingness to assist, but at
the same time respects the client’s right to privacy.
2.6.2 The Educational Role of the Fitness Trainer
As long ago as 1974, Wilmore highlighted the two
characteristics of a successful exercise programme.
Firstly education – clients should be educated about why
and how they should exercise and, secondly, motivation
– clients must be motivated to persist with a programme.
Although in the past there has been little empirical
evidence to support the effectiveness of public
education regarding the benefits of exercise, the US
Surgeon General’s Report released in July 1996 served
as a call to action for sedentary Americans as it outlined
the numerous health risks that arise from living without
physical activity. A public awareness telephone survey
conducted in 1997 revealed that 32% of Americans
had heard of the report and that as a result more than
30million adults (about 26%) felt encouraged to exercise.
the client. This is a difficult, but worthwhile challenge for
the enthusiastic and caring trainer as there are many
indications that the encouragement of others (fellow
exercisers and trainers) is of critical importance in
adherence.
Active promotion of exercise as a prerequisite for healthy
living, reassurance, acknowledgement of achievement
and making the exercise session enjoyable is all the
responsibility of the trainer. To automatically assume that
the client is knowledgeable is irresponsible. New clients
are often naive when joining a fitness programme, they
need to be informed
about basic principles of exercise and healthy living.
Examples of topics that could be covered with new (and
even existing) clients are:
• Burning calories through exercise
• Intensity of exercise
• Frequency, duration and types of exercise
• The need for warming up, stretching and cooling
down
• Exercise myths
• Suitable clothing and shoes
• Diet
• Exercising when unwell
• Smoking and alcohol consumption
NOTES

The success of the Surgeon General’s Report probably

lies in the fact that it did not only promote physical
activity because it is “good for you”, but it focused on the
role of exercise in disease prevention, making specific
reference to lack of exercise leading to premature death
and a greater risk of developing a large array of diseases.
Although the problem still remains, a marked increase in
health club memberships has proved the value of this
type of education and awareness campaign in recent
years.

2.6.3 The Motivational Role of the Fitness Practitioner

The Report also published a list of factors that
consistently influence physical activity patterns among
adults and young people. This includes confidence in
one’s ability to engage in regular physical activity (e.g.
self-efficacy), enjoyment of physical activity, support
from others, positive beliefs concerning the benefits
of physical activity and lack of perceived barriers to
being physically active. This provides clear direction to
the fitness practitioner in his/her role as educator and
motivator. Although self-motivation is the cornerstone
of exercise adherence, continued motivation is as much
the responsibility of the trainer as it is the problem of

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Bulletin boards and newsletters are useful tools in the
educational process. The relevant newsletters should be
short and easy to read. Lectures and panel discussions
could be arranged.
Negative connotations ascribed to exercise should also
be addressed, for example, the notion that exercise is
too time consuming. It should be explained to the client
that a moderate amount of time spent exercising is time
well spent, that a fitter person functions more efficiently
and that fitness is a good investment for a productive
lifestyle.
Exercise compliance should be the bottom line for the
fitness trainer because the positive effects of an exercise
programme depend on sustained compliance. A major
goal should be to assist clients to make exercise a habit
and a way of life.
A good trainer promotes intrinsic as well as extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to a person’s
inherent or internal motivation, i.e. personal satisfaction
or self-actualisation, while extrinsic motivation involves
outside demands and concerns the motivation to persist
in order to gain some external reward. There is no doubt
that both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation is important
in maintaining exercise behaviour. However, extrinsic
motivation has two disadvantages.
accommodate differences in priorities on an individual
basis. A factor to be taken into account is that different
needs and priorities are associated with different life
stages. The goals and motivations of young clients are
obviously different from those of older age groups.
Clients in their twenties or early thirties are generally
concerned with establishing themselves and reinforcing
their individual identities. In many instances, exercising
serves as an ego-booster. It is also used to counter
stress. For this age group it is usually important to
control body mass and to look attractive. From the
mid-thirties to the fifties clients consolidate their family
and occupational lives. They perceive exercise as a
means to promote health, productivity and reduce
stress. Information on health is especially important
for this group. Unfortunately financial interests and job
demands often interfere with exercise adherence. The
over sixty-age group exercises to maintain the body and
slow down physical decline. They enjoy exercise sessions
and derive social benefits from them. Their family and
financial affairs are less demanding and they often have
more time for exercising. This age group provides an
important market that is not usually adequately tapped.
NOTES

