See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/225568535

An experimental study on the influence of fluid flow pattern on microbubble

generation

Article in Forschung im Ingenieurwesen · December 2008

DOI: 10.1007/s10010-008-0083-y

CITATIONS READS

5 1,305

4 authors, including:

N. M. Nouri Amin Moosaie

Iran University of Science and Technology Yasouj University
118 PUBLICATIONS 957 CITATIONS 52 PUBLICATIONS 485 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by N. M. Nouri on 22 July 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240
DOI 10.1007/s10010-008-0083-y

ORIGINALARBEITEN · ORIGINALS

An experimental study on the influence of fluid flow pattern

on microbubble generation
N. M. Nouri · A. Sarreshtehdari · E. Maghsoudi · A. Moosaie

Received: 16 June 2008 / Published online: 24 September 2008

© Springer-Verlag 2008

Abstract Geometrical properties of generated microbubbles ω Rotational velocity

induced by different fluid flow patterns were investigated τ Shear stress (N/m2 )
experimentally. Image processing method has been used to µ Viscosity (N · s/m2)
find microbubble size distribution and to determine bub- σ Surface tension (N/m)
bles’ roundness as well. Three types of flow patterns were ρ Fluid density
produced by changing microbubble generator configuration
in order to improve bubbles’ size distribution. These dif- Superscripts
ferent geometrical configurations of designed microbubble
a Air
generator were used to generate microbubbles in various air
w Water
volume fractions. Obtained results confirm direct relation
0 Single phase state (water)
between generated microbubbles size and their distribution
with fluid flow patterns. More complex geometry creat-
ing high turbulent regions are suggested to increase bubble
breaking up especially for high values of void fractions. 1 Introduction

List of symbols Skin friction reduction of full scale carriers and ships has
Cf Skin friction coefficient been an active research area in recent decades. Frictional
D Bubble diameter (m) drag exerted on a solid body moving through a liquid due
P Perimeter of bubble images (m) to water viscosity effects in the boundary-layer causes more
Q Flow rate (m3 /s) than 50 percent of total drag at low Froude numbers [1].
S Bubble radius (m) Nowadays, various methods such as cavitation, polymer
r Area of bubble images coating, and microbubble injection are being used to de-
t Time (s) crease the frictional drag and hence to save a significant
u Linear velocity (m/s) amount of energy which has been wasted before. Thus, it de-
creases the consumption of fossil fuels and environmental
Greek symbols pollutions.
Microbubble drag reduction has been a topic of research
α Air void fraction
for a long time. McCormick and Bhattacharyya were the
ε Turbulent dissipation rate
first researchers who investigated drag reduction by micro-
N. M. Nouri · A. Sarreshtehdari · E. Maghsoudi · bubbles [2], they towed a 1.22 m long, fully submerged hull
A. Moosaie (u) in a towing tank. They created small bubbles around the hull
Applied Hydrodynamics Laboratory, Department of Mechanical using electrolysis and found that significant drag reduction
Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology,
can be obtained using this technique. Their topic of research
Narmak 14464,
Tehran, Iran has been continued by many researchers either as numerical
e-mail: aminmoosaie@mail.iust.ac.ir investigations or experimental researches [3–10].

