11 Notes New

11 STD ZOOLOGY BOOK BACK SOLUTION
LESSON NO CHAPTER
1 THE LIVING WORLD
4 ANIMAL KINGDOM
9 BIOMOLECULES
17 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GAS
18 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION
19 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
20 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
21 NEURAL CONTROL COORDINATION
22 CHEMICAL COORDINATIONAND INTEGRATION
PREPARED BY
M.VAISHNAVY, LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY
KKGHS K.T KUPPAM,PUDUCHERRY
CHAPTER 1 THE LIVING WORLD
1.Why are living organisms classified?
A large variety of plants, animals, and microbes are found on earth. All these living organisms
differ in size, shape, colour, habitat, and many other characteristics. As there are millions of living
organisms on earth, studying each of them is impossible. Therefore, scientists have devised
mechanisms to classify all living organisms. These methods of classification are based on rules and
principles that allow identification, nomenclature, and finally classification of an organism.
Therefore, the biological classification helps in revealing the relationship between various
organisms. It also helps in making study of organisms easy and organized.
2. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then?
Millions of plants, animals, and microorganisms are found on earth. Many of these have
been identified by the scientists while many new species are still being discovered around the world.
Therefore, to classify these newly discovered species, new systems of classification have to be
devised every now and then. This creates the requirement to change the existing systems of
classification
3. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you meet often?
To classify a class of forty students, let us start the classification on the basis of sexes of the
students. This classification will result in the formation of two major groups- boys and girls. Each of
these two groups can be further classified on the basis of the names of the students falling in these
groups.Since it is possible that more than one student can have a particular name, these names can
be further divided based on the surnames. Since there is still some chance that more than one
student can have the same surname, the final level of classification will be based on the roll
numbers of each student.
4. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations?

The knowledge of characteristics of an individual or its entire population helps in the
identification of similarities and dissimilarities among the individuals of same kind or between
different types of organisms. It helps the scientists to classify organisms in various categories.
5. Given below is the scientific name of Mango. Identify the correctly written name.
Mangifera Indica
Mangifera indica
In binomial system of nomenclature, the generic name of a species always starts with a
capital letter whereas the specific name starts with a small letter. Therefore, the correct scientific
name of Mango is Mangifera indica.
6. Define a taxon. Give some examples of taxa at different hierarchical levels.

Each unit or category of classification is termed as a taxon. It represents a rank. For example,
the basic level of classification is species, followed by genus, family, order, class, phylum or division,
in ascending order. The highest level of classification is known as kingdom.
XI CBSE BOOK BACK ANSWERS PREPARED BY M.VAISHNAVY ,LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY, KKGHS K.T KUPPAM SCHOOL.PONDICHERRY
7 Can you identify the correct sequence of taxonomical categories?
(a) Species → Order → Phylum → Kingdom
(b) Genus → Species → Order → Kingdom
(c) Species → Genus → Order → Phylum
The correct hierarchical arrangement of taxonomic categories in ascending order is
Species → Genus → Family → Order → Class → Phylum → Kingdom
Therefore, both (a) and (c) represent correct sequences of taxonomic categories.
In sequence (b), species should be followed by genus.
Therefore, it does not represent the correct sequence
8 .Try to collect all the currently accepted meanings for the word 'species'. Discuss with your
teacher the meaning of species in case of higher plants and animals on one hand and bacteria on
the other hand.
In biological terms, species is the basic taxonomical rank. It can be defined as a group of
similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding under natural conditions to produce fertile
offsprings. Therefore, a group of similar individuals that are respectively isolated form a species.
Species can also be defined as group of individuals that share the same gene pool.
9.Define and understand the following terms: (i) Phylum (ii) Class (iii) Family (iv) Order (v) Genus
(i) Phylum Phylum is the primary division of kingdom. It includes one or more related classes of
animals. In plants, instead of phylum, the term 'division' is used.
(ii) Class Class is a taxonomic group consisting of one or more related orders. For example, the
class, Mammalia, includes many orders.
(iii) Family Family is a taxonomic group containing one or more related genera. In plants,
families are categorized on the basis of vegetative and reproductive features.
(iv) Order Order is a taxonomic group containing one or more families. For example, the order,
carnivore, includes many families.
(v) Genus Genus is a taxonomic group including closely related species. For example, the genus,
Solanum, includes many species such as nigrum,melongena, tuberosum,etc.
10.Illustrate the taxonomical hierarchy with suitable examples of a plant and an animal.
The arrangement of various taxa in a hierarchical order is called taxonomic hierarchy. In
this hierarchy, species is present at the lowest level whereas kingdom is present at the highest level.
Kingdom
Phylum or division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
A Taxonomic hierarchy Classification of a plant As an example, let us classify
Solanum melongena (Brinjal).
Kingdom : Plantae
Division : Angiospermae
Class : Dicotyledonae
Order : Solanales
Family : Solanaceae
Genus :Solanum
Species : melongena
Classification of an animal
As an example, let us classify Columba livia (Blue rock Dove).
Kingdom :Animalia
Phylum : Chordata
Class :Aves
Order :Columbiformes
Family : Columbidae
Genus : Columba
Species :livia
CHAPTER 4 ANIMAL KINGDOM
1. What are the difficulties that you would face in classification of animals, if common fundamental
features are not taken into account?
For the classification of living organisms, common fundamental characteristics are
considered. If we consider specific characteristics, then each organism will be placed in a separate
group and the entire objective of classification would not be achieved. Classification of animals is
also important in comparing different organisms and judging their individual evolutionary
significance. If only a single characteristic is considered, then this objective would not be achieved.
2. If you are given a specimen, what are the steps that you would follow to classify it?
There is a certain common fundamental feature that helps in classification of living
organisms. The features that can be used in classification are as follows.
On the basis of above features, we can easily classify a specimen into its respective category.
3. How useful is the study of the nature of body cavity and coelom in the classification of animals?
Coelom is a fluid filled space between the body wall and digestive tract. The presence or
absence of body cavity or coelom plays a very important role in the classification of animals.
Animals that possess a fluid filled cavity between body wall and digestive tract are known as
coelomates. Annelids, mollusks, arthropods, echinodermates, and chordates are examples of
coelomates. On the other hand, the animals in which the body cavity is not lined by mesoderm are
known as pseudocoelomates. In such animals, mesoderm is scattered in between ectoderm and
endoderm. Aschelminthes is an example of pseudocoelomates. In certain animals, the body cavity
is absent. They are known as acoelomates. An example of acoelomates is platyhelminthes.
4. Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion?

Intracellular digestion Extracellular digestion
1. The digestion of food occurs within the cell 1. The digestion occurs in the cavity of
alimentary canal.
2. Digestive enzymes are secreted by the 2. Digestive enzymes are secreted by special cells
surrounding cytoplasm into the food into the cavity of alimentary canal.
vacuole.
3. Digestive products are diffused into the 3. Digestive products diffuse across the intestinal
cytoplasm. wall into various parts of the body.
4. It is a less efficient method. 4. It is a more efficient method of digestion
5.It occurs in unicellular organisms. 5. It occurs in multicellular organisms.
5. What is the difference between direct and indirect development?
Direct development Indirect development

1. It is a type of development in which an 1. It is a type of development that involves a
embryo develops into a mature individual sexually-immature larval stage, having different
without involving a larval stage. food requirements than adults.
2. Metamorphosis is absent. 2. Metamorphosis involving development of
larva to a sexually-mature adult is present.
3. It occurs in fishes, reptiles, birds, and 3. It occurs in most of the invertebrates and
mammals. amphibians
6.What are the peculiar features that you find in parasitic platyhelminthes?
Taenia (Tapeworm) and Fasciola (liver fluke) are examples of parasitic platyhelminthes.
Peculiar features in parasitic platyhelminthes are as follows.
1. They have dorsiventrally flattened body and bear hooks and suckers to get attached inside
the body of the host.
2. Their body is covered with thick tegument, which protects them from the action of digestive
juices of the host.
3. The tegument also helps in absorbing nutrients from the host's body.
7 .What are the reasons that you can think of for the arthropods to constitute the largest group of
the animal kingdom?
The phylum, Arthropoda, consists of more than two-thirds of the animal species on earth.
The reasons for the success of arthropods are as follows.
i. Jointed legs that allow more mobility on land
ii. Hard exoskeleton made of chitin that protects the body
iii. The hard exoskeleton also reduces water loss from the body of arthropods making them
more adapted to terrestrial conditions.
8. Water vascular system is the characteristic of which group of the following:
(a) Porifera (b) Ctenophora (c) Echinodermata (d) Chordata
Water vascular system is a characteristic feature of the phylum, Echinodermata. It consists of
an array of radiating channels, tube feet, and madreporite. The water vascular system helps in
locomotion, food capturing, and respiration.
9. "All vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates". Justify the statement.
The characteristic features of the phylum, Chordata, include the presence of a notochord and
paired pharyngeal gill slits. In sub-phylum Vertebrata, the notochord present in embryos gets
replaced by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column in adults. Thus, it can be said that all
vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not vertebrates.
10. How important is the presence of air bladder in Pisces?
Gas bladder or air bladder is a gas filled sac present in fishes. It helps in maintaining buoyancy.
Thus, it helps fishes to ascend or descend and stay in the water current.
11. What are the modifications that are observed in birds that help them fly?
Birds have undergone many structural adaptations to suit their aerial life. Some of these
adaptations are as follows.
(i) Streamlined body for rapid and smooth movement
(ii) Covering of feathers for insulation
(iii) Forelimbs modified into wings and hind limbs used for walking, perching, and swimming
(iv) Presence of pneumatic bones to reduce weight
(v) Presence of additional air sacs to supplement respiration
12. Could the number of eggs or young ones produced by an oviparous and viviparous mother
be equal? Why?
The numbers of eggs produced by an oviparous mother will be more than the young ones
produced by a viviparous mother. This is because in oviparous animals, the development of young
ones takes place outside the mother's body. Their eggs are more prone to environmental
conditions and predators. Therefore, to overcome the loss, more eggs are produced by mothers so
that even under harsh environmental conditions, some eggs might be able to survive and produce
young ones. On the other hand, in viviparous organisms, the development of young ones takes
place in safe conditions inside the body of the mother. They are less exposed to environmental
conditions and predators. Therefore, there are more chances of their survival and hence, less
number of young ones is produced compared to the number of eggs.
13. Segmentation in the body is first observed in which of the following:

(a) Platyhelminthes (b) Aschelminthes (c) Annelida (d) Arthropoda
The body segmentation first appeared in the phylum, Annelida (annulus meaning little ring)
14. Match the following:
(a) Operculum (i) Ctenophora

(b) Parapodia (ii) Mollusca
(c) Scales (iii) Porifera
(d) Comb plates (iv) Reptilia
(e) Radula (v) Annelida
(f) Hairs (vi) Cyclostomata and Chondrichthyes
(g) Choanocytes (vii) Mammalia
(h) Gill slits (viii) Osteichthyes
ANSWER
(a) Operculum (viii) Osteichthyes

(b) Parapodia (v) Annelida
(c) Scales (iv) Reptilia
(d) Comb plates (i) Ctenophora
(e) Radula (ii) Mollusca
(f) Hairs (vii) Mammalia
(g) Choanocytes (iii) Porifera
(h) Gill slits (vi) Cyclostomata and Chondrichthyes
15. Prepare a list of some animals that are found parasitic on human beings.
Name of organism Phylum
1 Taenia solium Platyhelminthes
2 Fasciola hepatica Platyhelminthes
3 Ascaris lumbricoides Aschelminthes
4 Wuchereria bancrofti Aschelminthes
5 Ancyclostoma Aschelminthes
CHAPTER 7 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS
1.Draw a neat diagram of digestive system of frog.
2. Mention the function of the Ureters in frog.
Ureters in frog: Ureter is a transparent duct which arise from outer portion of kidney. In the
male frogs, ureter acts as urinogenital duct which runs backwards from kidneys and opens into
the cloaca. It carries both urine and spermatozoa from kidney to the cloaca. In female, ureter
conducts only urine from kidneys to the cloaca.
CHAPTER 9 BIOMOLECULES
1. What are macromolecules? Give examples.

Macromolecules are substances which are large high molecular weight with complex molecular
structure and occur in insoluble state in intracellular fluid. These are formed by polymerisation
of large number of micromolecules. Polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids are few
examples.
2. What is meant by tertiary structure of proteins?
The helical polypeptide molecule may fold on itself and assume a complex but specific form-
spherical, rod-like or any form in between these. These geometrical shapes,are known as
tertiary (3°) structure of protein molecules. The coils and folds of the polypeptide molecules are
so arranged as to hide the non-polar amino acid chains inside and to expose the polar side
chains. The tertiary structure of a protein brings distant amino acid side chains nearer to form
active sites of enzymatic proteins. The tertiary structure is maintained by weak bonds such as
hydrogen, ionic, disulphide and hydrophilic – hydrophobic bonds, formed between one part of a
polypeptide and another. This structure is easily disrupted by pH, temperature and chemicals
stopping the function of proteins.
3. Find and write down structures of 10 interesting small molecular weight biomolecules. Find if
there is any industry which manufactures the compounds by isolation. Find out who are the
buyers.
4.Find out and make a list of proteins used as therapeutic agents. Find other applications of
proteins (e.g., cosmetics, etc.)
Proteins used as therapeutic agents are as follows:

1. Thrombin and fibrinogen - They help in blood clotting.
2. Antigen (antibody) - It helps in blood transfusion.
3. Insulin - It helps in maintaining blood glucose level in the body.
4. Renin - It helps in osmoregulation.
Proteins are also commonly used in the manufacture of cosmetics, toxins, and as biological buffers.
5.Explain the composition of triglyceride.
Triglyceride is a glyceride, which is formed from a single molecule of glycerol, esterified with three
fatty acids. It is mainly present in vegetable oils and animal fat.
Structure of triglyceride
The general chemical formula of triglyceride is , where R1, R2,

and R3 are fatty acids. These three fatty acids can be same or different.
6.Can you attempt building models of biomolecules using commercially available atomic models
(Ball and Stick models).
Ball and stick models are 3-D molecular models that can be used to describe the structure of
biomolecules. In ball and stick model, the atoms are represented as balls whereas the bonds that
hold the atoms are represented by the sticks. Double and triple bonds are represented by springs
that form curved connections between the balls. The size and colour of various atoms are different
and are depicted by the relative size of the balls. It is the most fundamental and common model of
representing biomolecular structures.
In the above ball and stick model of D-glucose, the oxygen atoms are represented by red balls,
hydrogen atoms by blue balls, while carbon atoms are represented by grey balls.
7.Draw the structure of the amino acid, alanine.
Structure of alanine Structure of amino acid
8.What are gums made of? Is Fevicol different?
Gums are hetero-polysaccharides. They are made from two or more different types of
monosaccharides. On the other hand, fevicol is polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) glue. It is not a
polysaccharide.
9.Find out a qualitative test for proteins, fats and oils, amino acids and test any fruit juice,
saliva, sweat and urine for them.
(a) Test for protein
Biuret’s test – If Biuret’s reagent is added to protein, then the colour of the reagent
changes from light blue to purple.
(b) Test for fats and oils
Grease or solubility test
(c) Test for amino acid
Ninhydrin test – If Ninhydrin reagent is added to the solution, then the colourless solution
changes to pink, blue, or purple, depending on the amino acid. 9
Item Name of the Procedure Result Inference

test
1. Biuret’s test Fruit juice Colour changes Protein is present.
Fruit + from light blue to
juice Biuret’s reagent purple
Grease test To a brown Fats and oils are

paper, add a few No translucent spot absent or are in
drops of fruit negligible mounts.
juice.
Ninhydrin test Fruit juice Colourless Amino acids are

+ Ninhydrin reagent solution changes present
+ boil for 5 minutes to pink, blue, or
purple colour
2.Saliva Biuret’s test Saliva + Biuret’s Colour changes Proteins are

reagent from light blue to present.
purple
.
Grease test On a brown paper, add a No translucent Fats/oils are
drop of saliva. spot absent.
Ninhydrin test Saliva + Ninhydrin reagent Colourless Amino acids are

boil for 5 minutes solution changes present.
to pink, blue, or
purple colour
3. Sweat Biuret’s test Sweat + Biuret’s reagent No colour change Proteins are
absent.
Solubility test Sweat + Water Oily appearance Fats/oil may be
present.
Ninhydrin Sweat + Ninhydrin reagent + No colour change, Amino acids are

test boil for 5 minutes solution remains absent.
colourless
4. Urine Biuret’s test Few drops of urine + Biuret’s Colour changes Proteins are
reagent from light blue to present.
purple
Solubility test Few drops of urine + Water Little bit of oily Fats may or may
appearance not be present.
Ninhydrin test Few drops of urine + inhydrin Colourless Amino acids are
reagent + boil for solution changes present.
5 minutes to pink, blue, or
purple colour
depending
on the type of
amino acid
11.Find out how much cellulose is made by all the plants in the biosphere and compare it with how
much of paper is manufactured by man and hence what is the consumption of plant material by
man annually. What a loss of vegetation!
Approximately, 100 billion tonnes of cellulose are made per year by all the plants in the
biosphere and it takes 17 full grown trees to make one ton of paper. Trees are also used to fulfil the
other requirements of man such as for timber, food, medicines, etc. Hence, it is difficult to calculate
the annual consumption of plant material by man.
12.Describe the important properties of enzymes.
Properties of enzymes
(1) Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.
(2) They catalyze biochemical reactions in a cell. They help in the breakdown of large molecules into
smaller molecules or bring together two smaller molecules to form a larger molecule.
(3) Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in accelerating it.
(4) Enzymes affect the rate of biochemical reaction and not the direction.
(5) Most of the enzymes have high turnover number. Turnover number of an enzyme is the number
of molecules of a substance that is acted upon by an enzyme per minute. High turnover number
of enzymes increases the efficiency of reaction.
(6) Enzymes are specific in action.
(7) Enzymatic activity decreases with increase in temperature.
(8) They show maximum activity at an optimum pH of 6 - 8.
(9) The velocity of enzyme increases with increase in substrate concentration and then, ultimately
reaches maximum velocity.
CHAPTER 14 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
1. Define Vital Capacity. What is its Significance?