Firstly, exercise behaviour often ceases if the extrinsic

rewards are not forthcoming. Secondly, promises of
extrinsic rewards are often perceived by the client as a
form of manipulation by the exercise agency, the client
might get the impression that there is an ulterior motive
for the promised rewards - such as the gym’s profits. In
practice it is better to offer extrinsic rewards as tokens
of feedback rather than control. For example, the
client should be rewarded when he/she has reached a
certain goal or level of fitness rather than for attending
a predetermined number of exercise sessions. Another
point to keep in mind is that what exercise personnel
regard as a reward may not have the same value for
the client - not everyone values a T-shirt.

Despite its drawbacks, the use of extrinsic rewards

should not be abandoned. The best line of action is
to maintain a balance between extrinsic and intrinsic
rewards. Extrinsic rewards are especially valuable in the
initial stages of a programme when praise and feedback
are more effective than group reinforcement.

2.6.4 Special Groups and the Role of the Fitness

Practitioner
Most people have similar needs, but different individuals
attach different values or priorities to these universal
needs.

If the trainer understands this, he/she can use a variety

of motivational strategies to cover common needs and

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 Exercise Psychology
Apart from the different age groups there are those
who join exercise programmes for medical reasons, for
example, clients with orthopaedic problems. They need
special guidance and should be warned that there may
be a degree of discomfort when they start to exercise.
They should be encouraged to accept the prospect
that an adapted programme implies slow progress and
requires patience, dedication and persistence, but that
the end rewards are great.
Cardiac patients represent another special group. Such
clients are often strongly motivated to persist with an
exercise programme, but are sometimes discouraged
by minor pains that cause them anxiety. Reassurance
and knowledge of co-operation and communication
between physician and trainer are important factors
here.
Obese clients need special consideration so that they
are not embarrassed when they exercise. Care should
be taken that they only attempt exercises that they can
manage fairly comfortably. In their case, it is especially
important to make exercising fun because they usually
find it very demanding and consequently experience it
NOTES
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as stressful. These clients are often self-conscious and it
demands courage to join an exercise facility where the
emphasis is on lean and healthy bodies.
Unfit clients need special care. They are generally the
group with the most misconceptions about exercise. If the
exercise experience is unfamiliar, they must be informed
about what is expected of them. Unfit ex-sports people
post a special challenge. They often expect to start
where they left off twenty years ago and may adopt
an attitude that will not only lead to frustration and
disappointment but also to injury. An important, but less
obvious group, is made up of those who enjoy exercise.
Trainers sometimes neglect this group. Their dedication
should not be overestimated or taken for granted. They
deserve as much attention as all the other clients.
2.6.5 Individual Needs and the Role of the Fitness
Practitioner
As previously emphasised, clients are likely to stay with
a programme if they feel that their personal needs are
being satisfied. But what are the needs and expectations
of clients? The best way to find out is to ask them. This
involves more than a casual chat. Personal needs should
be determined in a more purposeful manner by asking
the right questions (in an interview).
In the first instance the fitness trainer should communicate
a commitment to the client’s exercise needs. This is one
of the reasons for a private interview with prospective
clients. The instructor should show enthusiasm for
statements by the client that indicate even a hint of
intrinsic motivation - after all one of the instructor’s
major goals is to enhance intrinsic motivation.
People joining a health club are often dissatisfied with
aspects of their lives - the trainer should find out what
brought them to the club and what they expect to get
from exercise. In addition - how will exercise fit into their
daily schedules and when do they intend exercising?
Those who report that they plan to exercise when they
have time are potential drop-outs.
The clients exercise beliefs should be determined. What
do they think about exercise and how much confidence
do they have in their ability to reach their goals?
Attention should be given to social support systems
(friends, family and spouse) and other factors that
might compete with an exercise programme. These
are important factors in exercise adherence and the
client should deal with them before embarking on the
programme.
The trainer should try to discover how the client reacts to
physical stress and frustration. He/she should ask about
previous experiences. Have there been past failures?
People who are not used to exercising tend to overreact
to physical exertion. Reassure clients that the no pain, no
gain approach has no place in the exercise programme.
20
 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

