BIOLOGY 2.

Connective Tissue – connect

Functions of CT:
a. Protection – skin, bone
ANIMAL CYTOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY *osteoporosis
↓ ↓
Cytology – “cells”
bones porous (marupok)
- branch of biology concerned with the
*osteocytes – cell of the bones
structure and function of cells
- from the prefix cyto, which means “cell” and is + in – protein ; ase – enzymes ; itis – inflammation
derived from the Greek word kytos, meaning “hollow
b. Cushion – adds protection to the
vessel” or “container”
internal organs
Histology – “tissues” c. Body Form – bones:
- branch of biology which studies the  collagen
microscopic anatomy of biological tissues  elastin
 keratin
d. Fat Storage – lipids → adipose
Organizational Level adipocyte – cell of lipids
- main functions are to store
1. Cell – basic unit of life
energy & for thermoregulation
2. Tissue – collection of cells having the same
e. Body Defense – skin, WBC
function
f. Transport – blood
3. Organs – collection of tissues with the same
4 Components of blood:
function
a) Plasma – liquid portion of the
4. Organ System – collection of organs with the
blood ; 70% H2O ; nutrients
same goal
and wastes
5. Organism – also known as an individual
b) RBC – “Erythrocytes” ; O2 →
- an individual animal, plant, or
Hemoglobin → Fe → Ferrous
single-celled life form
Sulfate
4 Types of Tissues c) WBC – “Leukocytes” ; body
defense
1. Epithelial Tissue – protect and cover d) Platelets – “Thrombocytes” ;
2 Types of Layering of ET: blood clotting and bleeding
a. Simple – single (1)
b. Stratified – two or more 3. Muscular Tissue
*Pseudo Stratified – one layer of cells but arranged as myocytes – cells of the muscle tissue
stratified .↓ ↓
3 Types of Shape of ET: muscles cells
a. Squamous – flat ; main function is it
serves as a barrier 2 proteins found in muscle:
- found in linings of organs 1. Actin – thin filaments
b. cuboidal – cube ; capable of secretion 2. Myosin – thick filaments
and absorption
+ Myocardial Infection – scientific term for heart attack
- liver and intestine
c. columnar – elongated ; capable of
secretion and absorption
- liver and intestine
 NUMBER PRESENCE 1. Cephalic / Cranial – head
TYPES ACTION OF OF 2. Frontal – forehead
NUCLEUS STRIATION
3. Occipital – lower back of the head
Skeletal voluntary multi with 4. Orbital eyes
Cardiac involuntary single with
5. Nasal - nose
for the
6. Otic - ear
heart
7. Buccal - cheeks
Smooth involuntary single without
in different 8. Mental - chin
internal 9. Oral - mouth
organs 10. Cervical - neck
11. Acromial – shoulder
12. Axillary - armpit
Presence of Striation – have lots of amount of actin and 13. Pectoral - chest
myosin 14. Mammary - breast
4. Nervous Tissue - neurons = sends impulse that 15. Sternal - sternum
are signals which carry information 16. Abdominal - abdomen
17. Umbilical – navel
Axon terminal button – end line of axon 18. Vertebral – spinal column
Reflex – capability to respond in a certain stimuli 19. Lumbar – lower back
Soma – cell body that carries other part of the cell 20. Brachial - arm
Dendrite – receives and sends impulse 21. Antebrachial - forearm
Nucleus – control center of the cell 22. Cubital - elbow
Axon – pathway of impulse 23. Antecubital – front of elbow
Myelin Sheath - protects, thermoregulation 24. Carpal - wrist
*Synapse – (site) way on how neurons communicate 25. Palmar - palm Manual - hand
26. Digits - fingers
27. Coxal - hips
28. Femoral - thigh
BODY TERMS
29. Patellar – knee
30. Popliteal – back of knee
31. Crural – leg
32. Sural – calf
33. Tarsal – wrist of the foot
34. Pedal - foot
35. Plantar - sole