Vital capacity is defined as the maximum volume of air a personcan inhale after a
forced expiration. This includes expiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and inspiratory
reserve volume. It is about 3.5-4.5 L.
The significance of vital capacity is that it promotes the intake of the maximum
amount of fresh air and gets rid of foul air, thereby increasing the gaseous exchange
between the tissue and the environment. This leads to an increase in the amount of energy
available for various functions of the body.
2.State the Volume of Air remaining in the Lungs after normal Breathing.
The volume of air remaining in the lungs after normal breathing can be stated
by functional residual capacity (FRC). It is defined as the volume of air that will remain in
the lungs after normal expiration. This includes expiratory reserve volume(ERV) and
residual volume(RV).
Expiratory reserve volume(ERV) is defined as the additional volume of air, a person
can exhale after forceful expiration. It is about 1000-1100 ml. Residual volume is defined
as the volume of air that remains in the lungs after forceful expiration. It is about 1100-
1200ml. Hence,FRC= ERV + RV = 1200+1100 = 2300 Therefore, the functional residual
capacity is about 2200-2300ml.
3.Diffusion of Gases occurs in the Alveolar region only and not in the other parts of the Respiratory
System. Why?
The exchange of gases takes place when the respiratory surface has certain
features like a thin surface, good blood supply, and a large surface area. Alveoli are small
air sacs covered by a thin epithelial membrane. Its thickness is less than one millimetre.
Being highly vascularised and irregularly shaped (that increases the surface area for the
exchange of gases), alveoli form the primary site for the exchange of gases.
4.What are the major transport mechanisms for CO2? Explain.
Plasma and red blood cells transport carbon dioxide. This is because they are readily
soluble in water.
(1) Through plasma:
About 7% of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma. Carbon dioxide combines
with water and forms carbonic acid. Since the process of forming carbonic acid is slow, only a small
amount of carbon dioxide is carried this way.
(2) Through RBCs:
About 20 – 25% of CO2 is transported by the red blood cells as carbaminohaemoglobin.
Carbon dioxide binds to the amino groups on the polypeptide chains of haemoglobin and forms a
compound known as carbaminohaemoglobin.
(3) Through sodium bicarbonate:
About 70% of carbon dioxide is transported as sodium bicarbonate. As CO2 diffuses into
the blood plasma, a large part of it combines with water to form carbonic acid in the presence of
the enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic anhydrase is a zinc enzyme that speeds up the formation
of carbonic acid. This carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3 – ) and hydrogen ions (H+).
5.What will be the pO2 and pCO2 in the atmospheric air compared to those in the alveolar
air?
(i) pO2 lesser, pCO2 higher
(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser
(iii) pO2 higher, pCO2 higher
(iv) pO2 lesser, pCO2 lesser
(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser

The partial pressure of oxygen in atmospheric air is higher than that of oxygen in alveolar
air. In atmospheric air, pO2 is about 159 mm Hg. In alveolar air, it is about 104 mm Hg. The partial
pressure of carbon dioxide in atmospheric air is lesser than that of carbon dioxide in alveolar air. In
atmospheric air, pCO2 is about 0.3 mmHg. In alveolar air, it is about 40 mm Hg.
6.Explain the process of Inspiration under Normal Conditions.
The process of inspiration under normal conditions takes place when the
pressure within the lungs is less than the atmospheric pressure. It starts with the
contraction of the diaphragm which increases the volume of the thoracic chamber in the
anteroposterior axis. External intercostal muscles contracts and lifts up the ribs and
sternum. It increases the volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorsoventral axis. The
pulmonary volume increases after the increase in the thoracic volume, which decreases the
intra-pulmonary pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure. The negative pressure
that is created inside forces the air from outside to move into the lungs, completing the
process of inspiration.
7.How is Respiration regulated?

The respiratory rhythm centre located in the medulla region is primarily responsible
for the regulation of respiration. The pneumotoxic centre located in the pons moderates
the function of the respiratory rhythm centre. Signals from this centre reduce the
inspiration. The chemosensitive area, aortic arch, and carotid artery are sensitive to
CO2 and H+ concentrations. Change in the concentration of these substances sends signals
to the rhythm centre to make necessary adjustments.
8.What is the Effect of pCO2 on Oxygen Transport?
pCO2 plays a significant role in the transport of oxygen. When the pCO2 is low, as
in the alveoli, O2 binds with the haemoglobin and forms oxyhaemoglobin. When is high, as
in the tissue and pO2 is low, it results in the dissociation of O2 from oxyhaemoglobin.
Hence, the affinity of haemoglobin for O2 increases when pCO2 is low. Therefore, O2 is
transported as oxyhaemoglobin, and it dissociates at the tissues.
9.What happens to the Respiratory process in a man going Up a hill?
As we go up the hill, the air becomes thin, and the atmospheric pressure and the
oxygen content of the air decrease. Therefore, as the man goes up a hill, he will experience
oxygen deficiency. This will result in low oxygen levels in the blood. To compensate for the
decreased oxygen level in the blood, the respiratory rate increases along with the increase
in the heart rate to supply more oxygen to the blood.
10.What is the site of Gaseous Exchange in Insects?
Insects have a network of tubes that is a tracheal system to transport atmospheric
air within the body. Air rich in oxygen enters through the spiracles, which are small
openings on the side of the insect’s body. From the spiracles, the air reaches the trachea
and is the diffused cell of the body.
11. Define the Oxygen Dissociation curve. Can you suggest any reason for its Sigmoidal Pattern?
The oxygen dissociation curve is defined as the curve obtained when the
percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen is plotted against the pO2. This curve is
sigmoid in shape and is useful in studying the effects of factors like pCO2, and H+ ion
concentration on the binding of O2 with haemoglobin. The dissociation curve is sigmoid
because of the following reasons:
 When the first molecule of oxygen binds to the haemoglobin, the affinity of the
second molecule increases, resulting in the rapid formation of oxyhaemoglobin.
Graphically this is represented as a steep s-shaped slope.
 The curve becomes flat when the formation of oxyhaemoglobin stops.
12. Have you heard about Hypoxia? Try to gather information about it, and discuss it with your
friends.
Hypoxia is a condition when there is an inadequate supply of oxygen to the body
tissues. It can be caused due to various reasons such as lung disease, heart
problems, high altitudes, etc. The various types of hypoxia are:
1. Hypoxic hypoxia: caused due to decrease amount of oxygen in the arterial blood.
2. Anemic hypoxia: caused due to decrease in oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
3. Circulatory hypoxia: caused when there is inadequate blood flow to the tissues.
4. Histotoxic hypoxia: caused when oxygen is available to the cells, but they are
unable to use it. The symptoms of hypoxia are shortness of breath, increased
heart rate, lethargy, anxiousness, etc.
13.Distinguish between
(a) IRV and ERV
(b) Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity
(c) Vital capacity and Total lung capacity
(a) IRV and ERV
IRV ERV
Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) is Expiratory reserve volume is

defined as the additional volume defined as the additional volume
of air that can be inhaled by a of air that can be exhaled by a
forcible inspiration. forcible expiration.
It is about 2500ml – 3000ml. It is about 1000ml – 1100ml.
(b)Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity

Inspiratory capacity Expiratory capacity
Inspiratory capacity is defined as Expiratory capacity is defined as

the total volume of air that can the total volume of air that can
be inhaled after a normal be exhaled after a normal
expiration. inspiration.
Inspiratory capacity is the sum of Expiratory capacity is the sum of

tidal volume and inspiratory tidal volume and expiratory
reserve volume (TV+IRV). reserve volume (TV+ ERV).
(c) Vital capacity and Total lung capacity

Vital capacity Total lung capacity
Vital capacity is defined as the Total lung capacity is defined as

total volume of air, we can the total volume of air
breathe in after forced accommodated in the lungs, at
expiration. the end of forced inspiration.
Vital capacity includes Inspiratory Total lung capacity includes

reserve volume, tidal volume, reserve volume, expiratory
and expiratory reserve volume. reserve volume, tidal volume,
(IRV, TV, ERV). and Inspiratory reserve volume.
14.What is Tidal volume? Find out the Tidal volume (approximate value) for a healthy human in
an hour.
Tidal volume is defined as the volume of air inhaled or exhaled during normal
respiration. It is about 500 ml. A healthy man can inhale or exhale approximately 6000 –
8000ml of air per minute. Therefore, the tidal volume of a healthy human in an hour will be
approximately can be 3,60,000 ml – 4,80,000 ml.
CHAPTER 15 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION
1. Name the components of the formed elements in the blood and mention one major function of
each of them.
The components of the formed elements in the blood are erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets.
(a) Erythrocytes or red blood cells: These carry haemoglobin pigment (which contains oxygen) to
all the cells of body.
(b) Leukocytes or white blood cells: These cells are of two types – granulocytes and agranulocytes.
(i) Granulocytes contain neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils. Neutrophils are phagocytic cells
that protect the body against various infecting agents.
Eosinophils are associated with allergic reactions, while basophils are involved in inflammatory
responses.
(ii) Agranulocytes are of two types– lymphocytes and monocytes. Lymphocytes generate immune
responses against infecting agents, while monocytes are phagocytic in nature.
(c) Platelets or thrombocytes help in clotting of blood.
2. What is the importance of plasma proteins?
About 6-8% of content is plasma proteins. These are fibrinogen, globulins and albumins.
(a) Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.
(b) Globulins are involved in defense mechanisms of the body.
(c) Albumins help in osmotic balance.