2.6.6 Exercise Adherence and the Role of the Fitness he/she will come to realise that there are many other
Practitioner advantages to pursuing an active lifestyle.
It is advisable to give clients some of the responsibility for
exercising by letting them make certain decisions about An obvious means of combating non-compliance is to
how to tackle the programme. Research has found that emphasise the positive health aspects of exercise. In
health club members who felt that they had a choice of addition, the instructor should point out the negative
exercise activity had higher attendance scores than the long-term health risks of an inactive lifestyle and
“no choice” control group. Self-monitoring by the client indicate how the programme offered helps combat
also helps place him/her in control. Logging of exercise these negative factors (much in the same way as the
experience can serve as a useful motivational and self- US Surgeon General’s Report).
management tool because it bridges the gap between
hard work and distant outcomes, such as fitness and A useful tool is the so-called balance sheet. The client
weight loss. draws up a personal list of positive and negative aspects
of regular exercise. The positive outcomes of exercise
During the initial interview the client should be exposed will almost always outweigh the negative ones, thus
to important basic facts about exercising because such reinforcing resolve.
information can shape a client’s commitment to an
exercise programme. A good case in point is that the time NOTES
necessary to make progress differs according to age. It
has, for example been determined that for each 10 years
after the age of 30, it takes 40% more time to adapt to
exercise. Therefore, it takes a 50-year-old 27 exercise
sessions to achieve what a 30 year old can achieve in
15 sessions. For each year over 30 the individual loses
about 1% muscle mass. VO2 max declines at such a rate
that a 50 year old has about 70% of the capacity of a 20
year old (Gavin 1992). This is hard for some older people
to accept, but knowledge can promote persistence
and eliminate frustration and disappointment, because
unrealistic expectations are removed right from the
outset. At the same time clients should be strongly
discouraged from comparing themselves with others.

Fitness instructors do their clients a great disservice by

creating the impression that it is easy to maintain regular
exercise behaviour. They should demonstrate empathy
by warning the client that it is normal for commitment
to exercise to falter. One or two relapses should not
be interpreted as “I’m just not the exercise type”. The
instructor should point out that it is hard to change from
a relatively sedentary lifestyle to an active one. Having
been warned, the client is prepared for possible lapses.
Exercisers should be given practical tips in this regard.
They should be encouraged to reserve specific days
and times for exercise. In this way family and friends will
know that it is exercise time and the client does not have
to make a decision, but automatically goes to the facility
at the appointed hour.

Advise the client to create reminders for exercising, for

example putting exercise gear in a bag the night before
exercising not only serves as a reminder but it also
enhances commitment.

One of the problems leading to lack of exercise adherence

is the failure to see exercising as a way of life rather
than a temporary solution to a temporary problem.
For instance if a client joins an exercise programme to
lose weight, hopefully, with time and encouragement,

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Goal setting is important for prospective clients. The
instructor should ensure that goals are not unreasonably
optimistic. Disappointment is a major reason for
quitting. In order to avoid disappointment and failure,
goals should be flexible rather than rigid. Although it is
advisable to set both short and long-term goals, goals
that force a client to set a very rapid rate of progression
(for example weekly goals) have a greater potential for
failure. Long-term goals (evaluated for instance at 6
weekly intervals) offer the client more flexibility in daily
and weekly performance. Another important aspect to
remember is that clients should set progress goals as
well as outcome goals. Instead of merely striving for
outcomes, such as losing a certain amount of weight or
reaching a certain level of fitness, progress goals should
be set, such as faithfully performing specific activities. The
client can, for example, set himself the goal of exercising
for 45 minutes three times a week for a month. Setting
goals seems like serious business and care should be
taken not to take the fun out of exercising. It is advisable
to keep plans simple at the beginning by starting out
slowly, setting modest goals and doing things that the
client enjoys.
All goals should be SMART: SPECIFIC, MEASURABLE,
APPROPRAITE, REALISTIC AND TIME SPECIFIC
2.7 THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ADVANTAGE OF A GOOD
PHYSICAL SETTING
2.7.1 General Impression
First impressions are important. How inviting and
pleasant does the facility appear? What is the standard
of cleanliness and the condition and functional state of
the equipment? Is the personal appearance of the staff
a good advertisement?
gymnasium, as you need to give all your attention to the
client at this time.
Displaying the qualifications, diplomas and certificates
of the trainer on the wall can also foster a professional
atmosphere.
2.7.3 Convenience of Location
Physical location also affects general exercise
compliance. The exercise facility should be easily
accessible and convenient for the client. It should be
near his/her work or home and there should be ample
parking facilities. Although convenience itself is not a
motivating factor and does not guarantee adherence,
it can be a limiting factor and is often reported as the
reason for dropping out. Obviously it would be more
convenient to exercise at home or at the workplace, but
most people fail to persist with such routines, indicating
once again that there are factors other than the pursuit
of fitness that influence exercise behaviours.
2.7.4 Peripheral Attractions
Because exercise is not the most important factor in the
lives of most clients, marketing strategies are often used
to make it more appealing. Peripheral services such
as saunas and whirlpools can help attract clients and
their values should not be underestimated. The average
person is attracted to the more appealing routines.
Different group fitness activities, games and a variety
of exercise options are generally more appealing than
programmes that rely on one type of activity such as
NOTES

