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Research paper
h i g h l i g h t s g r a p h i c a l a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Thermal analysis is one of the main components in the design and construction of mass concrete
Received 10 June 2014 structures. A procedure for a heat-fluid coupling model (HFCM) is presented to simulate the thermal field
Accepted 22 December 2014 of mass concrete with a pipe cooling system, which can accurately reflect the temperature gradient near
Available online 29 December 2014
the pipe and the temperature rise along the pipe. Additionally, to make it suitable for the simulation of
forced-convection during pipe cooling, a modified particle swarm optimization (MPSO) method, based
Keywords:
on particle migration is adopted for parameter identification of the DittuseBoelter equation used by the
Mass concrete
heat-fluid coupling model, according to field tests. To verify the accuracy and computation efficiency of
Thermal field
Heat-fluid coupling model
the method, a simplified 3D model is simulated and compared to other numerical models. Subsequently,
Cooling pipe system the model is applied to the analysis of a monolith of the Dagangshan high arch concrete dam in the
Monitoring temperature construction period. The actual climatic conditions, cooling pipe system, cooling schedule and thermal
properties of the materials are considered in the analysis. The simulation results indicate that the pro-
posed method can effectively simulate the cooling pipe state, water temperature rise along the flow, and
directional changes of the flow in the thermal field of mass concrete. Moreover, the temperatures
determined by the numerical simulation are in good agreement with the monitoring values. Findings in
this research show that the proposed HFCM is feasible and has attractive advantages in the simulation of
the thermal field in practical complex mass concrete engineering projects with cooling pipe systems.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
* Corresponding author. State Key Laboratory of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering Science, Wuhan University, 430072 Wuhan, China. Tel.: þ86 27 6877 3778.
E-mail addresses: liuxhphd@163.com (X. Liu), gonopo2006@126.com (C. Zhang), changxl@whu.edu.cn (X. Chang), zw_mxx@163.com (W. Zhou), chengyg@whu.edu.cn
(Y. Cheng), duanyin_0224@126.com (Y. Duan).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.12.050
1359-4311/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
450 X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459
1. Introduction used can be classified into two catalogs: the approximately equiv-
alent method and the precise simulation of the cooling effect by
In recent years, a large number of concrete dams over 300 m water pipes.
high have been built in southwest China. In these projects, many Neglecting the temperature gradient in the direction of the
complicated technical problems need to be solved. Controlling cooling pipe, Zhu [6] introduced the effect of the cooling pipes as a
temperature-induced cracking in mass concrete structures is still negative heat source and proposed an equivalent heat conduction
one of the main technical issues in the early design and construc- method (EHCM) to calculate the temperature variation in mass
tion period, due to the hydration heat, cooling conditions, concrete with conventional finite element mesh. Although this is an
complicated outside environments and strong foundation re- approximation method, it requires only simple programming and
straints. Although strict measures are adopted to limit the tem- exhibits high computational efficiency. The equivalent equation is
perature rise within an acceptable level in mass concrete using an widely used in practical engineering projects [7,8]. Kim et al. [9]
intelligent temperature control and decision support system implemented a line element for the precise modeling of the cool-
(TCDSS) [1], thermal-stress-induced cracking often occurs unpre- ing pipe and applied internal flow theory to thermally analyze
dictably and affects the durability and service ability of mass con- concrete structures with pipe cooling. However, the requirement
crete. Hence, it is necessary to simulate the thermal field in mass that the line element for pipe modeling must be located at an edge
concrete and suggest some effective temperature control measures of or run across a solid concrete element may lead to in-
to prevent cracking [2,3]. conveniences in the model preprocessing. Chen [10e12] took each
Since the construction of the Hoover dam, cooling by the flow of pipe segment as a sub-element embedded in the concrete element
water through embedded cooling pipes has become a frequently and developed a composite element method (CEM), as well as the
used and effective artificial temperature control measure in the solution of permeable problems, to address heat extraction from
construction of concrete dams. However, pipe cooling in mass mass concrete by cooling pipes, but the cooling water temperature
concrete is a double-edged sword, as an extreme temperature that rises along the length of the pipe is ignored. Moreover, the
gradient will be induced within the concrete near the cooling pipes refine mesh of the cooling pipes is complicated and considerable
and will cause significant thermal stresses, which may be sufficient computational cost is required.
for cracking [4,5]. A large number of techniques are reported in the In addition, pipe cooling is a spatial and temporal problem of
literature for designers to evaluate the thermal performance and to heat conduction in practical mass concrete projects [13]. To the best
simulate the cooling effect of the water flow. The methods that they of our knowledge, the simulation of the thermal field is often
X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459 451
difficult and unsatisfied when reflecting the temperature variation 2.2. Heat-fluid coupling model for water pipe cooling
in concrete because of complicated actual temperature control
measures, such as the starting time for the cooling delay, the switch In this study, the HFCM is performed to simulate water pipe
between water inlet and outlet each day, multiple cooling schemes cooling, as shown in Fig. 1, Pipe cooling of concrete is a typical
and the air temperatures. Hence, the application of simulation coupled problem of temperature and fluid [15]. Because of the flow
methods in engineering remains limited because of its inconve- of cooling water, the heat is taken away by the convective heat
nience and inflexibility. exchange. In the FE model, concrete is simulated by 3D solid ele-
In this paper, a heat-fluid coupling model is introduced to ments, and cooling pipes are modeled as additional heat-fluid line
investigate the thermal field of pipe cooling systems in mass elements, which is presented in Fig. 2.
concrete structures, and the detailed algorithm is given. A 3- In the numerical simulation of the fluid-structure interactions,
dimensional (3D) finite element (FM) analysis is conducted us- the water current in the cooling water pipes is considered one-
ing the heat-fluid elements, in which cooling pipes are modeled dimensional steady flow. The heat flux in the material can be
as additional line elements according to actual serpentine lay- described by Fourier's law
outs. Thermal parameters adopted in the heat-fluid coupling
model are identified by back analysis with a proposed modified
particle swarm optimization based on measured temperatures vT
from the field test. For mass concrete structures containing a q ¼ l (6)
vx
large number of embedded cooling pipes, the FE model does not
need to consider the practical sectional shape and size of cooling Based on Fourier's law and the energy conservation principle,
pipes, which provides significant convenience for the pre- the heat supplied to the pipe is equal to the heat absorbed by the
processing of the thermal analysis. Subsequently, the cooling flowing water. Assuming that the water flows from node i to node j,
effect, accuracy and computation efficiency are verified through a the heat exchange between the flowing water and concrete at node
simplified 3D model. In the final part, the simulation model is i and j can be expressed as
applied in a case study on a monolith containing cooling pipes of
an arch dam. Practical cooling schemes and complicated
boundary conditions are considered. The reliability of the pro- vTi v2 T
rw cw ¼ lw 2i þ rw bw ðTk Ti Þ
posed method is investigated, and the simulation results tally vt vx
well with the monitoring values by temperature instruments, (7)
vTj v vTj
which shows that the heat-fluid coupling model can provide rw cw ¼ cw rw Tj lw þ rw bw Tl Tj
technical support for temperature control and crack prevention
vt vx vx
measures of a concrete dam with a pipe cooling system during The heat absorbed from the concrete by the flowing cooling
the construction period. water at node k and j is
vT
l ¼ b T Tf ðsecond typeÞ (4)
vn
vT
l ¼ f ðtÞ ðthird typeÞ (5)
vn
2 3 1
1 0 0 0 bs ¼ (16)
1=bw þ hp lp
rcAL 6
60 1 0 077
½C ¼ (10)
2 40 0 0 05 where lp is the thermal conductivity coefficient of the pipe. For a
0 0 0 0
metal pipe, lp ¼ 44.4w/m2$ C, for frequently used high density
2 3 polyethylene (HDPE) pipe in a mass concrete dam, lp ¼ 0.46 w/
B1 þ B2 B4 B1 þ B4 B2 0 m2$ C.
6 B1 B5 B1 þ B3 B5 0 B3 7
K ¼6
4
7 (11)
B2 0 B2 0 5
0 B3 0 B3 2.3. Parameter identification of DittuseBoelter equation
where B1 ¼ Alc =L, B2 ¼ bw Ai , B3 ¼ bw Aj , and B4 and B5 are defined The parameters of the DittuseBoelter equation proposed by
as: Colburn [17] and McAdams [18] are achieved under ideal condi-
tions, but thermal field of mass concrete with water pipe cooling is
Vw rcw if water flow is from j to i more complex and influenced by many unforeseeable factors.
B4 ¼ (12)
0 if water flow is from i to j Hence, it is necessary to identify the parameters of the Dit-
tuseBoelter equation based on field tests of the temperature
change in mass concrete with pipe cooling. In this paper, a modified
Vw rcw if water flow is from i to j
B5 ¼ (13) particle swarm optimization (MPSO) algorithm based on particle
0 if water flow is from j to i
migration is used to identify the parameters of the DittuseBoelter
equation in HFCM model [19].
in which A ¼ pD2 =4 is cross-sectional area of the cooling
The MPSO is enlightened by the migration of nature species to
pipe;Ai ¼ Aj ¼ pD=2 are the lateral areas of the cooling pipe asso-
maintain its population diversity. A population of particles is
ciated with the corresponding end i and j; B4 and B5 represent the
randomly sampled from the feasible space and the particles are
energy changes attributable to the mass transport that is lumped at
randomly divided into several sub swarms with several particles.
the outlet and inlet nodes, by which we can calculate the rise in the
The evolution of each sub-particle swarm is independent. The lin-
water temperature along the flow; B2 and B3 represent the heat
early decreasing inertia weight, the linearly varying acceleration
convection of the cooling water. The degree of heat exchanged by
factor and the self-adaptive mutation operator are intensively
cooling water convection is mainly determined by bw, which can be
considered with the evolution strategy. When the particle is
illustrated by the famous DittuseBoelter equation [16]:
migrating, particle current location is introduced to not only the
bw d new particle swarm, but also to the individual extremum. Hence, by
Nu ¼ eRef Prg ¼ (14) using the particle migration strategy, the MPSO has more global
lp
search ability and in the process of evolution, a particle migration is
performed to strengthen information exchange between each sub-
in which Re ¼ dnw rw =y is the Reynolds number; Pr ¼ ycw =lw is
particle swarm, improve its diversity and prevent premature
Prandtl number; and e, f, g are model parameters, which are related
convergence after several iterative times.
to the flow characteristics of the cooling water. y is fluid viscosity of
The objective function fitness (e, f, g) is chosen as 2-norm of the
the cooling water, which changes with its temperature Tw. The fluid
simulated temperatures and the measured data of the field tests in
viscosity y can be presented by the experimental data, as shown in
mass concrete, which can be illustrated by Eq. (17).
Eq. (15).
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
9ffi
u8 T j T j*
e0:00366Tw u< X N = i
y¼ u 1 i
(15) fitnessðe; f ; gÞ ¼ t ci 2 c ¼ max (17)
0:5412 þ 0:0195Tw 103 :N ; i 1jM T j*
j¼1 i
It is well known that Eq. (14) is widely used in practical engi-
neering to calculate the turbulent film coefficient of cooling water in which, e, f and g are the parameters as shown in Eq. (14); Tij is
j*
convection in concrete, especially for smooth tubes. Accordingly, simulated temperature of point i at time j; Ti is corresponding
there are some requirements for the use of Eq. (14) in mass concrete temperature measured from the field test; DTw is inlet and outlet
with pipe cooling system, such as Re ¼ 10,000e12,000, temperature difference of the cooling water; and fitness (e, f, g) is
X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459 453
3. Model verification
4. Engineering application
Fig. 5. Temperature distribution in concrete by the three frequently used model (z ¼ 180 m).
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution and history curves for the three commonly used
model.
Fig. 7. Temperature rise along the cooling pipe by the HFCM. Fig. 8. 3D FE mesh model of the #15 dam monolith.
X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459 455
was performed from the first placement at the base (925 m) to the Table 2
elevation of 1020 m. The 3D FE mesh model for the simulation was Thermal and structural properties.
presented in Fig. 8. Because of the poor quality of the foundation Materials Concrete Rock Cooling
rock, several concrete blocks with a thickness of approximately 5 m C18036 C18030 C18025
water
were applied to replace the surface rock. A snakelike arrangement
Density (kg/m3) 2418 2417 2414 2894 1000
of the cooling pipe was used during construction period. The in-
Thermal conductivity (w/m C) 2.64 2.74 2.78 1.92 0.161
cremental pouring process of concrete can be modeled using the Specific heat (J/kg C) 1030 1050 1060 2300 4187
birth and death element in the FE model. The spacing of the cooling Coefficient of linear expansion 8.67 8.59 8.51 / /
pipes was designed to be 1.5 1.5 m (vertical and horizontal). (106/ C)
Poisson ratio 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.24 /
When a fresh concrete slab was poured, the corresponding ele-
ments in the finite element model were immediately made active
and included in the solution. In the development of the HFCM to
simulate the thermal field of mass concrete, a set of pre-processing m1, m2, m3 were model parameters that represent the heat gener-
programs was used to achieve the precise the location of the ation rate (Table 3), which can be obtained by the adiabatic tem-
cooling pipes and the refined meshing concrete. A detailed FE perature test and back analysis of the monitored temperatures in
meshing of the HFCM model was built, which can accurately concrete. The effect of the temperature of the concrete was
represent the actual state of the cooling pipe system, as shown in considered by Eq. (18), which can reasonably reflect the actual
Fig. 9. situation of concrete adiabatic temperature rise.
4.2. Thermal and material parameters 4.3. Initial conditions and boundary conditions
The thermal properties of the concrete placed in the Dagang- The construction of monolith #15 of the Dagangshan Dam
shan arch dam, along with the rock foundation are summarized in began on January 20, 2013, and it gradually rose with the progress
Table 2. To investigate the effect of the cooling pipes, the thermal of construction. The initial temperature of the concrete was
properties of the cooling water and cooling pipes (Table 2) were assumed to be the placing temperature, according to the moni-
used. During pipe cooling, the inlet water temperatures varied toring records. The initial stage of water cooling was applied
within the range of 10e14 C, and the flow velocity of the cooling immediately after the completion of concrete pouring and lasted
water was within 0.22e0.64 m/s; hence, the values of inlet tem- approximately 20 days to reduce the maximum temperature. The
perature and flow were suitable for HFCM numerical analysis. To average inlet water temperature was 11 C, and the water flow was
solve the adiabatic temperature rise of concrete, Zhu [20] proposed approximately 1.2 m3/h. The water inlet and outlet were reversed
the following formula for the adiabatic temperature function: automatically every 24 h. In addition, the progress and some other
monitoring records of the initial 6 lifts were listed in Table 4.
qðt; TÞ ¼ q0 ½1 expð m1 T m2 tm3 Þ (18) Because the construction of the selected monolith was always
behind the adjacent monoliths, the boundary condition for both
where q0 was the maximum temperature of concrete obtained by sides was assumed to be adiabatic. Increasing upstream and
the adiabatic temperature test; t was the concrete age in days; and downstream surfaces of placed concrete, as well as the top surface
Fig. 9. FE meshing of concrete and cooling pipes. (A). Practical layout of cooling pipes in a lift. (B) Concrete block. (C) Enlarged heat-fluid elements).
456 X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459
Table 4
Pouring processes and typical monitored records during construction.
Pouring lift Elevation Pouring schedule Concrete consume (m3) Placing temperature ( C)
Table 5
Main meteorological factors at the Dagangshan dam site.
Month Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Average
Water temperature ( C) 6.7 8.3 11.2 14.3 15.7 16.5 17.4 17.6 15.8 13.6 10.4 7.4 12.9
Air temperature ( C) 8.0 9.7 14.3 18.4 21.3 22.4 24.5 24.3 20.8 17.4 13.1 9.1 8.0
Wind speed (m/s) 2.7 3.3 3.5 3.1 2.5 1.9 2.0 1.9 1.6 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.3
Ground temperature ( C) 9.9 11.9 17.0 20.8 24.2 25.3 27.4 27.4 22.3 19.2 15.2 10.4 19.2
X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459 457
that the temperature rise along the cooling pipes simulated by the
HFCM was in good agreement with the monitored temperatures,
which directly reflected the process of hydration heat taken away
by the cooling water. Fig. 15 illustrates the temperature histories for
the typical points (shown in Fig. 13) during the initial cooling
schedule. For point T1, which is away from the cooling pipes, the
temperature rose immediately, because of the hydration heat
within the concrete in the first 5e7 days after pouring. The
maximum predicted temperature reached approximately 25.9 C in
lift 2, and reached approximately 29.7 C in lift 6, due to delayed
water cooling. For point T2, which is near the water cooling pipes,
the temperature was lower and fluctuates more greatly, particularly
at early ages. With the decrease in concrete temperature, the heat
exchange between concrete and water became weak due to the
Fig. 10. Air temperature monitored by meteorological station at the Dagangshan dam decreasing temperature difference. The results indicated that the
site. temperature change near the cooling pipes was well estimated as a
result of the changed in the direction of the water flow every 24 h,
which makes the cooling effect more uniform by the HFCM model.
5. Conclusions
Fig. 12. Temperature variation in some typical slabs: (A) first lift, (B) third lift, (C) sixth lift (D) concrete surface with and without insulating benzene board (first lift).
458 X. Liu et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 78 (2015) 449e459
Fig. 13. Temperature distribution of several time period and typical points' position (lift 2).
(3) The results from the thermal field simulation of #15 Dag-
angshan dam monolith during the construction period
demonstrate that the proposed HFCM model is suitable to
simulate various actual situations. Moreover, the simulated
results are in good agreement with the monitored temper-
atures. The temperature in concrete near the cooling pipes is
obviously lower, fluctuates more rapidly and more closely
aligns with the actual situation.
(4) The temperature gradient near cooling pipes and several
practical cooling situations are intuitively and precisely
modeled in mass concrete by the HFCM model, which shows
prospective advantages in the thermal field of mass concrete
with the water pipe cooling system. Furthermore, the ther-
mal stress near the cooling pipes, which is obviously greater
and makes cracking more likely to be initiated, will be
Fig. 14. Temperatures of cooling water at outlet.
further researched.
analyzed by the proposed model as an engineering application. The
concluding remarks are as follows:
Acknowledgements
(1) A reliable back identification of the thermal parameters is
This research investigation was supported by the National Basic
conducted by the MPSO based on particle migration. The
Research Program (973 Project) under Grant No. 2013CB035901
temperature in mass concrete with pipe cooling computed
and the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
by the proposed HFCM model with the back thermal pa-
No. 50909078. We also sincerely thank Mr. Manling Li and Mrs.
rameters coincides very well with the field testing values.
Jingdong Shao for providing measured temperature data in per-
(2) The cooling effect, precision and efficiency of the proposed
forming this research work.
HFCM model are verified through a simplified 3D finite
element model by comparing the calculated results with
other CEM and EHCM models. The temperature rise along the References
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