DIRECTIONAL TERMS – use to locate organs/parts with

respect to a reference point

a. Superior & Inferior

↓ ↓
upper lower
b. Anterior & Posterior
↓ ↓
front back
c. Medial & Lateral
↓ ↓
towards the middle away from the middle
 d. Proximal & Distal Abdominal Cavity – upper track of urinal system
↓ ↓ - digestive
near the origin far from the origin
Regions:
e. Superficial & Deep
↓ ↓
towards the surface away from the surface RIGHT EPIGASTRIC LEFT
HYPOCHONDRIAL ↓ ↓ HYPOCHONDRIAL
↓ ↓ near stomach
BODY PLANES below chondrion the
the
a. Coronal/Frontal Plane – divides the body front
and back
b. Sagittal Plane – divides the body right and left RIGHT LUMBAR UMBILICAL LEFT LUMBAR
1. Midsagittal – divides the body equal right
and left (symmetrical)
2. Parasagittal – divides the body uneven right RIGHT ILIAC HYPOGASTRIC LEFT ILIAC
and left (asymmetrical) ↓ below the
c. Axial/Transverse – divides the body into ileum stomach
superior and inferior

Cartilage – also known as chondrion

BODY CAVITIES – spaces of the body which hold organs - prevents friction from one bone to another

Chondrocytes – cells of cartilage

SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

Chest/ 1. Respiratory System

2. Digestive System
Vertebral/
3. Excretory System
4. Cardiovascular System
5. Endocrine System
6. Nervous System
7. Musculoskeletal System
Peritoneal/ 8. Integumentary System
9. Immune System
10. Reproductive System

Respiratory System – respiration and breathing

Thoracic Cavity Respiration – exchange of gases in a cellular level

a. Mediastinum – middle most part of thoracic Breathing – mechanism of taking in and out of carbon
cavity dioxide
b. Pleural – protects and holds the lungs
Digestive System – breakdown of food
*pleurisy – symptoms
- absorb nutrients
*pleural effusion – may tubig
- excretion
c. Pericardial – covering of the heart
↓ ↓

covering heart
Excretory System 78% Nitrogen

Excretion Secretion 1% Carbon Dioxide & minute gases

↓ ↓
*Body is multicellular
wastes and toxins hormones
O2 – Oxygen
Cardiovascular System – also known as transport . – function as fuel/ burns
(blood) system of the body
4 GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM
- circulation
1. Cutaneous Respiration
Endocrine System
. ↓ Cutaneous System – skin respiration
ductless Exocrine- w/ ducts ↓
Nervous System – signals impulses pertains to skin
- reflexes
- has the ability to respond/react - Breathing through skin

Musculoskeletal System – movement Ex. frog, earthworm

Integumentary System – system of the body that is on 2. Tracheal System

surface Tracheal System
- skin, hair, nails
↓
*skin- largest organ
passage way
Immune System – body defense
spiracles – “tiny holes”
Microbes – short term for microorganism which
can be seen under the microscope spiracles → trachea → tracheoles

Bacteria – collective term for prokaryotes, pathogens…. ↓

+ pathogens – harmful bacteria gas exchange

+ non-pathogenic – yakult 3. Gill System

+ germs – origin of different microbes Gill System

.↓
Reproductive System – sexual & asexual
“lamellae” – collection of gills
2 TYPES OF SPERM:
Operculum – protects the gills ; (body structure)
1. Gynosperm – acidophilic → x cell = girl
2. Anodsperm – alkaline loving → y cell = boy 4. Lung System / Avian Lung System

Ornithology – study of birds

respiratory cardiovascular Ichthyology – study of fish

↑ ↑

THE NEED TO RESPIRE AND EXCHANGE ESSENTIAL Anterior Posterior

Parabronchi
GASES Sacs Sacs

Air – mixture of different gases

21% Oxygen
*Unidirectional Flow 3. Blood Vessel

Parabronchi – connects the anterior and posterior a. arteries – away from the heart ; O2, blood
b. arterioles – small arteries
Mammalian Lung System
c. veins – towards the heart ; deoxygenated blood
 Nose & mouth d. venules – small veins
 Pharynx or throat e. capillaries – connection of arteries and veins
 Trachea – voice box - site of exchange of materials
 Trachea – windpipe
 Bronchus
 Bronchioles MECHANISM
 Alveoli Vasolidation – widening of blood vessel
 Lungs
Vasoconstriction – narrowing of the blood vessel