Locker rooms are also important. They should be clean,

but at the same time should not be a place where clients
linger. People should be discouraged from eating and
smoking in locker rooms.

An atmosphere should be created in the health club

that is conducive to exercise. Pictures depicting exercise
activity can be placed on the walls, mirrors can focus
attention on the activity. It should be remembered that
some people, like obese people, may not like too many
mirrors, therefore, mirrors should be available, but a
completely mirror lined room is not always the best
option.

2.7.2 Special Place for Interviews

In many instances, not enough attention is given to the
setting for ongoing interviews with clients. A private area
is important because some clients put a high premium
on privacy. This applies especially to aspects such as
evaluation, e.g. measuring skinfolds, etc. Apart from
casual, semi-public interviews being unprofessional,
many clients will not readily divulge personal information
when there are other people present. Similarly feedback
after evaluation should be given in private and not in the

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jogging or callisthenics.
As stated previously, a factor to bear in mind is that
many people join exercise programmes for reasons
other than simply exercising – they want to meet others.
Fitness instructors should not underestimate the social
dimensions of their facilities. The total programme
should offer more than just promises of health. It should
market fun, enjoyment and an opportunity to be with
other people. It is sound strategy to organise special
events or social functions for clients and their families.
It is a good idea to offer special on-site programmes
such as stress management, weight control, cholesterol
testing, etc.
2.8 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Adherence is promoted when the client exercises in a
small group as opposed to exercising alone or in a large
group. Clients should be encouraged to have a regular
exercise partner. The individual is inclined to fulfil his
commitment towards a friend more faithfully than his
commitment towards himself. Behaviour contracting
is a motivational strategy that has proved successful
in some cases. This involves an agreement between
two people. A wife could, for example, offer to give up
chocolates for a week if her spouse exercises for a week.
A feeling of belonging can enhance compliance. One
of the best initial ways to encourage this feeling of
belonging is to welcome and introduce new members to
other clients. T-shirts designed exclusively for a specific
facility can also strengthen this sense of belonging
Obviously it is important to provide ample positive
feedback. Positive reinforcement occurs when clients
are complimented on their progress. The Trainer
should always aim for personal encouragement and
reinforcement. Knowing clients by name and showing
them that they were missed when absent enhances
compliance. The fitness instructor should initiate
absentee follow-up (e.g. written notes or telephone
calls) when several unexplained absences occur in
succession. If clients do return they should be welcomed
back and their programme adjusted. The trainer should
be careful, however, that he/she does not take over the
client’s responsibility or pamper him too much.
more is much better. Three times per week is enough
for the average person. Benefits diminish after a certain
point is reached. Over-exercising merely increases the
probability of injury. Unless the client is training for a
specific sport, high intensity exercise is unnecessary.
The process of shaping can get the individual involved
in an exercise programme. Shaping is a process
whereby the client is gradually led towards the desired
behaviour. This process implies a slow introduction
to the programme. The first session should involve
an interview and a submaximal test. At the next
session the client is introduced to the apparatus and
the plans for the following three or four sessions. At
the end of the first week he takes another look at his
programme. Proceeding gradually in this way increases
the possibility of success as the client gains a feeling
of accomplishment and enhanced self-confidence. The
programme should not be too difficult at first but should
nevertheless be challenging.
Clients should feel good after exercising. If they experience
it as stressful or boring they will have difficulty in staying
with the programme. As stated previously some clients
find exercise more stressful than others. Disassociation
or masking the exercise by playing music is one way to
alleviate stress and boredom. In addition the instructor
should not focus too much attention on the execution of
the exercise per se. Instead clients should be reminded
of the calories
NOTES