4. Match Column I with Column II :
Column IColumn I Column Column II
(a) Eosinophils (i) Coagulation
(b) RBC (ii) Universal Recipient
(c) AB Group (iii) Resist Infections
(d) Platelets (iv) Contraction of Heart
(e) Systole (v) Gas transport
The correct match is as follows:
Column IColumn I Column Column II n II
(a) Eosinophils (iii) Resist Infections
(b) RBC (v) Gas transport
(c) AB Group (ii) Universal Recipient
(d) Platelets (i) Coagulation
(e) Systole (iv) Contraction of Heart
4. Why do we consider blood as a connective tissue?
Connective tissues are made up of a matrix consisting of living cells and a non-living
substance, called the ground substance. Blood is considered a connective tissue because it has a
matrix. The living cell types are red blood cells (RBC), also called erythrocytes, and white blood cells
(WBC), also called leukocytes. The fluidp ortion of whole blood, its matrix, is commonly called
plasma. It connects the body systems, transports oxygen and nutrients to all the parts of the body,
and removes the waste products.
5. What is the difference between lymph and blood?
Difference between lymph and blood:
Ly h Lymph BloodcurdbloodlingBBSJJDJJB
1. It is a colourless fluid. It is a red-coloured fluid that contains RBCs.
1. It contains plasma and lesser It contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs and

number of WBCs and platelets. platelets.
It has plasma proteins, calcium and

1. It lacks plasma proteins.
phosphorus.
1. It has lymphatic vessels to

It transports nutrients and oxygen from one
transport nutrients from the tissue cells
organ to another.
to the blood.
The blood flows very fast inside blood

1. The flow of lymph is slow.
vessels.
6. What is meant by double circulation? What is its significance?
Double circulation is a process during which blood passes twice through the heart during one
complete cycle. This type of circulation is found in amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
However, it is more prominent in birds and mammals as in them the heart is completely divided
into four chambers - the right atrium, the right ventricle, the left atrium, and the left ventricle.
The movement of blood in an organism is divided into two parts:
(i) Systemic circulation
(ii) Pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation involves the movement of oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the
heart to the aorta. It is then carried by blood through a network of arteries, arterioles, and
capillaries to the tissues. From the tissues, the deoxygenated blood is collected by the venules,
veins, and vena cava, and is emptied into the left auricle.
Pulmonary circulation involves the movement of deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to
the pulmonary artery,which then carries blood to the lungs for oxygenation. From the lungs, the
oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. Hence, in double
circulation, blood has to pass alternately through the lungs and the tissues.
Significance of double circulation:
Theseparation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood allows a more efficient supply of oxygen to
the body cells. Blood is circulated to the body tissues through systemic circulation and to the lungs
through pulmonary circulation
7. Write the differences between :
(a) Blood and Lymph
(b) Open and Closed system of circulation
(c) Systole and Diastole
(d) P-wave and T-wave
(a) Difference between Blood and Lymph:
Bloo d Blood Lym phLymph
1. It is a red-coloured fluid. It is a colourless fluid.
1. It contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs, It lacks RBCs but contains plasma and lesser
and platelets. number of WBCs and platelets.
1. It also contains proteins. It lacks proteins.
1. Blood transports gases and Lymph plays a role in the defensive system of
nutrients to different parts of body. the body.
(b) Difference between Open and Closed system of circulation:
Close Closed system of circulationystem of

oOpenOsystem of circulationcirculation
cculation
1. Blood is pumped by the heart,

Blood is pumped by the heart, through a
through large vessels, into body cavities
closed network of vessels.
called sinuses.
Close Closed system of circulationystem of
oOpenOsystem of circulationcirculation
cculation
1. The body tissues are in direct The body tissues are not in direct contact
contact with blood. with blood.
Blood flows at high pressure. Hence, it is a

1. Blood flows at low pressure.
faster and more efficient system of
Hence, it is a slower and less efficient
circulation.
system of circulation.
1. This system is present in This system is present in annelids,

arthropods and in some molluscs. echinoderms, and vertebrates.
(c) Difference between Systole and Diastole:
SystoleSystole DiastoleDiastole
1. The process of contraction of heart

The process of relaxation of heart muscles
muscles during the cardiac cycle is called
during the cardiac cycle is called diastole.
systole.
1. Systole decreases the volume of Diastole brings the heart chambers back
the heart chambers and forces the blood into their original sizes to receive more
out of them. blood.
(d) Difference between P-wave and T-wave:
P-wave P-wave T-wa veT-wave
‘T’ wave too is a positive wave and is the

1. ‘P’ wave is the first wave in an ECG final wave in an ECG though sometimes an
and is a positive wave. It indicates the additional U wave may be seen. In an
activation of the SA nodes. electrocardiogram (ECG), the T-wave
represents ventricular relaxation.
1. Blood is received by the atria. So, T-Wave represents the repolarisation of

it is of atrial origin. ventricles. Blood is received by the atria.
8. Describe the evolutionary change in the pattern of heart among the vertebrates.
The vertebrate heart has evolved from a two-chambered heart of a fish to a four-chambered
heart of mammals and birds.The evolutionary change in the pattern of heart among the vertebrates
is described as follows (a) Fish heart: The heart of the fish is two-chambered. The heart pumps
deoxygenated blood to the gills where it is oxygenated and sent to the body. The deoxygenated
blood is carried to the heart.
(b) Amphibian’s heart: In amphibians, there are three chambers, i.e., the left atrium, the right
atrium and a ventricle.
(i) The left atrium receives the oxygenated blood from the gills, the lungs or the skin.
(ii) The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body organs.
(iii) Both types of blood are mixed in the ventricle and the body is supplied with the mixed blood.
(c) Reptilian heart: There is half septum which divides the ventricle incompletely. Here, oxygenated
and deoxygenated blood do not mix. In crocodiles, the heart is completely divided like of higher
organisms.
(d) Heart of birds and mammals: The heart is completely divided into halves which keep the
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood separate.
9. Why do we call our heart myogenic?
The meaning of ‘myo’ is ‘muscle’, and ‘genic’ is ‘originating from’. The contractions in human
heart are activated by a specially modified heart muscle known as the sinoatrial node that is
located in the right atrium. So, the human heart is termed as myogenic.
10. Sino-atrial node is called the pacemaker of our heart. Why?
The SA (sino-atrial) node is a specialised bundle of neurons located in the upper part of the
right atrium of the heart. The cardiac impulse that originates from the SA node triggers a sequence
of electrical events in the heart. It controls the sequence of muscle contraction that pumps blood
out of the heart. Since the SA node initiates and maintains the rhythmicity of the heart, it is also
named as the natural pacemaker of the human body.
11. What is the significance of atrio-ventricular node and atrio-ventricular bundle in the
functioning of heart?
Atrio-ventricular node: The atrio-ventricular node or AV node electrically connects the

heart's atria and ventricles to coordinate beating in the top of the heart. It gives rise to the bundle
of His that conducts the cardiac impulses from the auricles to the ventricles. It is also capable of
initiating impulses that cause contraction but at slower rate than SA node.
Atrio-ventricular bundle: The atrio-ventricular bundle (Bundle of His) is a mass of specialized

fibres which originate from the AV node. It transmits electrical impulses from the AV node to the
apex of the myocardium where the wave of ventricular contraction begins.
Hence, the atrio-ventricular node and the atrioventricular bundle play a role in the contraction of
ventricles.
12. Define a cardiac cycle and the cardiac output.
Cardiac cycle: The cardiac cycle is a series of electrical and mechanical events that occur
during the phases of heart relaxation (diastole) and contraction (systole).
Cardiac output: The volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle of the heart is
called cardiac output. It’s average value is 5 litres in a healthy individual.
13. Explain heart sounds.
Heart sounds are created from blood flowing through the heart chambers as the cardiac
valves open and close during the cardiac cycle. Vibrations of these structures from the blood flow
create audible sounds.In a healthy adult, the heart makes two sounds, commonly described as 'lub'
and 'dub. The first sound called ‘lub’ happens when the mitral and tricuspid valves close. The
second sound ‘dub’ happens when the aortic and pulmonary valves close after the blood has been
squeezed out of the heart.
14. Draw a standard ECG and explain the different segments in it.
Standard ECG:
ECG is graphical record of the heart activities produced by the excitation of the cardiac muscles.
The instrument used to record the changes is an electrocardiograph.
(a) Each peak in the ECG is identified with a letter from P to T that corresponds to a specific
electrical activity of the heart.
(b) The P-wave represents the electrical excitation of the atria (depolarisation), which leads to their
contraction. The QRS complex represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the
ventricular contraction. The contraction starts shortly after Q and marks the beginning of the
systole.
(c) The T-wave represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation).
The end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.
(d) By counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, one can determine
the heart beat rate of an individual.
CHAPTER 16 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
1. Define Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR).
The amount of the filtrate formed by the kidneys per minute is called glomerular filtration
rate (GFR). GFR in a healthy individual is approximately 125 ml/minute, i.e., 180 litres per day.
2. Explain the autoregulatory mechanism of GFR.
The kidneys have autoregulatory or built-in mechanisms for the regulation of glomerular
filtration rate (GFR). One such efficient mechanism is carried out by juxtaglomerular apparatus
(JGA). Juxtaglomerular apparatus is a microscopic structure formed by cellular modifications in the
distal convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole at the location of their contact. It has important
role in regulating the renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate. When there is a fall in the
glomerular filtration rate, it activates the juxtaglomerular cells to release rennin (an enzyme that is
produced by the granular cells of afferent arteriole at the JGA). Renin brings the GFR back to normal
by the activation of the renin-angiotensin mechanism. It enzymatically converts angiotensinogen
(made by the liver) into angiotensin I.
3. Indicate whether the following statements are true or false :
(a) Micturition is carried out by a reflex.
(b) ADH helps in water elimination, making the urine hypotonic.
(c) Protein-free fluid is filtered from blood plasma into the Bowman’s capsule.
(d) Henle’s loop plays an important role in concentrating the urine.
(e) Glucose is actively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.
a) True.
Micturition is the act of passing urine. The wall of urinary bladder is stimulated by the
stretch receptors located in it and the urine is passed by reflex action.
(b) False.
ADH or anti diuretic hormone is produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior
pituitary gland. ADH increases the re-absorption of water in the collecting ducts and reduces the
rate of formation of
urine.
(c) True.
Glomerular filtrate contains all the components of plasma except protein.
(d) True.
The counter current multiplication in the loop of Henle is responsible for concentrating the urine.
(e) True.
Glucose and sodium are absorbed by the proximal convoluted tubule and returned to the blood by
active transport.
4. Give a brief account of the counter current mechanism.
The counter-current mechanism is used to concentrate urine in the kidneys by the