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
PARTS OF BLOOD VESSEL:
1. Circulation – flow of blood in the body
2. Open Circulatory System – presence of
hemocoel & hemolymph → Lumen – space where blood flows
3. Closed Circulatory System – presence of
capillaries & blood → inner layer ; interior surface of blood
*interconnection of veins and arteries vessel
4. Single Loop – single circulation ; 2 ex. fishes
→ assists blood flow
5. Double Loop - double circulation ; 3-4 ex.
mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians → outermost layer of blood
vessel
Mammalian Circulatory System

1. Heart – the pump that pushes blood

a. Atrium – upper chamber of the heart
- entry point to the ventricle
IMMUNE SYSTEM – body defense
b. Ventricle – lower chamber → throughout
the body Immunity – state of resistance
c. Septum – division of chambers
* interatrial system Infection – invasion of an organism’s body tissues
* interventricular system Disease Disorder
d. Pericardial cavity – houses the heart
e. Aorta – largest artery ↓ ↓
f. Venacava – largest veins Particular abnormal condition disrupt the systematic
2. Blood that negatively affects the functioning or heat
1. Erythrocyte structure or function arrangement
site of synthesis: bone marrow
required hormone: erythroprotein Foreign body – something that is stuck inside you but
2. Leukocyte isn’t supposed to be there
site of synthesis: bone marrow Innate / non-specific Adaptive / specific
3. Thrombocyte immune system immune system
site of synthesis: megakaryocytes ← immune →
= immediate = slower
a. Fibrinogen – produces the fibrin
= no discrimination System = discrimination
b. Fibrin – clotting agents ; collects
= memory = memory
RBC
INNATE / NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNE SYSTEM Monocytes – inactive macrophage ; chemical
that helps damaged tissues and resolve
infections
physical defense 3. Natural killer cells – viruses and tumors
barrier mechanism - Implies natural cell death
- Punctures target cell and release perforins
↓ ↓ that allows water to pass through

first line defense second line defense Apoptosis – cell death

1. Eyes a. Leukocytes 4. Dendritic cells – messenger between innate and

2. Ears b. Antimicrobial adaptive immune system
3. Mouth proteins 5. Eosinophil – this condition must often indicates
4. Skin and responses to a parasitic infection
5. Stomach *endoparasite
6. Basophils – produces histamine to
1. Eyes – lacrimal glands → produces tears inflammatory responses and allergies ; also aid
*tears are composed of lysozyme, IgA, and IgG in ectoparasite
7. Mast cells – a migrant cell of connective tissue
2. Ears – sebaceous glands → waxy secretions (earwax) that contains many granules rich in histamine
mechanical and heparin
3. Mouth – salivary gland
digestion Heparin – prevents blood clot
↓ 8. Lymphocytes – aid in multiplication of WBC to
immune responses ; determines specificity of
digestive enzyme
the microorganism or foreign body
Salivary amylase and lactoferrin Specificity – range of pathogens

Lacto – milk (calcium)

CHEMICAL DEFENSE MECHANISMS – second line of
Ferrin – iron
defense
4. Skin – sweat glands and sebaceous glands a. Cytokines – different chemicals that signal the
- high NaCl and short chain of fatty acids cell
4 TYPES OF CYTOKINES:
5. Stomach – gastric juices, pepsin, renin, and HCl 1. Interferon – interferes viruses
HCl – activates pepsinogen → produces pepsin 2. Interleukin – interferes WBCs
3. Histamine – allergies and inflammation
Renin – produced by kidney 4. Prostaglandins – controls blood flow and
- regulates blood pressure clotting ; activates vessel para uminit
katawan pag malamig