13
234
A full-scale experiment performed in 2007 indicated
10% net energy-saving by air bubble injection [11]. Re-
cently, the use of microbubbles to decrease frictional drag
has been increased. Decrease of the most important part
of total drag at low Froude numbers in which many ships
cruise in the same conditions will lead to save a large
amount of energy and decrease environmental pollution as
a second result that is the obvious reason of the importance
of micro bubble drag reduction (MBDR). In the other word,
this method not only does not increase environmental re-
source pollution because of using air bubbles, but also it
might improve water resource life conditions by increasing
the amount of solving air of water. Drag reduction cor-
respondence to gain factor, drag reduction ratio per void
fraction in the boundary-layer, which is high value in this
method in comparison with the others’ such as air film
method, is another reason of using this method. Calculated
microbubble methods’ gain factor is ranging from 2 to 10 as
published results (e.g. Kato et al. 1999) [12].
In 2006, Villafuerte and Hassan [6] generated hydrogen
and oxygen microbubbles by electrolysis which had an aver-
age size of 15 µm in radius, and achieved drag reductions up
to 40%. Wu et al. [13] used porous medium to generate mi-
crobubbles and their experiments in pipe showed even more
drag reduction (26%) when they used 1 µm porous medium
compared with that of 10 µm porous medium at the same
flow speed (about 23%).
In microbubble drag reduction, the size of bubbles is an
essential issue, as the aforementioned researchers [14, 15]
emphasized. Many researchers believed that microbubble
size should be smaller than or in the same order of magni-
tude as the smallest eddies in turbulence flow to be effective
on turbulent boundary-layer. On the other hand, some in-
vestigators (e.g. Shen et al. [16]) indicated that the drag
reduction induced by microbubbles is strongly related to the
injected gas volumetric flow rate and the static pressure in
the boundary-layer while it is essentially independent of the
size of the microbubbles themselves. For instance, Murai
et al. [14] indicated the possibility of promoting drag reduc-
tion using intermediate-sized (non-microbubble) bubbles. In
contrary, there are more researchers who believe microbub-
bles size plays a significant role in the amount of drag reduc-
tion. Recently, the bubble-size dependency of the average
skin friction in the intermediate bubble size condition was
observed by injecting bubbles with sizes ranging approxi-
mately from 2 to 90 µm into the boundary-layer thickness
in a horizontal turbulent channel flow [15]. In these ex-
periments, the local skin friction drastically decreased in
the rear part of individual large bubbles, and rapidly in-
creased after the bubble rear interface passes. Therefore, it
was found by browsing the literature that bubbles size in
the order of micrometer and their distribution in boundary-
layer can provide skin friction drag reduction, although it
13
Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240
is not the only reason for drag reduction by air bubble
injection.
In this paper, image processing technique was used to
investigate the performance of a new microbubble genera-
tor apparatus which was introduced in previous work [17].
Various experiments in three different models of apparatus
were conducted and the so-obtained images were processed
to determine minimum, maximum and predominant sizes of
microbubbles (distribution) and bubbles roundness. These
results are used to estimate the performance of each model
for a marine research application. Generated microbubbles
sizes are between 61 and 2696 µm in the models with outlet
gap size of 3 and 20 mm, respectively.
2 Theory
When the air is injected into the water, the velocity fluc-
tuations of the underlying turbulence of the jet results in
deformation forces that are much greater than confinement
forces due to surface tension and consequently, the bubble
breaks up. The amount of breakup frequency is proportional
to the difference between the amount of confinement forces
and that of deformation forces exerted on the bubble sur-
face [18, 19]. In this condition, turbulent stress caused by the
velocity fluctuations is defined as
1
τt (D) = ∆u 2 (D) , (1)
2
while the surface restoring pressure is defined as
6σ
τs (D) = . (2)
D
The more difference between turbulent stresses caused by
the velocity fluctuations and surface restoring pressure, the
more probability of bubble breakup in a certain time will be.
After a while, the amount of difference gradually reduces,
and breakup frequency decreases to a finite value.
The probability of breakup depends on the characteristic
size of the bubble, D, and the value of the turbulent kinetic
energy (or, dissipation rate ε) of the underlying turbulence.
For each value of ε, a critical capillary length Dc exists such
that in the mean the turbulent stresses are equal to the sur-
face tension forces. This critical capillary diameter Dc is
given by

3
σ 5 −2
Dc = 1.26 ε 5. (3)
ρ
The breakup frequency is zero for bubbles of size D ≤
Dc , and it rapidly increases for bubbles larger than the
critical ones, i.e. D > Dc . After reaching a maximum at
Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240
Fig. 1 Left: schematic of microbubble generator (parts and flow paths); Right: final manufactured model
Dgmax = 1.63Dc , the breakup frequency monotonically de-
creases with increasing bubble size. The maximum breakup
frequency achieved at Dgmax is given by