Clients should have the opportunity to choose from

various options. Variety is important. In addition they
should be encouraged to participate in a variety of
activities even if these are not offered by the exercise
facility.

Injury can lead to dropping out, but most injuries can be

avoided if moderate exercise is prescribed. The majority
of people do not need to exercise more than 5 times per
week for about 45 minutes at a time. Because exercise
is beneficial it does not necessarily mean that much

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE 23

 Exercise Psychology CHAPTER 2: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY & PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

they are burning and how pleasant it is to get into CONCLUSION

exercise clothes and to relax.
Before a client starts a programme he/she should be
made aware that he/she is likely to experience some
discomfort after his/her initial exercise sessions. He/
she needs special encouragement and reassurance
that things will improve and that it takes time to learn to
enjoy the benefits of exercise.
Regular evaluation is another good way of maintaining
motivation. The fitness instructor should also
acknowledge special days (e.g. birthdays) or personal
achievements.
Trainers are in the fortunate position of being able to
enrich peoples’ lives by offering: social interaction,
excitement, ego-satisfaction, feelings of self-worth and
competence, feelings of belonging, escape or time-out,
relaxation, knowledge, prestige, and happiness. Trainers
should be committed to offering training sessions that
are fun, rewarding, safe and educational and meet
the individual needs of their clients. They should also
always strive to improve their own skill and knowledge.
Professional growth can be enhanced by reading
relevant literature, attending seminars and workshops
and keeping abreast of the latest trends in the health
and fitness arena.

2.9 SPORTS AND EXERCISE VS PHYSICAL ACTIVITY A good trainer should be enthusiastic and motivational
Physical activity is defined as any movement or action – as well as motivated – burnout as a result of boredom
by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure. can be a major problem for exercise personnel when
This is not limited to sports and exercise but can include exercises become boring and repetitive. Apart from
occupational labour, domestic tasks or active transport. taking time off, the trainer can combat this type of
Exercise involves planned structured repetitive burnout by cultivating a sincere interest in the client.
movements with the aim of improving physical fitness. Forming a type of exercise partnership with the client
Sport is a subset of exercise where a person, either and cultivating a sharper focus on the client can make
as an individual or as part of a team, takes part in a the task of a trainer more meaningful.
structured activity that is governed by a set of rules and
regulations with the specific aim to meet a defined goal.
CHAPTER 2 ONLINE ASSIGNMENTS
Physical activity, exercise and sport can all contribute
to health improvements by improving cardiorespiratory
fitness (Khan et al., 2012). All online assignments are available on the HFPA
Regular physical activity has been frequently and Online Learning Platform.
consistently associated with improved health and
wellness. The figure below shows the relationship To access this site go to: www.hfpa.co.za
between the risk of selected illness and the number of
hours of physical activity a week (Khan et al., 2012).
NOTES
All-cause mortality
Depression, Breast cancer
1 Dementia

Colon Cancer
Relative risk

Diabetes

0.5
Hip Fracture Cardiovascular disease,
coronary heart disease,
stroke

0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Hours per week
Figure 5.3 Relationship of physical activity and risk of illness
(Khan et al., 2012)

One of the tools that can be used to keep people

active or maintain their dedication to their exercise and
training programs is the use of sport to promote healthy
living. Sporting bodies and federations, as well as sports
celebrities, can be used to run campaigns encouraging
an active lifestyle and also educating both children and
adults on the benefits of an active lifestyle (Khan et al.,
2012)

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE 24

 HIGHER CERTIFICATE IN EXERCISE SCIENCE

EXERCISE
PSYCHOLOGY

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