LEUKOCYTES
SIGNALS OF INFLAMMATION
1. Macrophages – large irregular phagocytotic
WBCs 1. Rubor - redness
Phagocytotic – cell eating 2. Calor - heat
3. Tumor - swell
+ pinocytosis – cell drinking 4. Dolor - pain
5. Functio Laesa – loss of function
2. Neutrophil – engulfs and releases disinfecting
monocytes
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM - helps to mature B cell
- activates cytotoxic cells
- w/ memory
2. CD8+ cells
- w/ discrimination
- cytotoxic T cells
- slower
- lysis virus and tumor infected cell
TWO TYPES OF ADAPTIVE RESPONSES: 3. Memory T-cells
- can be a CD4+ or CD8+ that already
1. Humoral Immune Response encounters pathogens
2. Cell-Mediated Immune Response 4. Regulatory T-cell
I. Humoral Immune Response - suppressor T-cells
- maintains and regulates T-cells
 Antibodies – substances that fight and react B. B cells (bursa of fabricius)
with pathogens Originate: bone marrow
 Antigens – substances that stimulates and Site of maturation: bone marrow
triggers immune system - Before infecting the cells
TYPES OF ANTIBODIES: (immunoglobulin) – antibodies 1. Plasma B cells – secretes and release antibodies
2. Memory B cells – plasma B cell that activates
found inside the blood
pathogen
1. IgA – alpha
- Colostrum – breast milk
- respiratory and gastro intestinal
2. IgG – gamma
- activates phagocyte (macrophage and Additional (from quiz #2)
neutrophil) Gill System – gas exchange system present in fish and
3. IgM – mu marine life forms
- Activates B cell
4. IgD – delta Tracheoles – site of exchange of gases of various types
- Receptor of B cell of insects such as grasshopper
5. IgE – epsilon Cytokines – these are collective term for substances
- Activates allergy and inflammation that act as a signal to the immune system
TYPES OF ANTIGEN: Air Sacs – these allow air flight efficiency and
1. Exogenous – outside the body unidirectional airflow for birds
2. Endogenous – inside the body Immunity – state of resistance of an organism against
3. Autoantigen – stimulates auto immune pathogens
response ; ex. HIV
Infection – successful invasion of pathogens inside
MECHANISM OF ANTIBODY one’s body
1. Neutralization – preventing pathogens to bind Hydrochloric Acid – component of gastric juice that will
with your cell activate pepsinogen
2. Opsonization – tags and marks
3. Complement Activation – activating your Natural Killer Cells – cells that injects perforin and
complement system employs apoptosis

II. CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE
A. T-cells – infected cell
Originate: bone marrow
Site of maturation: thymus gland
1. CD4+ - helper T cells
Heparin - chemical substance which prevents blood
clotting in vessels
B cells – lymphocytes that are produced by the bone
marrow
Prostaglandin – substance that controls blood flow and 1. Herbivores – consume plant as food
blood clot formation 2. Carnivores – consume other flesh organism
3. Omnivores – consume both plant and animal
Renin – produced by kidneys which regulates blood
4. Detritivores – dependent w/ decaying matter
pressure
METHOD OF NUTRITION OF UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
Eosinophil – a type of WBC which is responsible for
endoparasites 1. Phagocytosis – cell-eating ; consume
macromolecules
Macrophage – these WBCs are large and exhibits 2. Pinocytosis – cell-drinking ; consume
phagocytotic activities and an activated monocyte substances
Interferons – substance that interferes with the Endocytosis – collective term of phagocytosis and
presence of viruses pinocytosis
Antibodies – specialized proteins that tag and mark 3. Receptor – mediated endocytosis ; specific
pathogens for phagocytotic defense substances ; (specialized)
T cells – lymphocytes that are produced by the thymus - LDL – low density lipoprotein (cholesterol)
gland HUMAN DIGESTION
Neutrophil – WBCs that are known to be “one-time use 4 TYPES:
only” phagocytes
1. Ingestion
Opsonization – process of tagging of antibodies to be 2. Digestion
consumed by the macrophages and neutrophils 3. Absorption
Basophil – a type of WBC that is responsible for 4. Elimination
inflammation and ectoparasites - INGESTION – consumption of food

1. Oral Cavity
ANIMAL NUTRITION AND METABOLISM - tongue
- teeth
Nutrition – process of intaking and converting food into - gums
functional unit
a. Mechanical digestion – called as “mastication”
Metabolism – different reactions inside a living
organism b. Chemical Digestion

2 TYPES OF ORGANISMS ACCORDING TO NUTRITION: - salivary amylase - enzyme that softens food

1. Autotrophs – can synthesize food by - mucin – protein inside the salivary amylase
themselves → oral cavity → pharynx – separates air & food →
Ex. plant through photosynthesis (CO2, H2O, sunlight) esophagus

*chlorophyll – a pigment 2. Esophagus – pathway of food from mouth to

stomach
*chloroplast – organelle that acts as a container for
chlorophyll *peristalsis – wavelike contraction that assists the food