− 2
σ 5 3
gmax (ε) ∝ ε5 .
ρ
In order to produce as many microbubbles as possible,
breakup frequency should be increased by some means.
Thus, turbulent kinetic energy (or, dissipation rate ε) and
initial diameter of bubbles controlled by nozzles diameter
are two effective parameters considered in design of the
microbubble generator apparatus. An increase of rotational
speed leads to an increase in kinetic energy, while the initial
diameter of the bubbles is controlled by nozzle diameters.
3 Set-up operation
The apparatus used for bubble generation is a symmetric
cylindrical device including a central rotational hub and an
external shell. Figure 1 illustrates a section of the device and
final manufactured apparatus. In this device liquid and gas are
injected through diagonal and vertical holes respectively and
exit circumferentially through outlet. Geometrical shape of
the region through which liquid–gas mixture passes is delib-
erately selected to maximize rotational velocity of gas–fluid
mixture. Angles of diagonal holes of water are selected so
that the tangential velocity of inlet water is much more than
235
(4)
Fig. 2 Straight and diagonal
holes trough which air and
water injected to the system
radial velocity in order to make central hub rotate, Fig. 2. Fur-
thermore, two bearings have been used to support the central
hub and promote the tendency of rotation. In order to ob-
tain an optimum geometry for the area that liquid–gas mix-
ture passes, finite element method was used to simulate single
phase flow for different geometries proposed during design
procedure. These models have been simulated with constant
inlet boundary conditions. Rotational velocity in the region,
turbulent kinetic energy and the trajectories at which water
elements travel were considered as the effective parameters
for optimum geometry selection. The higher the rotational
velocity and turbulent kinetic energy and the longer the tra-
jectories of water elements, the less the size of generated bub-
bles would be. Manufacturability of the geometry is another
issue that needs to be considered. The turbulent kinetic en-
ergy, rotational velocity and length of trajectories of water
elements, for final selected model, are much more than the
others [17]. Figure 3 illustrate the trajectory of some fluid
13
236
Fig. 3 Water elements trajectory from inlet to outlet (color spec-
trum shows the velocity magnitude); Up: without central hub rotation;
Down: with central hub rotation (6 rounds per second)
elements in this device, in which, according to the numer-
ical results, the turbulent kinetic energy, rotational velocity
and length of trajectories of water elements increase the air
bubbles splitting. Also in this device the rotational velocity
and turbulent kinetic energy will be increased by rotation of
central hub, with a motor driving, as it was obtained by CFD
simulation, Fig. 3. Passing a rotational trace around central
rotational hub, air particles are broken up to tiny bubbles.
Bubbles are broken in three different stages in this device. At
first stage, they are broken due to the injection trough holes.
During the second stage, rotational flow makes bubbles to
pass a longer path. In this stage, high velocity flow increases
separation between bubbles, reducing coalescence and turbu-
lent flow breaks them up continuously. In the last stage, large
shear stresses caused by narrow outlet break up the bubbles
for the last time.
Final manufactured microbubble generator with the
height of 160 mm, maximum diameter of 217 mm and thick-
13
Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240
ness of 8.8 mm has been used in this work. In this model,
water enters the device via six diagonal nozzles with diam-
eter of 10 mm and angle of 61◦ , and mixes with air coming
from 24 vertical straight holes with diameter of 2 mm each
at the bottom of the device.
In single phase flow and computer simulations integrated
force can be computed using shear stress
du
τ =µ . (5)
dr
The force was obtained by integrating shear stress on the
surface of hub as
 