nephrons of the human excretory system. The removal of water makes the urine/ filtrate more
concentrated. The Henle’s loop and vasa recta play a significant role in facilitating the
countercurrent mechanism in kidney.
(a) Counter-current is formed by the flow of filtrate in the two limbs of Henle's loop, which is in
opposite directions.
(b) The flow of blood in two limbs of vasa recta is also in a counter current pattern.
(c) NaCI is transported by the ascending limb of Henle's loop which is exchanged with the
descending limb of vasa recta.
(d) NaCI is returned to the interstitium by the ascending portion of vasa recta.
(e) The small amount of urea enters the thin segment of the ascending limb of Henle's loop.
(f) This small amount of urea is transported back to the interstitium by the collecting tubule. It is
facilitated by the special arrangement of Henle's loop and vasa recta that we call the counter
current mechanism.
Significance: The counter-current mecha-nism helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the

medullary interstitium. This leads to the easy passage of water from the collecting tubule thereby
concentrating the filtrate (urine). This mechanism helps to maintain a concentration gradient.
5. Describe the role of liver, lungs and skin in excretion.
Role of liver, lungs and skin in excretion:
(a) Liver: It is large digestive gland and the part of digestive system. It secretes bile and helps in
excretion metabolic products like cholesterol and other waste products through it. It converts
ammonia into urea for the excretion. It converts the decomposed haemoglobin pigment into the
bile pigments called bilirubin and biliverdin.
(b) Lung: It helps in excretion of carbon dioxide from the body by the process of exhalation.
(c) Skin: It consists of many tiny pores like sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The waste products
are separated and excreted through the sweat glands as sweat. The sebaceous glands secrete an
oily product known as sebum.
6. Explain micturition.
Micturition is the process by which the urine from the urinary bladder is excreted. The
urine accumulates; the muscular walls of the bladder expand due to excitation of stretch receptors
located in it. The walls stimulate the sensory nerves in the urinary bladder, setting up a reflex action.
This reflex action stimulates the urge to pass out urine. This information is integrated in the spine
and relayed to parasympathetic neurons and somatic motor neurons. This allows external sphincter
to open and urine to flow out known as micturition.
6. Match the items of column I with those of column II :
Column Icolumn I Column Icolumn II I
(a) Ammonotelism (i) Birds
(b) Bowman’s capsule (ii) Water reabsorption
(c) Micturition (iii) Bony fish
(d) Uricotelism (iv) Urinary bladder
(e) ADH (v) Renal tubule
Ans. The correct match is as follows:
Column Icolumn I Column IIcolumn II
(a) Ammonotelism (iii) Bony fish
(b) Bowman’s capsule (v) Renal tubule
(c) Micturition (iv) Urinary bladder
(d) Uricotelism (i) Birds
(e) ADH (ii) Water reabsorption
8. What is meant by the term osmoregulation?
The process of maintaining an internal balance between water and dissolved materials by the
kidneys is called osmoregulation. It is a homeostatic mechanism that regulates the optimum
concentration of water and salts in the tissues and body fluids. The kidneys are the main
osmoregulatory organs in human body.They function to filter blood and maintain the dissolved ion
concentrations of body fluids.
9. Terrestrial animals are generally either ureotelic or uricotelic, not ammonotelic, why?
Terrestrial animals are generally either ureotelic or uricotelic, not ammonotelic. Because
ammonia is highly toxic in nature and water soluble and cannot be completely eliminated from the
body. Therefore, it needs to be converted into less toxic forms such as urea or uric acid. It also helps
in conserving water in body by the terrestrial animals.
10. What is the significance of juxta glomerular apparatus (JGA) in kidney function?
Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) is a special structure which consists of the cells of
glomerulus, distal tubule and afferent and efferent arterioles. It is located in a special region of
nephron where the afferent arteriole and the distal convoluted tubule are connected to each other.
It plays a major role in the regulation of glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR). When the GFR falls, it
activates the juxta glomerular cells to release renin enzyme which further stimulates the glomerular
blood flow. This brings back the glomerular filtration rate to the normal level.
11. Name the following:
(a) A chordate animal having flame cells as excretory structures
(b) Cortical portions projecting between the medullary pyramids in the human kidney
(c) A loop of capillary running parallel to the Henle’s loop.
(a) Amphioxus has flame cells: Flame cells are a type of excretory cells that also play role in
osmoregulation.
(b) Columns of Bertini: These are the cortical portions projecting between the medullary pyramids
in the human kidney. They represent the cortical tissues present within the medulla.
(c) Vasa rectae: It is a loop of capillary that runs parallel to Henle’s loop. Vasa rectae, along with
Henle’s loop, helps in maintaining a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitium.
12. Fill in the gaps :
(a) Ascending limb of Henle’s loop is _______ to water whereas the descending limb is _______ to
it.
(b) Reabsorption of water from distal parts of the tubules is facilitated by hormone _______.
(c) Dialysis fluid contain all the constituents as in plasma except _______.
(d) A healthy adult human excretes (on an average) _______ gm of urea/day.
Ans. (a) impermeable, permeable
(b) ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
(c) Nitrogenous waste
(d) 25-30
CHAPTER 17 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
1.Draw the diagram of a sarcomere of skeletal muscle showing different regions.
The diagrammatic representation of a sarcomere is as follows:
2.Define sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.
According to sliding filament theory, muscle’s fibre contraction occurs due to the sliding of
the thin actin filaments over the thick myosin filaments.
Mechanism of muscle contraction:
Step-1.Depolarization of Sarcolemma: At this stage, the Central Nervous System sends a signal
through a motor neuron which arrives at the junction of muscle and neuron i.e., neuromuscular
junction. When the signal arrives, a neurotransmitter acetylcholine is triggered and the action
potential in the sarcolemma is set by this release.
Step-2. Release of Ca++ ions: The sarcolemma transmits the action potential to the sarcoplasmic
reticulum in order to release the calcium ions in the sarcoplasm.
Step-3. Conformational changes occur in the Actin filaments: The released calcium ions tend to
bind to the troponin and tropomyosin located on the active filaments. This causes a modification in
the three-dimensional structure of the actin-troponin-tropomyosin complex. The active site for
myosin which is located on the actin filament is exposed.
Step-4. Activation of Myosin heads: The calcium ions release causes the myosin heads to get
activated which in turn causes the release of energy in the form of ATP. Hydrolysis of ATP releases
energy which causes the binding of myosin heads to the active sites found on the actin filaments
hence forming a crossbridge.
Step-5. Actin Filaments slide over Myosin: The myosin head rotates due to the formation of a
cross-bridge, pulling the actin filaments to the centre of the A-band which is the H-zone. The Z-line
which is attached to the actin filaments is pulled inwards too. Contraction of sarcomere occurs
when the actin filaments are pulled in the opposite ends. During the process of contraction, the I-
band shortens whereas the A-band maintains its length causing the muscles to contract.
4. Write true or false. If false, change the statement so that it is true.
(a) Actin is present in thin filament.
(b) H-zone of striated muscle fibre represents both thick and thin filaments.
(c) Human skeleton has 206 bones.
(d) There are 11 pairs of ribs in man.
(e) Sternum is present on the ventral side of the body.
(a) True.
(b) False.
Corrected statement: H-Zone of striated muscle fibres represents only thick filaments.
(c) True.
(d) False.
Corrected statement: There are 12 pairs of ribs in man.
(e) True.
5. Write the difference between:
(a) Actin and Myosin
(b) Red and White muscles
(c) Pectoral and Pelvic girdle
Ans. (a) Difference between Actin and Myosin:
Actin Myosin
1.Actin is a thin contractile protein. 1. Myosin is a thick contractile protein.
2. It is present in light bands and is called 2 It is present in dark bands and is called an
an isotropic band. anisotropic band.
3.Shorter than myosin. 3.Longer than actin.