2. Heterotrophs – only feeds on other organisms *bolus – food na nasstuck o dumadaan sa esophagus

Ex. humans 3. Esophageal sphincter – muscle na nag oopen & close

pag dadaan yung food papuntang stomach
CLASSIFICATION OF NUTRITION BASED ON DIETARY
REQUIREMENTS 4. Stomach – “J-shaped organ”
 - has gastric juices (HCL acid and pepsin) Defecation/Egestion – process of eliminating feces

*inside the stomach – 1. Parietal cells – produce HCL Ingestion Oral cavity to esophagus
Digestion Stomach to pyloric sphincter
2. Chief cells – produce
Absorption Small to large intestine
pepsinogen → pepsin Elimination Rectum to anus
*Pepsin – active form of pepsinogen

a. Mechanical digestion *Gastrointestinal tract – tawag sa dinadaanan ng

pagkain (pathway of food)
- churning – sound the stomach makes /
movement of stomach which mixes the food

b. Chemical digestion – gastric juices FUNCTIONAL UNITS

*from food → bolus → chyme – liquid in the stomach I.

5. Pyloric sphincter – connection of stomach to small a. Water – a natural solvent that helps your body
intestine digest and eliminate wastes

6. Small intestine – for absorption b. Carbohydrates – provide main source of energy

for the body
- duodenum – 1st
c. Proteins – essential for growth of new protoplasm
- Iejunum – 2nd and repair of worn-out body cells and tissues
- Ileum – 3rd d. Lipids – function for energy and structural support
*villi & microvilli – fingerlike structure in cell membranes

Villi - large e. Minerals – inorganic materials needed by the body

to maintain homeostasis
Microvilli – absorbing area of small intestine ;
microscopic f. Vitamins – complex organic compounds that are
not manufactured by the body
ACCESSORY ORGANS – assist, digest, and absorption
II. BUILDING BLOCKS
a. Pancreas – insulin & glucagon which regulates
blood sugar a. Protein – animo acids
b. Liver – produces bile b. Carbohydrates
Bile – greenish yellow substance that breakdowns fats c. Lipids
and alcohols
III. TYPES OF MONOSACCHARIDE
c. Gall bladder – stores bile
a. Glucose – blood sugar
Pancreas, liver, & gall bladder – neutralizes the acid
contents of chyme b. Fructose – fruit

*pancreatic juices – substance that neutralizes the acid c. Galactose – milk

7. Ileocecal Valve IV. TYPES OF DISACCHARIDE

8. Large intestine – absorbs excess water and minerals a. Sucrose – glucose + fructose

9. Rectum – storage of feces b. Lactose – glucose + galactose

Feces – waste material from food c. Maltose – glucose + glucose

10. Anus – opening of rectum where feces exit

V. GIVE THE CHEMICAL NAME nephridia – filters ng bawat somite ; excretory part ng
worm
A. a. Vitamin A – retinol
5. Insects
b. Vitamin D - calciferol
malpighian tubules – site of material exchange
c. Vitamin E – tocopherols + tocotrienols
hindgut – exit point ng material in insects
d. Vitamin K – quinones + phylloquinones

B. WATER SOLUBLE
HUMAN EXCRETION
a. Vitamin B1 - thiamine

b. Vitamin B2 - riboflavin

c. Vitamin B3 - niacin

d. Vitamin B5 – pantothenic acid

Kidney
e. Vitamin B6 - pyridoxine
Renal cortex – outermost layer
f. Vitamin B7 – biotin Renal medulla – middle layer

g. Vitamin B9 – folic acid Renal pelvic – connects kidney to ureter

Ureter – connection of kidney
h. Vitamin B12 - cobalamin
and urinary bladder
i. Vitamin C - ascorbic acid Urinary bladder – stores urine

Urethra – exit point of urine

EXCRETORY SYSTEM - for excretion
EXCRETORY PARTS
Excretion – removal of metabolic waste
1. Kidney – urine = water, urea, salt
EXCRETORY PARTS OF THE FF:
2. Large Intestine – (rectum and anus)
1. Amoeba – unicellar
- feces/stool
- a bacterium
- means of excretion = contractile vacuoles 3. Skin – urea (in the form of sweat)

Contractile vacuoles – vacuoles that are specialized for
excretion
2. Hydra/Sponge – diffusion (“spread”) (process)
- multicellular
4. Lungs – CO, water droplets
5. Liver – urea in the form of ammonia
- nitrogen – proceeds to liver then will be
converted to ammonia

3. Non-segmented worms – flame cells

ex. tapeworms/flatworms
URINATION/URINARY SYTEM
flukes – type of flatworms
1. Filtration – separating filtrate and residue
4. Segmented worms
Kidney – filtration organ

Nephrons – filtration units inside the kidney

Bowman’s capsule – container of nephrons

Glomerulus – network of capillaries inside the

somite – hati-hati ng worms nephrons
2. Reabsorption and Secretion
Renal veins
(site of secretion after reabsorption)
Reabsorption – nangyayari sa loob ng renal tubules
Renal tubules – site of reabsorption
3. Elimination
1. urination – urinary system
2. defacation – digestive system
URINATION PROBLEMS
1. Dysuria – painful urination
*dys = painful
2. Bladder Tenesmus – infection and inflammation of
the urinary bladder
3. Pollakiuria – frequent urination
4. Polyuria – large amount of urine
*poly = large
5. Oliguria – low amount of urine less than 500 mL but
greater than 100 mL
- nakakaihi pero sobrang onti
6. Anuria – low amount of urine less than 100 mL
*a = not/no
7. Nocturia/Nycturia – frequent urination during night
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM GLANDS (report)
1. Hypothalamus – master of the master gland
Main function: homeostasis – balance of the body itself
2. Adrenal Gland – also known as “master gland”
Hormones:
a. Adrenocorticotrophic – stimulates
adrenal gland
b. Thyroid – stimulating
hormone/stimulates thyroid gland
c. Luteinizing hormone & d. Follicle
Stimulating hormone – regulates sex
organs
*gonadotropin – stimulates sex hormone
d. Prolactin – regulates lactation for milk
production
e. growth hormone – growth
f. …………………….
Melanocytes – protects from UV rays
g. Anti-diuretic hormone – also known as
vasopressin
- regulates water balance and urination
h. Oxytocin – called as the “love
hormone”
- reason of uterine contraction during birth
3. Thyroid Gland – very important in the process of
metabolism
Location: below the adam’s apple
Hormones:
a. Triiodothyronine (T3) – pag naactivate thyroxine
b. Thyroxine (T4) – inactive form gland
4. Parathyroid Gland
Location: in the neck, behind the thyroid gland
Hormones:
a. parathyroid hormone – regulates calcium and
phosphate
Calcitonin – one responsible to increase calcium and
phosphate absorption
Calciferol – decreases calcium and phosphate
absorption
5. Pineal Gland – pineal from the word “pine” meaning
cone-shaped
Location: behind the third cerebral ventricle
Hormones:
a. melatonin – sleep wake
b. vasopressin
 c. aldosterone – salt regulation 4. blood cell production

6. Pancreas – shared by digestive and endocrine system 5. calcium and phosphorus storage

Hormones: b. Divisions

a. insulin – decrease blood sugar 1. axial – bones that are for protection
ex. skull, rib cage, pelvic, spinal column
b. glucagon – increase blood sugar
2. appendicular – mobility
7. Adrenal Gland
ex. femur, patella, olecranon
Hormones:
c. Bone Shapes
a. cortisol – stress hormone ; metabolism changes
1. long bones – ex. femur, humerus, ulna, radius
b. aldosterone – salt regulation (Na & K)
2. short bones – ex. phalanges
c. adrenaline – stimulates reflex response
3. irregular bones – ex. carpals, tarsals
8. Thymus Gland
4. flat bones – ex. sternum
Location: sternum
5. sesamoid bones – ex. patella, olecranon
Hormone:
d. Structure of the bone
a. Thymosin – development of T-cells
- adaptive immune response Diaphysis – body of the bone

9. Ovary Gland

Hormones:

a. estrogen – female body characteristics ; ovulation

b. progesterone – regulates main reproductive system

Epiphysis – end line of the bones
of the body
- preparation for fertilization
Spongy bone
10. Testes
Marrow – site of RBC production
Location: behind the pelvis in a pouch Compact bone – dense or
Hormones: compact part

a. testosterone – male characteristics and sex drive periosteum – outer layer

b. androgen – supports the testosterone

e. Bone connections

1. Joints – connection of 2 bones

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
2. Ligaments – act as glue
I. SKELETAL SYSTEM
3. Cartilage – shock absorber
a. Functions
4. Synovial Fluid – lubricant for smooth movement
1. framework (shape and structure)
5. Tendons – connection of bone to muscles
2. protection – internal organs

3. assist the motion

TYPES OF JOINTS ANIMAL PRODUCTION

1. Fixed joints – immovable joints Production – to produce offspring for survival of species

ex. sutures TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

2. Slightly Movable – limited motion 1) Sexual

ex. spinal column Cells: sex cells or “gametes”

*Meiosis = different characteristics of offspring
3. Freely Removable
2) Asexual
a. ball and socket – found in shoulders
- all types of motions Cells: body cells also known as “somatic cells”

b. hinge joint – found in elbows and knees *Mitosis = same characteristics of offspring
- bend, straighten
I. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
c. pivot – found in skull
1. Gametogenesis – formation of gametes/sex cells
- side, up, down
2 methods:
d. gliding – sliding
ex. tarsal, carpal a. Spermatogenesis – formation of sperms
e. saddle – rotation, bend, straight *spermatogonium– stem cell inside the testes
ex. thumb
(stem cell: sperm cell)

*primary spermatocytes – result of division of

II. MUSCULAR SYSTEM – conducts actual mobility spermatogonium
Cell: myocyte which composed of two proteins: *spermatid – immature sperm cell
1. Actin – thin filaments *spermatozoa – mature sperm cell
2. Myosin – thick filaments
NUMBER PRESENCE 2n
TYPES OF ACTION OF OF mitosis
MUSCLES NUCLEUS STRIATION Primary
Skeletal voluntary multi with spermatogenesis
2n 2n
Cardiac involuntary single with
for the meiosis
heart Secondary
Smooth involuntary single without n n spermatocytes
in different
internal mitosis
organs
spermatid
n n n n

Antagonistic pain – working in airs but opposite

function

1. Flexor – blend, contract

spermatozoa
2. Extensor – stretch, relax
 b. Oogenesis – formation of egg cell 8. Bulbourethral gland – lubricates the urethra
(stem cell: egg cell)

*oo = stands for oocyte meaning egg cell/ ovum

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

oogonium 1. Vagina – opening/canal for penis penetration

2. Cervix – connects vagina to uterus
3. Uterus – site of embryo development
4. Fallopian tube – site of fertilization
Primary oocyte
- also known as “oviduct”
5. Ovary – site of egg cell production and
Secondary Polar body maturation
oocyte

ootid
DEVELOPMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY

1. Zygote (cell) – fertilized egg

Functional oocyte
2. Embryo (tissue) - developed zygote
3. Fetus (organs→organism) – developing embryo
*happens once a month = menstruation

Spawning – release of gametes in the environment

- external fertilization II. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Mating – body contact 1. Budding – a new organism develops from an

- internal fertilization outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one
particular site
Fertilization – union of gametes - outgrowth/ “tumubo lang”
ex. sponges
2. Fragmentation - process or state of breaking or
TYPES OF BIRTH/PREGNANCY being broken into small or separate part
ex. planaria
1. Viviparous
Vivi = baby = live birth
2. Oviparous
Ovi = egg = egg laying/external hatching
3. Oviparous – egg inside (live birth)
ex. seahorse, shark – internal hatching

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

3. regeneration – process of regenerating or being
1. Penis – transfer of sperm to the vagina regenerated, in particular the formation of new
2. Testes – production of sperm cell animal or plant tissue
3. Scrotum – protection & thermoregulation - part mismo/pagbabagong buhay
4. Epididymis – collect of storage of sperm cell ex. starfish
5. Vas deferens – connects epididymis and urethra

ACCESSORY GLANDS:

6. Prostate gland – milky, white substance

- alkaline (fluid)
7. Seminal vesicle supplies sugar for energy
4. binary fission – by two’s geometrically
ex. bacteria

5. parthenogenesis – no meeting of gametes

ex. bee