F = τ · dA = 2π τr(h) dh . (6)
Hence effective torque yielded

T = 2π τr 2 (h) dh . (7)
It is pointed out that only the component of the wall shear
stress vector in planes perpendicular to the axis of the hub
affects the rotational forces acting on the hub. The other
component of the wall shear stress, the component with
a vector lying in planes that extend through the axis of the
hub, does not directly affect the rotation of the hub. There-
fore as a consequence, the measured hub rotation rate can
only be used to infer how this one component of the skin
friction force was affected by gas injection. (This torque can
be measured in the future works. The comparison of simu-
lated model and measured values of torque between single
and two phase cases can be used to study of bubble injection
effect on central hub rotation.)
Figure 4 shows the experimental set-up schematically.
Micro-bubble Generator installed at the bottom of a cylin-
drical tank with depth of 1.5 m and volume of 1.57 m3 . The
tank has four transparent windows for setting light and tak-
ing images (C, D). Each two windows are exactly designed
to be opposite. The first two windows have the height of 1 m
and width of 0.3 m and are set near the bottom of the tank.
The second two windows with the height of 1.2 m and width
of 0.3 m are set 0.5 m upper than the bottom of the tank.
Since the second two windows are cover the region located
exactly after outlet of two windows are cover the region lo-
cated exactly after outlet of the apparatus, these ones were
used for film-taking and photography. Water is entered the
water nozzles via a centrifugal pump (P). Flow rate is meas-
ured by a flow meter (A) and is controlled using a valve (B).
A compressor with maximum pressure of 500 kPa is used
to provide and inject pressurized air, after passing through
a pressure regulator, to straight air holes of the device. Be-
fore air enters the device, its flow rate is measured by a cal-
ibrated rotameter (F) and controlled by a valve (G). The
pressure of injected air was adjusted to 110 ± 5 kPa in all
experiments.
Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240
Fig. 4 Schematic of experimental setup
Some qualitative tests show that bubbles are located close
enough to the hub to affect on skin friction in this device.
Bubbles leaving the apparatus gradually coalesced as they
rose and made large bubbles. So, at the top of the tank,
a membrane (E) was used to separate air from water in order
that inlet water feeding to the flow meter and the pump was
free of air bubbles.
4 Experiments
To investigate the operation performance of the apparatus,
three models with three different outlet gap sizes, 20, 8
and 3 mm were used. (These gap sizes were selected based
on confines of manufacturing and no CFD modeling was
simulated for them but these models was tested and the re-
sults of their microbubble generation are presented in this
work.) In all experiments, the lowest void fraction was set
and the water flow rate was adjusted to 4 l/s. Void frac-
tion adjusted to the lowest amount, 3.2%, is defined as
follows
Qa
α= . (8)
Qa + Ql
Image processing method was used to investigate mi-
crobubbles size, distribution and roundness. Several im-
ages were taken by a digital Sony CCD camera with sen-
sitivity of ISO 1000 and ability of 30 fps in a constant
void fraction and in each model. To measure and to scale
237
Fig. 5 Sample of generated
microbubbles
Fig. 6 Left: microbubble original photo; Right: binary image of photo
bubbles diameter, a ruler with the length of 50 cm was
installed above the device. To better detect the bubbles,
Surface of the ruler was completely filled with the white
and yellow color. Figure 5 illustrates a sample of original
images taken in each experiment. Among several images
taken in each experiment, five photos where selected to
determine generated bubbles’ characteristics of each appa-
ratus model. Image processing was the method used for
bubbles’ size, distribution and roundness. Figure 6 illus-
trated an original sample image and that image, after fil-
tering and changing to binary format to process. In this
photo bubble interface are projected as dark shadows on the
image.
During each test, bubble images are recorded with the
camera focused at the wall of bubble generator device. To
accurately determine the bubble size, a Canny edge detec-
tor algorithm is implemented to find the boundaries of the
captured bubbles in each image. The size of each bubble is
then determined by measuring the maximum horizontal or
vertical distance between the bubble boundaries based on
the edge detection results. Overlapped bubbles and bubbles
without clearly defined edges are not included in the bub-
ble size analysis. Using this method, the measured bubble
size is accurate to ±1 pixel, i.e., ±0.1 µm for the bubbles
formed during air injection. To determine the bubble size
distribution, 500 bubbles are counted from each set of test
images.
5 Results and discussion
Figure 7 indicates the primary results obtained from image
processing method. At first glance, it is obviously distinct
that the average size of bubbles generated by the apparatus
13
238 Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240

Table 1 Comparison of generated bubble sizes for various models

Apparatus Min. size Max. size Predominant Completely
characteristics (µm) (µm) size (µm) round bubbles
Outlet 20 mm 101–337 2696–2932 337–573 %31
Outlet 8 mm 61–186 1434–1560 310–435 %54
Outlet 3 mm 61–116 670–725 171–227 %74

Table 2 Statistical comparison of circularity values in generated bub-

bles
Circularity Gap = 3 mm Gap = 8 mm Gap = 20 mm
Min 0.41 0.46 0.27
Fig. 7 Obtained microbubbles radius by image processing Max 1.00 1.00 1.00
Average 0.94 0.93 0.87
St. deviation 0.10 0.11 0.13

small microbubbles it is assumed the circular shape of mi-

Fig. 8 Mean values and standard deviation of obtained data in various
model of device
with the outlet gap size of 3 mm is less than that of the other
models of the apparatus.
In addition, Fig. 8 confirms this fact that not only the
average bubbles’ size but also the standard deviation de-
creases by reducing the outlet gap size of the apparatus.
Bubble size distribution is another important parameter
which was considered in this paper. Graph of bubbles dis-
tribution for each model was extracted, Fig. 9. In Fig. 10
a comparison is presented for distribution size of bubbles in
equal scale.
The summarized results from graphs are presented in
Table 1. As it shown, the lowest minimum size of generated
bubbles and the most maximum size of generated bubbles
belong to the models with the outlet gap size of 3 and 20
mm respectively. Although the Predominant size of generated
bubbles was not obviously changed from the model with the
outlet gap size of 20 mm to the outlet gap size of 8 mm, the first
model generated bubbles in the wider range of size than the
second one. Also, the model with the outlet gap size of 3 mm
produces microbubbles with the lowest predominant size.
Bubbles’ circularity was the last important parameter in-
vestigated in this research. It is mentioned that one of the
essential issues in microbubbles drag reduction is related to
shape of microbubbles and their deformability, also in very
crobubbles is constant and it doesn’t change in fluid flow
conditions.
Circularity was calculated through the following equation
P
Circularity = 4π , (9)
S
where P and S are the perimeter and area of the projected
bubbles image, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 11, the maximum roundness of mi-
crobubbles has been indicated in the model with the outlet
gap size of 3 mm (the smallest size), also in this gap size,
there is the minimum variety of generated bubbles sizes in
compare with another larger sizes of gap. It can be con-
cluded, in these series of tests, that the generated microbub-
ble circularity in this special device is related to gap size and
the amount of microbubble circularity increase as the gap
size decrease and vise versa.
According to the obtained results, in these tests, about
74% of generated microbubbles in the device with the small-
est gap size (3 mm) are completely circular, while this quan-
tity for other gap sizes is 54 and 31%, in 8 and 20 mm gap
sizes respectively. Table 2 shows the minimum, maximum,
average and standard deviation of obtained values of circu-
larity for above models, with different exit gap sizes. It is
illustrated circularity is decreasing with gap size increasing
and it lead to variety of bubble sizes and their deformability.
(In this trial products of microbubble generator models,
with different gap size, the flow head lost is increased by de-
creasing the gap length therefore required power, to pump
the same water flow rate, is increased. Hence by chang-
ing gap size the value of necessary power to make smaller
bubbles, microbubbles, is increased. This study is focused
on effect of fluid pattern on microbuble generation. For ap-
plication of this device pumping power (pressure loss), to
operation of this generator, should be measured in various
water flow rates and different void fractions; which, is one
of the further plans in this project.)

13
Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240 239

Fig. 9 Three tested models with

various exit gap size and frequency
of generated bubbles vs. radius and
its cumulative graph

Fig. 11 Comparison of bubble’s roundness (circularity) in three

Fig. 10 Comparison of bubble’s size distribution in tested models tested models

13
240
6 Conclusion
The effect of changes in flow pattern on generated small air
bubbles has been investigated experimentally in this work.
Fluid flow pattern was made by change of gap size of out-
let region in three models of tested microbubble generators.
Image processing was used to evaluation of geometrical
properties like as size distribution of generated bubbles and
bubbles’ roundness.
Results show more turbulent kinetic energy, provided by
more closed outlet gap, leads to 1. Increase the air bubbles
breaking and bubbles’ size decreasing 2. Confine generated
bubble size distribution to smaller bound of sizes and 3. Im-
prove roundness of generated bubbles. Also it conclude that
to provide more homogenous two phase flow, which con-
tain microbubbles, more amount of energy is required to
increase the turbulent kinetic energy, as it appears in increas-
ing head lost by change the outlet gap size. This subject is
encouraging usage of non homogenous distribution and big-
ger size of microbubbles to save energy costs and to increase
gain factor of microbubble drag reduction method.
References
1. Tahara Y, Stern F (1996) A large-domain approach for calculat-
ing ship boundary layers and wakes for nonzero Froude number.
J Comput Phys 127:398–411
2. McCormick ME, Bhattacharyya R (1973) Drag reduction of
a submersible hull by electrolysis. Nav Eng J 85:11–16
3. Clark H, Deutsch S (1991) Microbubble skin friction reduction
on an axisymmetric body under the influence of applied axial
pressure gradients. Phys Fluid A 3:2948–2954
4. Kitagawa A, Hishida K, Kodama Y (2005) Flow structure of
microbubble-laden turbulent channel flow measured by PIV com-
bined with the shadow image technique. Exp Fluid 38:466–
475
5. Murai Y, Oiwa H, Takeda Y (2005) Bubble behavior in a vertical
Taylor-Couette flow. J Phys Conf Ser 14:143–156
6. Ortiz-Villafuerte J, Hassan YA (2006) Investigation of microbub-
ble boundary layer using particle tracking velocimetry. J Fluid
Eng 128:507–519
13
View publication stats
Forsch Ingenieurwes (2008) 72: 233–240
7. Nagaoka H, Kurosaka M, Shibata N, Kobayashi M (2006) Effect
of bubble flow velocity on drag-force and shear stress work-
ing on submerged hollow fiber membrane. Water Sci Technol
54(10):185–192
8. Ferrante A, Elghobashi S (2005) Reynolds number effect on drag
reduction in a microbubble-laden spatially developing turbulent
boundary layer. J Fluid Mech 543:93–106
9. Madavan NK, Deutsch S, Merkle CL (1984) Reduction of turbu-
lent skin friction by microbubbles. Phys Fluid 27:356–363
10. Madavan NK, Deutsch S, Merkle CL (1985) Measurements of
local skin friction in a microbubble-modified turbulent boundary
layer. J Fluid Mech 156:237–256
11. Pal S, Merkle CL, Deutsch S (1988) Bubble characteristics and
trajectories in a microbubble boundary layer. Phys Fluid 31:
744–751
12. Kawashima H, Kodama Y, Hinatsu M, Hori T, Makino M,
Ohnawa M, Takeshi H, Sakoda M, Kawashima H, Matsuno F
(2007) A research project on application of air bubble injec-
tion to a full scale ship for drag reduction. In: Proceedings of
FEDSM2007, 5th Joint ASME/JSME Fluids Engineering Confer-
ence July 30–August 2 2007, San Diego, California, USA
13. Kato H, Iwashina T, Miyanaga M, Yamaguchi H (1999) Effect of
microbubbles on the structure of turbulence in a turbulent bound-
ary layer. J Mar Sci Technol 4:115–162
14. Wu SJ, Hsu C-H, Lin T-T (2007) Model test of the surface and
submerged vehicles with the micro-bubble drag reduction. Ocean
Eng 34:83–93
15. Murai Y, Fukuda H, Oishi Y, Kodama Y, Yamamoto F (2007)
Skin friction reduction by large air bubbles in a horizontal chan-
nel flow. Int J Multiph Flow 33:147–163
16. Kunz RF, Gibeling HJ, Maxey MR, Tryggvason G, Fontaine AA,
Petrie HL, Ceccio SL (2007) Validation of two-fluid Eulerian
CFD Modeling for Microbubble Drag Reduction Across a Wide
Range of Reynolds Numbers. Trans ASME 129:66–79
17. Shen X, Ceccio SL, Perlin M (2006) Influence of bubble size on
micro-bubble drag reduction. Exp Fluid 41:415–424
18. Nouri NM, Maghsoudi E, Sarreshtehdari A, Yahyaei M (2007)
Microbubble generation using high turbulent intensity flow. In:
Proceedings of FEDSM2007, 5th Joint ASME/JSME Fluids En-
gineering Conference July 30–August 2 2007, San Diego, Cali-
fornia, USA
19. Martı́nez-Bazán C, Montañés JL, Lasheras JC (1999) On the
breakup of an air bubble injected into a fully developed turbulent
flow, Part1. Breakup frequency. J Fluid Mech 401:157–182
20. Martı́nez-Bazán C, Montañés JL, Lasheras JC (1999) On the
Breakup of an Air Bubble Injected into a Fully Developed Tur-
bulent Flow, Part 2. Size PDF of the resulting daughter bubbles.
J Fluid Mech 401:183–207