4.It consists of three proteins: Actin, 4.It consists of two proteins: myosin and
tropomyosin and troponin. meromyosin.
5.Cross bridges are absent, hence have 5.Cross bridges are present, hence have rough
smooth surface. surface.
(b) Difference between Red and White muscles:
Red muscles Red muscles White muWhite musclesscles
1. They are thinner. They are thicker.
1. The numbers of mitochondria The numbers of mitochondria are less and

are more and glycogen content is low. glycogen granules are abundant.
1. Due to the presence of abundant Due to the presence of very few myoglobin
myoglobin pigment, they are dark. pigments, they are white.
1. It can store oxygen as

It can’t store oxygen.
oxymyoglobin.
1. Get energy for contraction by Get energy for contraction mainly by

aerobic respiration. anaerobic respiration.
1. Not get fatigued with work. Get fatigued with work.
1. Can accumulate little amount of Accumulates lactic acid when gets strained
lactic acid. due to excessive work.
(c) Difference between Pectoral and Pelvic girdle:
Pectoral girdlePectora girdle Pelvic gPelvic girdleirdle
It has three bones: Ilium, ischium and

1. It has two bones: clavicle and capula.
pubis.
1. Glenoid cavity found. Acetabulum cavity found.
1. It’s positioned at the shoulder region. Its position is in the hip region.
1. It’s articulated to forelimb bones. It’s articulated to hindlimb bones.
1. Its function is to provide articulation Its function is to provide articulation to

to arm bones. leg bones.
6.Match column I with column II.
Column I Column II
(a) Smooth muscle (i) Myoglobin
(b) Tropomyosin (ii) Thin filament
(c) Red muscle (iii) Sutures
(d) Skull (iv) Involuntary
Answer :
Column I Column II
(a) Smooth muscle (iv) Involuntary
(b) Tropomyosin (ii) Thin filament
(c) Red muscle (i) Myoglobin
(d) Skull (iii) Sutures
7. What are the different types of movements exhibited by the cells of human body?
The different types of movements exhibited by the cells of the human body are as follows:
(a) Amoeboid movement: The leucocytes present in the blood show amoeboid movement. During
tissue damage, these blood cells move in an amoeboid manner (by forming temporary pseudopodia)
from the circulatory system towards the site of injury to initiate an immune response. Cytoskeletal
elements like microfilaments are also involved in the amoeboid movement.
(b) Ciliary movement: The reproductive cells such as sperms and ova show ciliary movement. The
passage of the ova through the fallopian tube towards the uterus is facilitated by this movement.
Cilia in the trachea helps in removing dust particles and foreign substances inhaled along with
atmospheric air.
(c) Muscular movement: The muscle cells of the human body show muscular movement. These
contract and relax to bring about the movement. E.g., Movements of limbs, tongue and jaws are
examples of muscular movements.
8. How do you distinguish between a skeletal muscle and a cardiac muscle?
Difference between a Skeletal muscle and a Cardiac muscle:
Skeletal muscleSkeletal muscle Cardiac mCardiac muscleuscle
1. It is attached to the bone. It's from the heart.
1. The cells of skeletal muscles are

The cells of cardiac muscles are branched.
unbranched.
1. Alternate light and dark bands are

Faint bands are present.
present.
1. Its size is longer than cardiac Comparatively smaller than skeletal

muscle. muscle.
1. It is controlled by the somatic It is controlled by the autonomic nervous

nervous system. system.
1. Many nuclei are found in the cells. Single nucleus is found in the cell.
Endomysium is more dense than skeletal

1. Endomysium is less dense.
muscle.
9. Name the type of joint between the following:
(a) Atlas/axis
(b) Carpal/metacarpal of thumb
(c) Between phalanges
(d) Femur/acetabulum
(e) Between cranial bones
(f) Between pubic bones in the pelvic girdle
(a) Atlas/axis = Pivot joint.
(b) Carpal/metacarpal of thumb = Saddle joint.
(c) Between phalanges = Hinge joint.
(d) Femur/acetabulum = Ball and socket joint.
(e) Between cranial bones = Fibrous joint.
(f) Between pubic bones in the pelvic girdle = Ball and socket joint.
10. Fill in the blank spaces:
(a) All mammals (except a few) have __________ cervical vertebra.
(b) The number of phalanges in each limb of human is __________
(c) Thin filament of myofibril contains 2 ‘F’ actins and two other proteins namely __________ and
__________.
(d) In a muscle fibre Ca++ is stored in _________.
(e) __________ and __________ pairs of ribs are called floating ribs.
(f) The human cranium is made of __________ bones.
(a) All mammals (except a few) have seven cervical vertebra.
(b) The number of phalanges in each limb of human is 14.
(c) Thin filament of myofibril contains 2 ‘F’ actins and two other proteins namely Troponin and
Tropomyosin.
(d) In a muscle fibre Ca++ is stored in sarcoplasmic reticulum.
(e) 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are called floating ribs.
(f) The human cranium is made of eight bones.
CHAPTER 18 NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION
1. Briefly describe the structure of the Brain
Brain: The brain is a highly specialised organ, present in the cranium. It acts as a control and
command system of the body. It is covered by three meninges. It is divisible into three main regions:
(i) Forebrain,( ii) Midbrain, (iii) Hindbrain.
(i) Forebrain: It consists of three regions: Cerebrum: It is the largest and most complex of all the
parts of the human brain.It consists of two cerebral hemispheres (Right and left) joined together by
nerve fibres called the corpus callosum. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into four lobes namely
frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. The cerebral hemisphere's outer region has highly packed
nerve cells called the cerebral cortex which forms grey matter.Beneath the cerebral cortex is the
white matter of the cerebrum.
Role: The cerebrum is the centre of memory, intelligence, consciousness, voluntary actions and
willpower.
Thalamus: It is the region present at the centre of the forebrain. All sensory information that
reaches the cerebral hemispheres first passes through the
thalamus.
Role: Its main function is to interpret sensory and motor signals and then channel them to the
appropriate cerebral cortex region.
Hypothalamus: It is present beneath the thalamus and consists of masses of grey

matter scattered in the white matter.
Role: It is the control centre for many internal control mechanisms and is associated with the
thermovascular system, water balance, hunger drinking etc. It is also a reflex control centre. Along
with the limbic system, the hypothalamus also plays a part in regulating sexual behaviour.
(ii) Midbrain: It is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the forebrain and pons of the
hindbrain. It consists of a group of nerve cells—grey matter is scattered in the white matter.
Role: It connects the forebrain and hindbrain. Its four corpora quadrigemina control
eye movement and auditory responses. The lower part of the midbrain is associated with muscular
reflexes.
(iii) Hindbrain: It consists of three parts:
Cerebellum: The second largest part of the human brain is the cerebellum. It consists of two lateral
cerebellar hemispheres and
a central worm-shaped part, the vermis. It has grey matter on the surface called the
cerebellar cortex and white matter in the centre called the cerebellar medulla.
Role: It is a reflex centre for the coordination of muscular body movements and maintenance of
posture or equilibrium.
Pons: An oval mass, called the pons Varolii, lies above the medulla oblongata. It consists mainly of
nerve fibres which interconnect different regions of the brain.
Role: It sends impulses to the cerebral cortex and cerebellum.
Medulla oblongata: It extends from the pons Varolii above and is continuous with the spinal cord
below. The midbrain, pons Varolii and medulla oblongata are
collectively called the brain stem.
Role: It serves as a passage to conduct nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the brain. It controls
all the activities of the internal organs, breathing and heartbeat.
2. Compare the following:
(a) Central neural system (CNS) and Peripheral neural system (PNS).
(b) Resting potential and action potential.
(a) Difference between Central Neural System (CNS) and Peripheral Neural System (PNS):
CentrCentral Neural System (CNS)m Peripheral NPeripheral Neural System

(CNS) (PNS)eural System (PNS)
1. This system consists of the This consists of spinal nerves and cranial
brain and the spinal cord. nerves.
It is divided into the autonomic and somatic

1. It has no subdivisions.
nervous systems.
Nerves pass impulses to the CNS and

1. It processes information and
responses from the CNS send to the various
regulates the responses to impulses.
structure of the body.
1. Group of neurons are called

Group of neurons are called ganglia.
nuclei.
(b) Difference between Resting potential and Action potential.
Resting Potential Resting potential Action PotAction potential.ential
1. It is the potential difference across

It is the potential difference across the
the membrane when the neuron is at the
membrane when the neuron is triggered.
resting phase.
1. The Interior side is negatively

The Interior side is positively charged and
charged and the exterior side is positively
the exterior side is negatively charged.
charged.
1. Permeability of potassium ions (K+) Permeability of potassium ions (Na+) to

to be more by the plasma membrane of be more by the plasma membrane of
neurons. neurons.
1. To maintain the resting position, the To maintain the resting position, the
sodium-potassium ATPase pump is sodium-potassium ATPase pump is
activated, sending Na+ ions outside the activated, sending Na+ ions into the
neurons. neurons.
3. Explain the following processes:
(a) Polarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre.
(b) Depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre.
(c) Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse.
(a) Polarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre:
When the nerve fibre is at the resting state it is called the polarized state of the nerve. At this stage
the membrane of the nerve fibre experiences resting potential. Following are the steps that take
place during the process of polarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre.
When a depolarized region of a nerve fibre starts becoming polarized initially, there are more
K+ ions outside the nerve fibre and the axon membrane contains a large amount of Na+ ions.
As the region of the membrane starts attending the polarized state, the axon membrane is about
20 times more permeable to the K+ ion than to Na+ ion.3Na+ ions are sent outside the axon and 2
K+ ions are sent into the axon by a sodium-potassium transmembrane pump by an active transport
system. This results in greater total concentration of cations outside the membrane resulting in a
negative charge within the axon. A t this stage, the membrane is said to be polarized and has a resting
potential of –70 mV.
(b) Depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre:
When the nerve fibre is stimulated it is called the depolarized state of the nerve. When a
stimulus is applied to the nerve a disturbance occurs at the point of stimulation and brings about
changes in the potential in that area. Following are the steps that take place during the process of
depolarisation of the membrane of a nerve fibre.The permeability of the membrane changes. It
becomes more permeable to Na+. The gates of Na+ ion channel open and it results Na+ ions diffuse
in from ECF and so the number of positive ions inside the axon increase.
The membrane potential becomes progressively less. From – 70mV, it changes to + 60 mV.
The change in potential is called an action potential and the membrane is called to be at
depolarized state.
(c ) Transmission of a nerve impulse across a chemical synapse
Synapse is a small gap that occurs between the last portion of the axon of one neuron and
the dendrite of next neuron. When an impulse reaches at the end plate of axon, vesicles consisting
of chemical substance or neurotransmitter, such as acetylcholine, fuse with the plasma membrane.
This chemical moves across the cleft and attaches to chemo-receptors present on the membrane of
the dendrite of next neuron. This binding of chemical with chemo-receptors leads to the
depolarization of membrane and generates a nerve impulse across nerve fibre. The chemical,
acetylcholine, is inactivated by enzyme acetylcholinestrase. The enzyme is present in the post
synaptic membrane of the dendrite. It hydrolyses acetylcholine and this allows the membrane to
repolarise.
4.Draw labelled diagrams of the following:

(a) Neuron (b) Brain
(a) Neuron
(b) Brain
5.Write short notes on the following:
(a) Neural coordination (b) Forebrain (c) Midbrain (d) Hindbrain (e) Synapse
(a) Neural coordination
The neural system provides rapid coordination among the organs of the body. This coordination
is in the form of electric impulses and is quick and short lived. All the physiological processes in the
body are closed linked and dependent upon each other. For example, during exercise, our body
requires more oxygen and food. Hence, the breathing rate increases automatically and the heart
beats faster. This leads to a faster supply of oxygenated blood to the muscles. Moreover, the
cellular functions require regulation continuously. These functions are carried out by the
hormones. Hence, the neural system along with the endocrine system control and coordinate the
physiological processes.
(b) Forebrain
It is the main thinking part of the brain. It consists of cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
(i) Cerebrum:Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and constitutes about four-fifth of its weight.
Cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres by a deep longitudinal cerebral fissure. These
hemispheres are joined by a tract of nerve fibres known as corpus callosum. The cerebral
hemispheres are covered by a layer of cells known as cerebral cortex or grey matter. Cerebrum has
sensory regions known as association areas that receive sensory impulses from various
receptors as well as from motor regions that control the movement of various muscles. The
innermost part of cerebrum gives an opaque white appearance to the layer and is known as the
white matter.
(ii) Thalamus:
Thalamus is the main centre of coordination for sensory and motor signalling. It is wrapped by
cerebrum.
(iii) Hypothalamus:
It lies at the base of thalamus and contains a number of centres that regulate body temperature
and the urge for eating and drinking. Some regions of cerebrum, along with hypothalamus, are
involved in the regulation of sexual behaviour and expression of emotional reactions such as
excitement, pleasure, fear, etc.
(c) Midbrain
It is located between the thalamus region of the forebrain and pons region of hindbrain. The dorsal
surface of midbrain consists of superior and inferior corpora bigemina and four round lobes called
corpora quadrigemina. A canal known as cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain. Midbrain
is concerned with the sense of sight and hearing.
(d) Hindbrain
It consists of three regions - pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata.
(i) Pons is a band of nerve fibres that lies between medulla oblongata and midbrain. It connects the
lateral parts of cerebellar hemisphere together.
(ii) Cerebellum is a large and well developed part of hindbrain. It is located below the posterior
sides of cerebral hemispheres and above the medulla oblongata. It is responsible for maintaining
posture and equilibrium of the body.
(iii) Medulla oblongata is the posterior and simplest part of the brain. It is located beneath the
cerebellum. Its lower end extends in the form of spinal cord and leaves the skull through foramen
magnum.
(e)Synapse
Synapse is a junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of next neuron. It
is separated by a small gap known as synaptic cleft. There are two types of synapses.
(a) Electrical synapse
(b) Chemical synapse
In electrical synapses, the pre and post synaptic neurons lie in close proximity to each other. Hence,
the impulse can move directly from one neuron to another across the synapse. This represents a
faster method of impulse transmission. In chemical synapses, the pre and post synaptic neurons are
not in close proximity. They are separated by a synaptic cleft. The transmission of nerve impulses is
carried out by chemicals such as neurotransmitters.
6.Give a brief account of Mechanism of synaptic transmission
Mechanism of synaptic transmission

Synapse is a junction between two neurons. It is present between the axon terminal of one neuron
and the dendrite of next neuron separated by a cleft.
There are two ways of synaptic transmission.
(1) Chemical transmission
(2) Electrical transmission
1. Chemical transmission - When a nerve impulse reaches the end plate of axon, it releases a
neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) across the synaptic cleft. This chemical is synthesized in cell body
of the neuron and is transported to the axon terminal. The acetylcholine diffuses across the cleft
and binds to the receptors present on the membrane of next neuron. This causes depolarization of
membrane and initiates an action potential.
2. Electrical transmission - In this type of transmission, an electric current is formed in the neuron.
This electric current generates an action potential and leads to transmission of nerve impulse
across the nerve fibre. This represents a faster method of nerve conduction than the chemical
method of transmission.
7.Explain the Role of Na + in the generation of action potential

Sodium ions play an important role in the generation of action potential. When a nerve fibre is
stimulated, the membrane potential decreases. The membrane becomes more permeable to Na +
ions than to K + ions. As a result, Na +diffuses from the outside to the inside of the membrane. This
causes the inside of the membrane to become positively-charged, while the outer membrane gains
a negatively charge. This reversal of polarity across the membrane is known as depolarisation. The
rapid inflow of Na + ions causes the membrane potential to increase, thereby generating an action
potential.
Differentiate between:
(a) Myelinated and non-myelinated axons
(b) Dendrites and axons
(c) Thalamus and Hypothalamus
(d) Cerebrum and Cerebellum
Answer :
(a) Myelinated and non-myelinated axons
Myelinated axons Non-myelinated axons
1. Transmission of nerve impulse is faster 1. Transmission of nerve impulse is slower
2. Myelinated axon has a myelin sheath. 2. Myelin sheath is absent
3. Node of Ranvier is present between adjacent 3. Node of Ranvier is absent

myelin sheaths.
4. Found in the brain, the spinal cord, the cranial 4. Found in autonomous and somatic neural
and Systems
spinal nerves
5. Schwann cells are observed inside the myelin 5. Schwann cells are not observed inside the
sheath myelin sheath
(b) Dendrites and axons

Dendrites Axons
1. Dendrite is a small projection arising from the 1. Axon is a single, long projection that conducts
neuron. It conducts the nerve impulse toward the nerve impulse away from cell body to the
the cell body. next neuron.
2. Nissl's granules are present in dendrites. 2. Nissl's granules are absent from axons.
3. Dendrites are always non-myelinated. 3. Axons can be myelinated or non-myelinated.
(d) Thalamus and Hypothalamus

Thalamus Hypothalamus
Thalamus is the part of the forebrain that Hypothalamus is the part of the forebrain that
receives nerve impulses of pain, temperature, controls
touch, etc., and conducts them to the cerebral involuntary functions such as hunger, thirst,
hemisphere. sweating,
sleep, fatigue, sexual desire, temperature
regulation,
etc.
(e) Cerebrum and Cerebellum
Cerebrum Cerebellum
It is the part of the forebrain that controls It is the part of the hindbrain that controls
voluntary functions. It is the place where voluntary functions and controls the
intelligence, will power, memory, etc., reside. equilibrium.
9.Answer the following:

(a) Which part of the human brain is the most developed?
(b) Which part of our central neural system acts as a master clock?
(a) Forebrain is largest and the most developed part of the human brain.
(b) Hypothalamus acts as a master clock in the human body.
10.Distinguish between:
(a) afferent neurons and efferent neurons
(b) impulse conduction in a myelinated nerve fibre and unmyelinated nerve fibre
(f) cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
Answer :
(a) Afferent neurons and efferent neurons
Afferent neurons Efferent neurons
Afferent neuron conducts nerve impulses Efferent neuron conducts nerve impulses from
toward the brain or the spinal cord. the brain orspinal cord to the effector organs
such as muscles or glands
(b) Impulse conduction in a myelinated nerve fibre and an unmyelinated nerve fibre
Impulse conduction in a myelinated nerve fibre Impulse conduction in an unmyelinated nerve
fibre
1. 1.
In a myelinated nerve fibre, the action In an unmyelinated nerve fibre, the action
potential is conducted from one node potential is not
to another. conducted from node to node. It is carried along
the whole
length of the nerve fibre.
2. The conduction of impulses is faster 2. The conduction of impulses is slower
(f) Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

Cranial nerves Spinal nerves
1. Cranial nerves arise from the brain. 1. Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord.
2. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves 2. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
CHAPTER 19 CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION
1.Define the following:

(a) Exocrine gland
(b) Endocrine gland
(c) Hormone
(a) Exocrine glands: Glands that discharge secretions into ducts are known as exocrine glands.
Sebaceous gland in the skin, salivary gland in the buccal cavity, etc. are examples of exocrine
glands.
(b) Endocrine glands: Glands that do not discharge their secretions into ducts are known as
endocrine glands. Instead, these glands discharge their secretions directly into the blood. Pituitary
gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, etc. are examples of endocrine glands.
(c) Hormones: Hormones are chemical messengers that regulate physiological processes in living
organisms. They act upon specific cells/tissues/organs which are called target cells/tissues/organs.
2.Diagrammatically indicate the location of the various endocrine glands in our body.
The location of various endocrine glands in the human body can be illustrated as follows
3.List the hormones secreted by the following:

(a) Hypothalamus (b) Pituitary (c) Thyroid (d) Parathyroid (e) Adrenal (f) Pancreas
(g) Testis (h) Ovary (i) Thymus (j) Atrium (k) Kidney (l) G-I Tract
Answer :
(a) Hypothalamus: Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus include:
(1) Releasing hormones: These hormones stimulate the secretions of the pituitary hormone.
Examples of these hormones are:
(i) Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone
(ii) Thyrotrophin-releasing hormone
(iii) Somatotropin-releasing hormone
(iv) Adrenocorticotrophin-releasing hormone
(2) Inhibiting hormones: These hormones inhibit the secretions of the pituitary hormone. Examples
of these hormones are:
(i) Somatostatin
(ii) Growth-inhibiting hormone
(iii) Melanocyte-inhibiting hormone
(b) Pituitary: The pituitary gland has two components i.e., adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis.
Hormones secreted by the adenohypophysis are:
(i) Growth hormone (GH)
(ii) Prolactin
(iii) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
(iv) Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
(v) Luteinizing hormone (LH)
(vi) Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
(vii) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Hormones secreted by the neurohypophysis are:
(i) Oxytocin
(ii) Vasopressin
(c) Thyroid: The thyroid gland secretes three hormones namely, thyroxin, triiodothyronin, and
calcitonin.
(d) Parathyroid: The parathyroid gland secretes a hormone known as the parathyroid hormone.
(e) Adrenal: The adrenal gland is divided into two parts, the outer adrenal cortex and the inner
adrenal medulla. Hormones of adrenal cortex include the following:
(i) Mineralocorticoids: The hormone secreted is known as aldosterone.
(ii) Glucocorticoids: The hormone secreted is cortisol.
Hormones of adrenal medulla are adrenaline and nor-adrenalin.
(f) Pancreas: Hormones secreted by the pancreas are insulin and glucagon.
(g) Testis: The hormone secreted by the testis is testosterone.
(h) Ovary: The hormone secreted by the ovary includes estrogen and progesterone.
(i) Thymus: Hormones secreted by the thymus are thymosins.
(j) Atrium: The walls of the atrium secrete atrial natriuretic factor.
(k) Kidney: The hormone secreted by kidney is erythropoietin.
(l) G-I tract: The hormones secreted by the G-I tract are Gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin (CCK), and
gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP).
4.Fill in the blanks:
Hormones Target gland

(a) Hypothalamic hormones Pituitary
(b) Thyrotrophin (TSH) Thyroid
(c) Corticotrophin (ACTH) Adrenal
(d) Gonadotrophins (LH, FSH) Ovary,Testis
(e) Melanotrophin (MSH) Melanocyte
5.Write short notes on the functions of the following hormones,

(a) Parathyroid hormone (PTH) (b) Thyroid hormones (c) Thymosins (d) Androgens (e) Estrogens
(f) Insulin and Glucagon
(a) Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - The parathyroid hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland. Its
main function is to increase the level of calcium in blood. It promotes the reabsorption of calcium
from nephrons and also, promotes the absorption of calcium from digested food. Hence, it plays an
important role in maintaining calcium balance in the body.
(b) Thyroid hormones - Thyroid hormones such as thyroxine, triiodothyronin, and thyrocalcitonin
are secreted by the thyroid gland. Thyroxine maintains the basal metabolic rate of the body and
regulates the carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. Water and electrolyte balance is also
maintained by thyroid hormones. Thyrocalcitonin or calcitonin lowers calcium level in blood
plasma. It plays a significant role in calcium levels along with parathyroid hormone.
(c) Thymosins - Thymosin is secreted by the thymus gland. It plays a major role in protecting the
body against infectious agents. It helps in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes and also promotes
the reproduction of antibodies. Hence, it provides both cell-mediated and humoral immunity.
Thymosins also help in the development of sex glands.
(c) Androgens - The leydig cells of testis produce androgens such as testosterone. Testosterone is a
male sex hormone that regulates the development of secondary sex characteristics such as facial
hair, hoarse voice, development of reproductive organ, etc. Androgens also regulate the
development, maturation, and functions of various male accessory organs such as epididymis and
prostate glands. It stimulates spermatogenesis and formation of mature sperms. It also influences
male sexual behaviour.
(d) Estrogens- Estrogen is the female sex hormone that controls the development of secondary sex
characteristics such as enlargement of breasts and development of female reproductive organs. It
plays a role in the development, growth and maturation of female secondary characteristics. It also
helps in the development of growing ovarian follicles. It influences female sexual behaviour.
(f) Insulin and glucagon - Glucagon and insulin are secreted by cells of pancreas. They regulate the
blood glucose level in the body. α-cells secrete glucagon that maintain a normal blood glucose level
in the body, whereas β-cells secrete insulin that regulates the storage of glycogen in the liver.
Function of insulin - Insulin stimulates glycogenesis (conversion of glucose to glycogen). The rapid
conversion of glucose from the blood to glycogen in hepatocytes and adipocytes results into a
decreased glucose level. Insulin also prevents the formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate
substances such as proteins and fats. Hence, it acts as a regulator of carbohydrate metabolism.
Function of glucagon - The main function of the glucagon is to increase the level of glucose when
there is a deficiency of glucose in the body. This process is known as glycogenolysis.
6.Give example(s) of:

(a) Hyperglycemic hormone and hypoglycemic hormone
(b) Hypercalcemic hormone
(c) Gonadotrophic hormones
(d) Progestational hormone
(e) Blood pressure lowering hormone
(f) Androgens and estrogens
(a) Hyperglycemic hormone and hypoglycemic hormone:

Hyperglycemic hormone is glucagon, while hypoglycemic hormone is insulin.
(b) Hypercalcemic hormone:
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is hypercalcemic hormone.
(c) Gonadotrophic hormones:
Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormones are examples of gonadotrophic hormone.
(d) Progestational hormone:
Progesterone is a progestational hormone.
(e) Blood pressure lowering hormone:
Nor-adrenalin is a blood pressure lowering hormone.
(f) Androgens and estrogens:
Testosterone is an example of androgen, while an example of estrogen is estradiol.
7.Which hormone deficiency is responsible for the following?

(a) Diabetes mellitus (b) Goitre (c) Cretinism
(a) Diabetes mellitus is characterized by abnormally high glucose levels in the blood due to the
deficiency of hormone, called insulin.
(b) Goitre is characterised by an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland due to the deficiency
of thyroxin hormone in the body.
(c) Cretinism is characterized by stunted growth in the baby due to the deficiency of thyroid
hormone in the body.
8.Briefly mention the mechanism of action of FSH.

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pars distalis region of the anterior pituitary.
It regulates the development, growth, and reproductive processes of the human body. In the ovary,
FSH stimulates the growth and maturation of ovarian follicle. As the follicle grows and matures, it
releases an inhibitory hormone known as inhibin that ends the process of FSH production.
Action of FSH: Follicle stimulating hormone produces its effect by binding to its specific receptors
present on the ovarian cell membrane. Binding of FSH hormone to its receptor leads to the
formation of hormone receptor complex. The formation of this complex leads to biochemical
changes in the ovarian follicle, present in the ovarian. The ovarian follicles mature and
release a mature ovum in the fallopian tube for fertilization.
9.Match the following:

Column I Column II
a ) T4 i ) Hypothalamus
b ) PTH ii ) Thyroid
c ) GnRH iii ) Pituitary
d ) LH iv ) Parathyroid
Answer :
Column I Column II
a )T 4 ii ) Thyroid
b ) PTH iv ) Parathyroid
c) GnRH i ) Hypothalamus
d) LH iii ) Pituitary
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11 STD ZOOLOGY BOOK BACK SOLUTION

1 THE LIVING WORLD

17 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GAS

18 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

19 EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

20 LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

21 NEURAL CONTROL COORDINATION

22 CHEMICAL COORDINATIONAND INTEGRATION

4. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations?

6. Define a taxon. Give some examples of taxa at different hierarchical levels.

CHAPTER 4 ANIMAL KINGDOM

4. Distinguish between intracellular and extracellular digestion?

5.It occurs in unicellular organisms. 5. It occurs in multicellular organisms.

5. What is the difference between direct and indirect development?

Direct development Indirect development

13. Segmentation in the body is first observed in which of the following:

(a) Operculum (i) Ctenophora

(a) Operculum (viii) Osteichthyes

CHAPTER 7 STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN ANIMALS

1.Draw a neat diagram of digestive system of frog.

1. What are macromolecules? Give examples.

Proteins used as therapeutic agents are as follows:

5.Explain the composition of triglyceride.

The general chemical formula of triglyceride is , where R1, R2,

Structure of alanine Structure of amino acid

8.What are gums made of? Is Fevicol different?

Item Name of the Procedure Result Inference

Grease test To a brown Fats and oils are

Ninhydrin test Fruit juice Colourless Amino acids are

2.Saliva Biuret’s test Saliva + Biuret’s Colour changes Proteins are

Ninhydrin test Saliva + Ninhydrin reagent Colourless Amino acids are

Ninhydrin Sweat + Ninhydrin reagent + No colour change, Amino acids are

CHAPTER 14 BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

1. Define Vital Capacity. What is its Significance?

(ii) pO2 higher, pCO2 lesser

7.How is Respiration regulated?

Inspiratory reserve volume(IRV) is Expiratory reserve volume is

It is about 2500ml – 3000ml. It is about 1000ml – 1100ml.

(b)Inspiratory capacity and Expiratory capacity

Inspiratory capacity is defined as Expiratory capacity is defined as

Inspiratory capacity is the sum of Expiratory capacity is the sum of

(c) Vital capacity and Total lung capacity

Vital capacity is defined as the Total lung capacity is defined as

Vital capacity includes Inspiratory Total lung capacity includes

CHAPTER 15 BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

(c) Platelets or thrombocytes help in clotting of blood.

2. What is the importance of plasma proteins?

(a) Fibrinogens are needed for clotting or coagulation of blood.

(b) Globulins are involved in defense mechanisms of the body.

(c) Albumins help in osmotic balance.

4. Match Column I with Column II :

Column IColumn I Column Column II

(a) Eosinophils (i) Coagulation

(b) RBC (ii) Universal Recipient

(c) AB Group (iii) Resist Infections

(d) Platelets (iv) Contraction of Heart

(e) Systole (v) Gas transport

The correct match is as follows: