Major Sociological Theorists

Allama ibn-I- Khaldoon (evolutionary theorist)

1. Born in Tunis, khaldoon was great thinker of middle age

2. Historian who studied cultural lives of Babar tribes, and made study of the cultural and
social life of these tribes and laid foundation of a new science known as ilm-ul-imran.

MAJOR THEORIES

1. METHODOLOGY
a. Explained in his book mokadima
b. Explained methods of logic as scientific method
c. Studied the relationship of social, political and cultural method
d. One event is cause then other effect
e. Causal relationship among different events
f.
2. Theory of AL-Asabiya:
a. Discussed in his moakdima
b. Unites people, hence infusing solidarity in them which leads to creation of al-asabiya
i. Emotions of similarity which keeps people united
ii. Relationship on mutual basis
iii. Emile Durkheim was supporter of this view
c. People get into conflict readily and the conflict is decided by state
i. No force can subjugate the force of asabiya
d. AL-Asabiya: A spirit of cohesion
i. Emotional similarities among group. These emotions works as an affective
force for action.
ii. A spirit which catalyses’ group life , hence creating tribes
iii. No tribe without asabiya
iv. Asabiya : fountain of power and authority
v. Luxuries of life are detrimental to asabiya
e. Religious forces sharpen asabiya
f. Vast and powerful nations come into being when cooperation is on vast basis:
asabiya of group.
g. Greater in nomadic tribes
3. Theory of rural and urban society:
a. Described characteristics of human society on which it supersedes animal society:
 Wisdom
  Need of a supreme governor
 Means for livelihood
 Living together with mutual cooperation
b. Division of society in badvi(rural) and hazri(urban)
 Badvi
 Strong asabiya
 Brave and generous
 Live life in hard conditions
 Mostly shepherds
 Nomadic life
 Strong forces of social solidarity
 Group life at highes
 hazri
 urban
 depend on forces like army and police
 weak asabiya , so not as brave as badvi
 sedentary with weak group life
4. Theory of social change:
 Society ever changing
 Tribes when lose asabiya, lose their governments and become a lose
aggregate of people.
 Describes three principles of social change
 State boundaries should be in control (not be unlimited)
 Physical age of state is 120 years, divided in 3 phases (of 40 each)
 Alternating rise and fall of nations

Herbert spencer(evolutionary)
1. Introduction:
a. English social thinker of 19th century
b. Second founding father of sociology
c. Evolutionist , defender of individualism and a prolific writer
d. Comte undertook to create what comte envisage to do so
2. Theories of spencer:
a. Theory of social evolution
Meaning of evolution:
 Most important work in realm of social thought
  Excited by Darwin’s idea of evolution
 Evolution , a French term evolvere, means to develop or unfold
 Close to sansikirit word vikas
 Implies the continuous change that takes place in some structure

Theory of social evolution:

 Saw social change as “a set of stages through which all societies passed
through from simple to complex, and homogenous to heterogeneous”.
 “The study of sociology” & “principles of sociology” provides more detailed
insight about the concept.
 The theory analyses the genesis, development, evolution and finally decay of
the human society
 Spencer though evolution can be applied to the society for he has though
society as organism

Abraham & Morgan pointed out that spencer’s theory of evolution involves two important
trends or strain of thoughts:

 Change from simplicity or complexity or moment from simple society to

various levels of compound societies
 4 stages of society in terms of evolutionary development
 Simple : primitive without complexities
 Compound: large number of simple societies
 Doubly compound: several clans compounded into
tribes or tribal society
 Trebly compound: tribes organize into nation state,
it’s the incumbent form of social societal order of the
day
 Master trend is increased differentiation of social structures
which leads to better integration and adaptation of
environment
 Spencer comprehended evolution as progress , therefore he
was a staunch antagonist to the idea of social reforms
 Social reform disturbs natural process of evolution
 Evolution is a universal process and natural law
 Divided societies into static and dynamic, like that of Comte.
 Social statics : institution are interrelated together giving a
social structure
  Social dynamics: continuity of motion and this movement is
from homogenous to heterogeneous
 Change from military society to industrial society:
 According to spencer, evolution proceeds from military to
industrial society
 The type of social structure depends on relationship with
other societies in its significant characteristics:
 Military society – compulsory cooperation,
industrial—voluntary
 Military society—centralized government,
industrial—de-centralized
 Military –economic autonomy, industrial—no
autonomy
 Military : domination of state over all other
organizations, industrial—limited function of state
b. Theory of organic analogy
 Evolutionary doctrine was the foundation of his sociological theory.
 Known for his treatment of the organic analogy
 Presented organic analogy as secondary doctrine
 “ he established the hypothesis that society is like and organism and then
proceeded to defend it against all objection with great logical force”.
 Believed social structure as living organism
 Like various parts of body share interdependence, society also has
interdependence on various organizations. If an organ fails, the body dies
and so is the case with society
c. Theory of social Darwinism:
 social Darwinism refers to any doctrine which make use or misuse of
Darwin’s biological evolutionary principle to explain the existing forms of
human social organizations.
 Spencer and W.G.Sumener were two major advocates of this doctrine
 Spencer’s theory revolves around two important principles
i. The principle of survival of the fittest:
 weak should be eliminated for the sake of strong
 rapid elimination of unfit would benefit the race
biologically
 state should do nothing the ameliorate the condition of
poor as they are unfit
  less fit to spencer means: poor, people with deformity,
criminals
 operations of nature will annihilate less fit and would
benefit the more fit faction of society
ii. Principle of non-interference:
 Spencer was also a champion of individualism and lassies-
faire politics.
 State should not interfere in the properties of individuals
 State has no business in education, health and sanitation,
postal service, money , banking and elimination of poverty
 Instead state should invest money in providing labor and
improving the condition of individual
Comte argued: “ socialist must convince state and citizens
not interfere with the natural process of selection
operative in the society” while Comte argues: “sociologists
must actively involve in the social world to reform and to
change it”

d. Types of society-classification and comparison

 Classification on the basis of degree of compostion:
 Simple : primitive without complexities
 Compound: large number of simple societies
 Doubly compound: several clans compounded into
tribes or tribal society
 Trebly compound: tribes organize into nation state,
it’s the incumbent form of social societal order of the
day

 Classification on the basis of types of society:

According to Ronald fletcher, spencer also classified societies into military or
industrial. This classification was based on the relative preponderance of one
or other of the regulating, sustaining, distributive systems.
 Military society:
 Military exert a dominant or pervasive role.
 Regulating system was dominant over all other systems
 Characteristics of military society:
 A. Organization for defensive and offensive military
action
B. Centralized pattern of authority and social
control- “all are slaves to those above, and
despots to those below” spencer
C. Rigid social classes
D. life is subjected to rigorous discipline –
“members exist for the benefit of whole, not the
whole exist for the benefit of members”
E. Human relationships are based on compulsory
cooperation. Spencer not elaborated this point
much
 Industrial society
Any society or a particular society in which, industrialization or
modernization occurred.
Sustaining and distributive system
 Characteristics of industrial society

A. Recognition of personal rights

B. Sustaining system
C. Opportunities for the growth of free association
and institutions
D. Less rigid class structure
E. Individualism
F. Awareness of duty to resist irresponsible
government
G. Free and contractual type human relationships

August comte(order):
1. Introduction
 French
 Socio cultural transformation of institutions during French revolution created a
problem of social disorganization creating new socio cultural problems
 Comte thought on these problems and laid the foundation of a new science ,
theories of comte, later called sociology.
a. Types of science
 (1). Theoretical science
 Which deals with principles , hypotheses , concepts and facts
 Theories after test of time become principles

(2). Applied science

 Converts theoretical knowledge into practical shape

b. Law of three stages :
 According to Comte science emerges in chain system, once science
develops and other follows it.
 All these sciences develops with three stages to come
 Sciences which are simpler passes through these stages rapidly and
these are natural sciences
a) Theological stage
 Deals with the theological explanation of science or a
social phenomenon in which we have little
explanation.
 Explanation was found in old age prior to 1300
 No question about its validity because it is religious
 During this period, the major system emphasized
that the belief, super natural powers and religious
figures are the root cause of everything
b) Metaphysical stage
 Occurred b/w 1300 and 1800.
 Has philosophical characteristics
 Observation of facts and bringing them into
knowledge
 Requires discussion and knowledge gained is present
in forms of books
 Found in middle ages and discussions of philosophy
are going through this age
 sociology
c) Positive stage
 Scientific
 Related to experimentation, observation, deduction,
induction, measurements and deriving inferences
 After 1800
 Verification of finding till consensus on the facts
 Found in all natural sciences
c. Theory of social static and social dynamic
 EMILE DRKHEIM (order):
1. Introduction
 French philosopher, who, invented new science called social
physics
 Follower of comte
 His studies encircle social fact and group solidarity
a. Theory of social fact
 Does not focus individuals. As a point of study he takes group as
social fact
 Existence of group is a reality and its inevitable because no
society can come into existence without social groups
 There are certain facts in social life which can’t be explained and
they influence the individual from external to bring internal
change
 Moral principles, ways of family and religious ceremonies and
method of profession are included in social fact
 Pressure of facts are always present and it brings change from
outside
 Sociology is the study of social fact
 Cultural norms and morals, principles and customs internalized
by the individual shapes his behavior
b. Theory of social solidarity
 Traditional society – mechanical – sharing of common values ,
norms and culture – strong solidarity- traits like those of rural
society-slow social change
 Industrial society- organic solidarity- complex division of labor-
weak solidarity- transactional relation- fast social change
 Similar to that proposed of khaldoon
c. Theory of suicide
 The pivot to this theory is social solidarity
 “Suicide is a deliberate act and the actor knows the
consequences of its act before committing it.
Egoistic suicide:
 Weak group solidarity
 Individual feels partitioned from group
 Does not take interest in group activities
 No interest in primary and secondary group
 Neither does group take interest in him
  At shores from group activities
 Mostly frequent in unmarried people and in protestant Christians
according to Durkheim.
Anomic suicide:
 When norms and manner are suddenly broken
 These are sudden unexpected change to which individual cannot
adjust himself. Hence, a normative gap arises.
 When norms become weak and business becomes slow

Altruistic suicide:

 Group solidarity at highest and people cannot think beyond

group
 Sati , suicide attacks
d. Social explanation of religion
“A unified system of belief and practices related to sacred things.”
 Collective forces and solidarity in society are only due to religion
 Separates pure form profane, good from evil and right from
wrong
 Actions are influenced by beliefs and are related to one another.
 Belief and no action, the belief (or vice versa) disappears after
sometime

Max weber
1. Introduction:
a. German thinker of early 20th century
b. Contemporary of pareto of Italy and Thomas of USA
c. Inspired by the works of marx and kant
d. Annexed spiritual ideas with materials
2. Theory of social action
a. Sociology is the study of social action
b. Social action originates logically from action
 c. Tendency or behavior of the man in which he relates a subjective meaning to it is
called action and the action which influences the behaviors of others is known as
social action.
d. Action is a type of behavior in which there are meanings of action for the actor. And
such an action can be measured on the principles of statistics
e. Throwing of light by one driver on the other driver
f. Talcot parson also supports the theory of weber in a way that human behavior is
included in his actions
TYPES OF ACTION:
A. Purposeful logical actions:
a. Actor is free to select his source based on his capabilities
b. The action has few qualities: direct relationship with social situation; several sources
and purpose; freedom to the actor for adaptation of sources for such action.
B. Value oriented actions:
a. After selection of value, sources become fixed in first stage
b. Before performance of action, its purpose has been fixed according to values
c. The sources have also been slected according to abilities of the actor.
d. Most effective sources are used for the value
C. Affective action:
a. When emotions are included in the fixation of purposes and sources then it
becomes affective action
b. In this case relation of love and hatred can be counted
c. Emotional and can affect others
d. Irrational and illogical
e. Dominate the culture where values, customs , norms, belief hold a pervasive
presence
D. Traditional actions:
a. Source and action are fixed, according to customs and ceremonies
b. Marriage , birth, funeral etc
c. Found in most of the human behaviors
d. Training and teaching of this type of action
e. Affects individual directly
f. Most important action of human behavior
3. Theory of authority
a. Authority is distributed properly in society . by this marx means that the society where
law is sacred and respect diffuses authority by a proper method. Giving one authority
instead of other is governed by a law
A. Bureaucratic authority
B. Traditional authority
C. Charismatic authority
Karl Marx book

SOCIAL ACTION AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

SOCIAL ACTION:
1. INTRODUCTION:
a. Sociology is study of social action – weber
b. Social action influences the behavior of others in society- throwing of light
by driver
Definition
“Action is social when the actor behaves in such a manner that his action is
intended to influence the action and behavior of one or more persons” Duncan
Mitchell
c. In social action, actor performs his action in presence of some social
situation.

Conclusions:

1. Can be done one or more persons

2. Influences others
3. Performed in face of some social situation
4. Has its relationship with some social system

2. ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL ACTION

A. Actor
B. The goal
C. Social situation- situation is a continuously occurring group event spread in
time and space. It instigates actor to perform action
a. Controllable
b. Uncontrollable
D. Normative behavior
 E. Energy
3. Types of social action:
a. Logical actions
b. Value oriented actions – truth faith belief in religion
c. Effectual actions
d. Traditional actions
Social interaction
1. Introduction :
a. Basis of social order
b. Foundation of societal structure and organizations
c. A social process b/w two or more persons
d. Reciprocal in nature. A stimulus-response condition among individuals
“It is the process by which mean interpenetrate minds of each other” Dawson and
Getty’s
2. Elements of social interaction:
a. Involves more than two person
b. Reciprocal relationship between actors
c. Influence on the event, behavior and brain of the individual
3. Types of social interaction:
According to Young and Mack interaction is of two types:
a. Direct or physical interaction: beating, pulling etc.
b. Symbolic interactions: language, symbols, signs, traffic lights etc.
4. Forms of social interaction:
a. Between individual and individual
b. Between individual and group
c. Between group and group
d. Between individuals and culture: watching tv , reading newspaper, media of mass
communication etc
5. Measurement of social interactions:
a. Frequency : how often interaction is taking place
b. Duration
c. Intensity : measured in terms of its importance
d. Focus: interaction must have subject matter for interaction for focus
6. Difference between social action and interaction

Social action Social interaction

One person More than one
No reciprocity Reciprocity
Actor attaches himself to some social No such condition
situation
Social situation is not the basic condition After social interaction , social situation is
produced
Some topics left. Look up in revision

Culture
1. Introduction:
According to Taylor , culture is “ that complex-whole which includes
knowledge,beliefs ,morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities acquired by man
as member of society”
a. According to Taylor, culture is complete self-working system of human
achievements
b. These achievements, material and non-material, are the elements of self-moving
parts of culture.
c. Culture is an interrelated unit of interdependences
d. Interdependences makes it a web of interrelationships which makes it a
complex-whole
“Culture is the man made part of the environment” Herskovits
“Culture is social heredity which is transferred from one generation to other, with
the accumulation of individual experiences” Linton
Psychological points of view hold, “learned portion of human behavior”.

In nutshell, culture is not a biological phenomenon rather it’s a socially learnt

process
2. Characteristics of culture:
a. Culture is learnt – often called learnt ways of behaviour
b. Culture is social- doesn’t exists in islolation rather develops through
interactions
c. Culture is shared
d. Culture is transmissive
e. Culture is continuous and cumulative – continuous process. A growing whole
which includes itself, Achievements of past and present and makes provisions
for future
f. Consistent and integrated – consistent but different parts are interconnected,
such as morals, customs, religion etc.
g. Dynamic and adaptive
h. Gratifying – provides opportunities for satisfaction of needs
 i. Varies from society to society
j. Super-organic and ideational – culture is neither organic nor inorganic rather
its above two – spencer. This implies the social meaning of objects and
physiological acts. Social meaning can independent of physiological and
physical meanings and characteristics. Examples national flag, a piece of cloth
physiologically, but its honor of a nation and identity of a nation socially. Every
society consider its culture ideal
3. Elements of culture
a. Norms
1. Introduction
 Social norms are shared expectations of group members while
cultural norms are ideally expected members of group members
 Sprout from interaction process
 Define roles in social process
 Culture provides source of conformity
 Codes of right and wrong
 Norms withhold the whole fabric of society
2. Definitions
 “norms refer to group – shared expectations” young and mack
 “ a norm is a rule or standard that governs our conduct in a
social situation in which we participate” Robert biersdt
3. Characteristics of social norms

(1) Universal:
 Pervasive in every society
 Universal
 No norms: chaos

(2) Related to the factual order

 Normative order – how to behave
 Factual order – how people behave

(3) Incorporate value judgment

 General standardization to evaluate the values
 (4) Relative to situation and group

(5) Always conformed

(6) Norms vary with sanctions

(7) Norms are internalized by people

4. Aspects of norms
(1) Cultural norms
 Ideally expected manners
 Goals of society
 Codes of behaviors found in books
(2) Social norms
 Socially approved ways of behavior
 Accepted by people
 Guides in our actions
5. Functions of social norms
(1) Control behavior
 Provide a set pattern to control behaviors
 Set pattern becomes custom on social approval\
 Keep the society in order
 Violation leads to sanctions
(2) Making behavior systematic and patterned
 Makes a society systematic and patterned
 Creates harmony by systemization of codes of behavior
 Patterns help in conformity to norms and , hence, society maintains
order
(3) Safeguard of our values – violation of norms leads to breakage of values

(4) Social order

(5) Social solidarity

(6) Self-control

(7) Assists society for survival

6. Types of social norms

(1) Folk ways

 Repeated behavior custom – customs when regularized by our

behaviors are mores and folkways according to Sumner
 Folkways – socially approved ways of behaving in society
  Ways of life that arise during social interactions and handed form
one generation to another
 Expected behaviors to meet the recurrent situations during social
interactions are the folkways
 Most elementary pattern in social norms
 Basic form of social control
 They arise unconsciously during our interactions
 “ folkways are behavior patterns of everyday life which generally
arise unconsciously is a group” Gillin and Gillin
 “folkways are not the creation of human purpose and will. They are
products of natural forces which man unconsciously set into motion”
WG Sumner
Examples : Rules of eating, saying aoa and w/s ; huqqah starts from oldest
etc.
(2) Nature of folkways
a. Social
b. Repetitive
c. Informal origin
d. Informal enforcement
e. Differs a lot
f. Folkways are numerous
g. Subject to change
(3) Violation of folkways
 Doesn’t violates the order of society
 Repetitive violations are not tolerated
 They are informal, so are the punishments
 They are like self-growing grass – sumner
(4) Mores
 the social usages, folkways regulating our behavior are mores
 source of emergence – group interaction
 mores are more compulsory to conform than folkways
 wearing of clothes is a more while wearing clean clothes is a folkway
 severe punishments on violation
“When the folkways added to them the conception of group welfare,
standards of right and wrong, they are converted into mores” MacIver
and page
“Customs and routines thought by the members of society necessary for
groups continued existence” Gillin and Gillin
Examples: Sanctity of mosque, practice of nikkah, use of traffic lights etc.

(5) types of mores

a. positive mores :
  prescribed behaviors
 representing the do’s
 example : respecting elders, praying etc
b. negative mores:
 don’ts
 taboos - prohibits or allow certain behaviors
 taboos put restriction of certain behaviors
(6) natures and characteristics of mores
1. mores are regulators of social life
2. relatively more persistent
3. vary from group to group
4. backed by values and religion
(7) violation of mores
(8) difference between mores and folkways

Mores Folkways
More general Less general
Value judgment about mores
Conviction of right and wrong No such
Violation serious Not so serious
More compulsive, regulative and Not so
rigid
Don’t change rapidly Changes rapidly

7. law
8. social sanctions
 rewards or punishments to establish social control , that is , to enforce
the norms in society – young and mack
 rewards for conformity and punishment for nonconformity – ian
Robertson
 Formal sanctions – positive and negative
 Informal sanctions- positive and negative

b. Values
Values are general standards and may be regarded as higher order norms-
HM Johnson
A value is a belief that something is good a worthwhile. It defines what is
worth having and striving for . M. haralambos
 Values are cultural products as standards
 They are goals and objectives. Some of these values along their
institutions are given below:
  Value of power attained through political institutions, value of wealth
attained through economic institutions, value of affection through
family, value of rectitude through religious institutions, value of skill
through education
 Values differ from society to society; Islamic values to muslims,
hindhustic to hindus
 Violation of values creates social disharmony
A. Function of values
1. Provides goals and aims
2. Provides stabilities and uniformities to group interaction
3. Brings legitimacy to rules that govern specific activities
4. Bring some kid of adjustment b/w d/f kinds of rules
5. Differentiate b/w right and wrong
B. Development of values
1. Not biologically, but socially produced
2. Depends on social structure and function
3. Differ in different societies
4. Attitudes and values are co related
5. Some values are hereditary
6. Cultural values are transmitted
C. Science and values
1. Devoid of values
D. Values and norms
1. Values are guardians of norms
2. Human behavior is directed by norms towards certain goal is called
value
3. Social norms – behavior – values – norms
E. Values endangered creates social problems
1. Individual values
2. Group values – determinants of society
3. National values - corruption
F. Values and social change
1. Values are hard to change ; they impede the social change
G. Types of values
A. Cultural values
1. Hereditary and form the core of culture
2. Gives shape to culture and society
3. Difficult to change
 4. Remain in the hearts of elders and books
5. Deviation from cultural values creates violence
6. Example : respect for elders, kindness to young etc
B. Social values
1. Incumbent values in society
2. They are progressive
3. Like by young and criticized by elder
4. They evolve with time as society progress
5. Ex: computer knowledge , modern fashion etc.
H. Difference between social and cultural values

Social values Cultural values

Rapid change Slow change
Incumbent in society They existed and hereditary

c. Beliefs
“ belief is an act of sensitive part rather than rational part of our nature”
hume
values have two origin: values and experiences and social life
A. BELIEF AND RELIGION
B. BELIEF SYSTESM
 Complex
 Exist in groups
4. Types of culture
a. Material culture – concerned with external , mechanical and utilitarian
objects
b. Non-material culture – culture when ordinary used means non-material
culture. It is something thing internal and intrinsically valuebale, reflects the
inward nature of man.
c. Real culture – Observed in real life. Whole of a culture cant be real , because
some parts of it remain out of practice.
d. Ideal culture – culture which presented as a pattern or precedent for people
to follow. It’s the goal of the society. Found in books, religious teaching etc.
part of ideal culture practiced is called real culture.
5. Functions of culture
a. Treasury of knowledge
b. Defines situations – also tells conditions like what to wear and how to eat
etc.
 c. Define attitudes , values and goals – attitudes refer to a tendacy to feel
and act in a certain way. Values are the measures of good and deireablity.
Goals are attainments which our values define as worthy
d. Decide careers
e. Provide behavioral patterns
f. Mold personalities
6. Organization of culture
a. Cultural pattern
 Way of behavior of people
 Large no. of people following a certain behavior makes it custom
 Popular customs among people becomes rules and precedents of
society
 This rule of social life becomes cultural pattern
 These patterns are also the normative orders of the society
 Violation of these are considered offensive
b. Cultural traits
 Trait is the smallest unit of culture
 Exist and function with the organization of other traits
 “a reputedly irreducible unit of learned behavior pattern or
material product thereof is cultural trait” Hoebel
 Horton and hunt give examples :
1) Material culture – nail , screw driver, pencil and handkerchief
2) Non-material culture – shaking of hand , driving to the left,
salute to the flag
c. Cultural complex
 A complex is intermediate between the trait and the institution
 Cluster of related traits is known as cultural complex
 Examples: football match, watch, marriage ceremony etc.
 An institution of series of complexes centered on some activity.
Number of complexes when unites together makes an institutions
d. Cultural area
 Geographical area in which a cultural trait is originated.
 Place where trait is born is known as place of origin
 Spreads through diffusion and covers an area known as cultural area
 Punjab – cultural area of Punjabi
7. Sub culture , core culture , cultural alternatives , cultural uniformities and
viabilities , cultural lag, cultural integration – book
8. Cultural relativism
 Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs, values, and
practices should be understood based on that person's own culture,
rather than be judged against the criteria of another. It’s not possible to
understand a foreign culture by in terms of one’s own culture
 The definition must be according to cultural values and norms of the
culture under microscope
 Sati , burning of widow, barbaric, customs of polyandry in Tibetans
 “ function and meanings of trait are relative to its cultural settings”
Horton and hunt
Ethnocentrism
1. Introduction
 Sumner defined ethnocentrism as, “view of things in which
one’s own group is center of everything, and all other are
scaled and rated reference to it” Sumner
 From Sumner’s definition Horton and Hunt deduced that
ethnocentrism is habit of every group of taking for granted
its superiority.
2. Exposition
 Superiority of cultures
 American think of themselves as progressive but the
easterners call them immoral
 In a society different groups can be ethnocentric against each
other
3. Ethnocentrism and personality
 Every group is ethnocentric
 Ethnocentrism is most common in minorities
 More orthodox and reluctant to accept social change
 More strong forces of solidarity
 Individuals respect norms
 Lags in field of education and other aspect of life
4. Positive effects of ethnocentrism
a. Social solidarity
b. Protection and compensation
c. Jingoism
d. Facilitation of social norms and customs
5. Negative effects of ethnocentrism
a. Inter-group rifts
 b. Slow social and cultural change
c. Weakens social forces of cohesion among groups
d. Impedes national growth
6. Conclusion
Marginal man
 A condition of maladjustments which creates problems
for an individual who shifts from his native culture to a
foreign culture. Such an individual is known as marginal
man.

Xenocentrism
 It is the preference for the products, styles, or ideas of
someone else's culture rather than of one's own.
 Xenocentrism is the opposite of the sociological term
ethnocentrism
 Applicable to both material and non-material cultures
 Xenocentrism might lead to cultural diffusion; cultural
diffusion is spreading of a culture from one society to
another whether it is material culture or non-material
culture. Yoga begin in north India over 5000 years ago
and now it is widely practiced in America.

"

DEVIANCE

INRODUCTION
 Breaking of norms
 “ any failure to conform customary norms is called deviance”
Horton and Hunt
 “behavior that is contrary to standards of conduct and social
expectations of a given group or society and disliked by many
people “ Ian Robertson
 Behavior belonging deviance is called deviant behavior
1. Causes of Deviance
a. Broken family
b. Lack of interest in education
c. Lack of religious education and morality
d. Rejection by neighborhood
e. Lack of facilities
f. Declining moral and religious values
g. Aggrandization of wealth
h. Mass media
i. Poverty
SOCIAL CONTROL
FORMAL CONTROL
INFORMAL CONTROL
STEPS TO ATTAIN SOCIAL CONTROL
1. SOCIALIZATION OF INDIVIDUAL
2. Recreational activities
3. Education
4. Religious education
5. Model rehabilitation centers
6. Role of media
7. Correction of offenders
8. Model orphanage home

Socialization
1. Introduction
 Inducting and individual into society is socialization
 Training through institutions
 Life long process
 “ the process of inducting and individual into the social world is called
socialization” young and Mack
 “the process in which one internalizes the norms of the group among
whom one lives so that a unique “self” emerges”. Horton and hunt
2. Types of socialization
a. Primary socialization
b. Anticipatory socialization – socialization in a foreign group
 c. Developmental socialization
Builds on primary socialization
d. Re- socialization – takes place when social role is drastically changed –
drastic changes incumbent cultural values - generally found in old people
3. Methods of socialization
a. Cultural conditioning
 Conditioning is the process of learning by repetition
 Learns while living in the society
b. Personal social learning- learning through experiences - achieved
through interaction with group member – called as personal social
learning by Young and Mack – also called learning by reason
4. Sources of socialization
1. Family
2. Peers - peer culture: it often surpasses every other group at certain age of
an individual; peer culture is often more effective than parental culture.
3. Social institutions
4. Literature and mass media
5. Community – biggest agency for socialization. Large number of agencies
works in this to socialize one
5. Functions of socialization
1. Personality development
2. Help to become disciplined
3. Performance of different roles
4. Knowledge and skill
5. Converts biological beings into social being
6. Social order
7. Transmission of culture

Community
1. Introduction
 “the members of group small or large , live together in such a
way that they share, not only this or that particular interest,
 but the basic condition of common life, such a group is called
community” Maciver and Page
 Basic concept is that one can live a whole life in community
 Self-sufficient in fulfillment of basic needs
 Basic elements of community are locality-territorial area
which can be permanent- and sentiment which shape an area
of people living in social cohesion
 “A functionally related aggregate of people who live in a
particular geographical locality at a particular time , show a
common culture, are arranged in social structure, and exhibit
an awareness of their uniqueness and separate identity as a
group”. Bertrand
2. Nature & characteristics of community
a. Living in a common area fulfilling their needs by common
cooperation
b. Sense of belonging to one another and to the place of living
c. Group of people having common culture
3. Types of communities
A. RURAL community
Characteristics of rural community
a. Small population
b. Lack in administrative organization
c. Lack of modern facilities
d. Absence of big social institutions
e. Agrarian in nature
f. Scattered housing pattern
g. Equal division of labour
h. Slow interaction and social change
i. Homogeneity
j. Traditional recreation
B. Urban community
a. Large population
b. Presence of modern facilities
c. Complex division of labor
d. Formal interaction
e. Rapid social change
f. Heterogeneity
g. Frequent social mobility
 h. Anonymity
i. Exogamy
j. Fast interactions
k. Presence of big institutions

Society
1. Introduction

“That group within which man shares a total common life “Bertrand

“Any group of people that lived and worked together long enough to get themselves organized
and think of themselves as social unit with well-defined limits” maciver and page

 Society is product of social interaction

2. Nature and characteristics of society
a. Largest of social groups
b. Composed of social groups
c. Social institutions are the main organs
d. Changes with the rate depending upon culture
e. Dynamic
f. Rural-urban composition
g. Presence of culture
h. Fulfillment of human needs
i. Consciousness of kind – people of same interest or profession join together
j. Organized in nature
k. Permanent social group
l. Presence of social system

3. Elements of society
a. Big aggregate of people
b. Living together for long time
c. Having a sense of belonging to one another
d. More or less permanent association
e. Having a common culture
4. Difference between society and community
a. Society is large aggregate of people as compared to community
b. Society has geographical limits while community hasn’t
c. Society – weak solidarity community strong solidarity
 d. Sense of belonging to people and territory not found in society , while the
community have them
e. Society depends on other for needs while community is self-sufficient
f. Society have huge network of institutions while community have limited number of
institutions
g. Mutual aid and cooperation is more effective in society as compared to community
5. Evolution of human society
“Man used to live in loneliness. He was always a hunter and a fighter. He feared to be
victim of another man one day. Later on, he realized that by cooperation of other he can
live in peace. In this way society was founded.” Thomas Hobbes

Roseau though that man was tyrant naturally in early ages. Later, he joined others for
peaceful purposes

Mostesque: man has always been bowing before the forces of nature that is why he
adopted to live in group life

Imam Ghazali: satisfaction of various needs

Shah Waliullah said that society came into existence for fulfillment of three basic needs:
continuation of human race; protection of life; satisfaction of various needs
6. Types of societies

Nomadic Sedentary
Population size (small) Population size
Geographical mobility (found) Permanent settlement
Absence of ownership Ancestral land
Traditional way of living Stratified social change
Strict social norms Ethnocentrism
Local culture Presence of sub culture
Profession Low social mobility
Resistance to social change

Social stratification
1. Introduction
 People in society are divided into different ranks and classes according to their
status is known as social stratification
“ A relatively permanent ranking statuses and roles in social system in terms
of differential privileges, influence , prestige and power is called stratification”
Merry O Hogan

2. Determinants of social stratification (Max Weber model: economic, power, prestige)

a. Economic resources
b. Occupation
c. Prestige
d. Power
e. Caste
f. Education
3. Class
“a group of people having more or less same economic resources and
indication similar standard of living in society” Karl marx
Generally there are 3 main classes : upper , middle , lower
a. Nature and characteristic of class
Status group
Achieved status
Universal
An open group
Economic group
Class consciousness
4. Caste
Permanent group
Ascribed status
More rigid
“Caste is a system of stratification in which mobility up and down the status
ladder, at least ideally, may not occur”. A.W.Green
“ caste is a closed group” majmudar and madan
a. Characteristics of caste
1. Hierarchical division of society
2. Close group
3. Sub culture
4. Social control
b. Merits of caste
Solidarity
 Social control
Protecting and compensating
c. Demerits of caste
Ethnocentric
Slow social change
Narrow thought spectrum
Regimentation
d. Changes in caste system
Decline in respect of elders in clan
Less respect to norms
Exogamy
Change in customs and traditions
e. Agents of change
Literacy rate
Mass media
Consciousness
Economic passage

Social mobility

1. Introduction
Found in every society
Differed in rate
“moment from one condition to another “ Fairchild
“act of moving from one class to another” Horton and hunt
2. Types of social mobility
a. Territorial mobility
b. Vertical mobility : can be upward or downward
c. Horizontal mobility
d. Inter-generational mobility: introduced by cohen in his book “ introduction to
sociology” – takes place between generations. For example , son of driver become
csp
e. Intra-generational mobility
3. Causes of social mobility
1. Dissatisfaction from previous conditions
 2. Adoption of new conditions
3. Industrial and technological developments
4. Education
5. Urbanization
6. Means of communication
7. Modern facilities
8. Growing interconnectivities

Sociological institutions
1. Introduction
 They are interrelated set of norms
 “sociology is the study of social institutions” Malinowski
 “institutions are system of social relationships for various felt human needs”
Bertrand
 “the social structure and machinery through which hum society organizes,
directs, and executes the multifarious activities required to satisfy human
needs
2. Elements of social institutions
 Group of people
 United by common interest
 Having material resources
 Having norms
 Fulfill some social need
3. Nature of social institutions
a. Permanent association of people – around some common objective based on
reciprocity of status and role
b. Preserves values
c. Possess material object
d. Network of social norms – performance of role according to customary role
e. Use symbols to distinguish
f. Function within normative framework – written rules and regulations
4. Characteristics of social institutions (given by Merrill )
a. Patterns of behavior over a common objective
b. Family is most important of all
c. More patterned behavior, more stronger institution
 d. Many institutions have ritual behavior – oath of allegiance , oath to some office
e. Central aspect is performance of function
f. Embodiment of basic cultural values
g. Institutions are closely interrelated
h. Socializing agencies
i. Grooms personality
j. Tools for social control
k. Agencies of social solidarity
l. Complex cluster of social norms
5. Types of institutions (Gillin and Gillin)
a. Crescive and enacted (from standpoint of development)
 Crescive – grows unconsciously out of mores like family, wealth, marriage,
religion etc.
 Enacted – consciously organized for definite purpose like educational
b. Basic and subsidiary (from standpoint of accepted values)
 Basic – necessary for maintenance of order – family , mosque etc
 Subsidiary – not so necessary – cinema , radio etc
c. Sanctioned and unsanctioned (from standpoint of public acceptance)
d. General and restricted institutions(for standpoint of spread among people)
 General – federal government
 Restricted – provincial government
e. Operative and regulative (method of functioning)
 Operative – organizes patterns for attainment of objective industries like
NARC, WAPDA etc
 Regulative – control of customs and other behaviors of legal institutions like
PEMRA, PTA etc
6. General functions
a. Reproduction
b. Socialization
c. Sense of purpose
d. Preservation of social order – with the help of other institutions – mutual
relationship – tangency of institutions
e. Transmission of culture
f. Personality development

Note: dependence of institutions – tangency – social organization

Interrelationship – social structure (a framework of society)
Sum of all institutions – society
7. As agencies of social control
a. By socialization
b. By need satisfaction
c. By social sanctions
d. By integration – social structure to cultural integration

Family
1. Introduction
 “a kinship grouping which provides rearing of children and for certain
other social needs” Horton and hunt
 “ a kinship based cooperative unit” Broom and Selznick
2. Structure of family
3. Types of family
1. By size and structure
a. Conjugal or nuclear family
 Based on marital status
 Married couple live with their unmarried children
 Radcliff called it elementary family
b. Consanguine family
 Founded upon blood relationship of a large number of kinship
 Extended clan of blood relatives

c. Extended family
 After marriage two or more siblings may live together with
their parents
 Patrilineal – parents+ son + son’s wives
 Matrilineal – parents + daughter’s family
d. Stem family
 Parents + one son’s family
2. By marriage
a. Exogamy
 Marriage outside group
b. Endogamy
3. By residence
a. Patrilocal
 Husband and wife live with parents of husband
b. Matrilocal
 c. Neolocal – husband and wife live independently
4. By authority
a. Patriarchal
b. Matriarchal
5. By clan or ancestry
a. Patrilineal – according to line of descent, relation is traced in father
and grandfather in this family
b. Matrilineal – relation is traced through mother
c. Bilineal – Arabic society
4. Functions of family
a. Regulation of sex
b. Reproduction
c. Socialization
d. Affection
e. Safeguard of interest
f. Protection
g. Economic
h. Education
i. Recreation
j. Religious and cultural values

5. Marriage
 “ it is an approved pattern whereby two or more individuals establish a
family” Horton and hunt
Types of marriage
a. Monogamy
b. Polygamy
c. Polygyny
d. Polyandry
6. Clan
 Extended kinship group which is either matrilineal or patrilineal
 Clans are always exogamous
 Clan membership is social heredity
 One cannot join it and it is protected by incest taboo
 Elements of clan
1. Consanguine related to either male of female
2. Living one locality or community (not essential)
3. Organized and having ‘esprit de corps’
 4. Encompassing spouses of lineage group

Educational institutions
1. Introduction
 “ the sum total of experience which moulds attitudes and determines the conduct of
both the child and adult “
2. Aims of education
 Development of power to think, not the acquisition of information
 Search for virtue and truth rather than technical proficiency
 Education looks to lasting truth , based on reason, not to mere opinion or practical
knowledge
3. Types of education
a. Formal
b. Informal
4. Functions of education
a. Cultural transmission
b. Social integration – harmonization of norms - development of homogeneity
c. Socialization
d. Future occupation
e. Techniques of learning skills
f. Rational thinking
g. Patriotism
h. Personality development
i. Social change
j. Social control
k. Social solidarity

Religious institutions
1. Introduction
 “ religion is the unified system of belief and practices related to sacred
things “Durkheim
2. Elements of religion
a. Rituals – ceremonial practices like prayers , hajj etc.
b. Emotions – ritual produce emotions of love, fear, happiness , emotions make
the practice of ritual disciplined and patterned
 c. Belief – activity or irrational part of brain
d. Organization – rituals + emotions + belief
e. Sacred objects
f. Symbolism - Quran words of god , baitullah symbol of god not god itself
g. Sect
3. Functions of religion
a. Removes fear and anxiety
b. Relationship between man and universe “ we have conquered for you
whatever in the earth and the sky”
c. Relationship between man and god
d. Right and wrong
e. Preservation of values
f. Socialization
g. Social control
h. Social solidarity

Economic institutions
1. Introduction
 “An economic institution organizes production, distribution and consumption
of goods and services” John. J. maccionis
 “ the social institution that accomplishes the goal of producing and
distributing goods within a society is economic institution”. Light and keller
2. Economic structure
a. Property ownership – capitalism and socialism
b. Labor force
c. Distribution of products
d. Economic norms
e. Exchange value – of kind and cash
3. Functions
a. Social stratification
b. Power and authority
c. Interdependence of other institutions
d. Socialization
e. Need satisfaction
f. Income generation
g. Division of labor
h. Provision of funds

Political institution
1. Introduction
 Distribution system of power and authority which is used to maintain law
and order in the society is called political institution
 Politics or polity – is a social institution that distributes power , sets the
society’s agenda and make decisions . john j. maccionis
2. The state
 Sovereign political organization of individuals occupying a definite
territory. Gillin and Gillin
 A state comes into being when the people gets into conflict and there is a
need of law, a judge and a ruler to enforce the whole system. Imam
ghazali
3. Elements of state
 Independent political organization
 Number of people living therein
 A fixed geographical territory
4. Functions of state
 Dual functions; preservation of order and protection of basic rights of masses
a. Institutionalization of norms
b. Decision of conflicts
c. Enforcement of norms
d. Defense of society
5. State and government
 State behind constitution (people in territory) and state revealed in constitution
(government)
6. Social functions
a. To regulate relationship
b. Welfare works
c. Defense
d. Social control
e. Safeguard of right
f. Implementation of law
g. International relations

Social integration (Taga 330)

 Socio cultural change
1. Introduction (cultural change)
 Society are dynamic, no matter how preliterate they may be
 Technology has given the further impetus to fuel the fire of change
 “Changes in culture of society is cultural change” Horton H.

2. Sources of cultural change

a. Discovery – new perception of an aspect of reality that already existed – I. Robertson.
Linton defines it as addition to knowledge.
b. Invention – combination or new use of existing knowledge to produce something that
didn’t existed before. I. Robertson
c. Diffusion – spread of cultural traits from one cultural area to another – I. Robertson .
silk and paper invented in china , Microsoft launched in America
d. Acculturation – transmission of traits from one culture to another over a period of
time and sufficient traits as to regulate the signs of similarity between two cultures. In
this process, two or more culture come into contact. The intermixture of shared and
learned patterns of behavior is acculturation.
e. Assimilations – the result of acculturation. In this process , two culture become
identical. Larger group engulfs smaller one. Two , previously, distinct groups become
one.
3. Factors resisting cultural change
a. Cultural lag
b. Isolationism
c. Punishment
d. Economic constraints
e. Difficulty in learning

Social change
1. Introduction
 Difference of material objects and attitude of using such thing along
time and space
 “the transformation of social and cultural institutions over the period of
time is known as social change” john. J. maccionis
2. Nature and characteristics od social change
a. It’s a continuous process
 b. It’s temporal – dependent on time; happens in time sequence. “It is becoming,
not being; it’s a process, not a product”. Maciver
c. Environmental – must take place in geographical or physical and cultural
context.
d. Human change -people affect change and vice versa
e. Results of interaction of a number of a factors - physical, biological, cultural
and many others
f. It may create chain reactions – changes in privileges and rights of women
g. It has a tempo and direction
h. Unplanned or planned
i. Short term and long term
j. Objective term - devoid of value judgment
3. Theories of social change
A. Evolutionary perspective
a. Auguste comte – social progress
 Societies moves gradually from simpler to complex
 Comte thought that social change is uni-linear process- along one
direction
 Social change is progress
 Evolutionary process implies that societies must reach new and
higher level of civilization
b. L. H. Morgan – primitive origin
 Contact of colonialist with colonial people called as primitives
 All societies passes through several stages from being primitive to
become a civilized one
 Morgan outlined three stages: savagery, barbarism, civilization. It is
much similar to comte law of three stages: theological,
metaphysical and positive.
c. Charles Darwin – organic evolution
d. Herbert spencer – social evolution
e. Emile Durkheim – mechanical and organic solidarity(all discussed earlier)
B. Cyclic theories (book page 371)
C. Parsons theory of social change 372
D. Conflict theorist
a. Class conflict: a source of change (Karl Marx)
4. Sequence/process of change
Following order has been observed in many institutions
a. Technological
 b. Economic
c. Sociological
d. Social values – retrogress or progress. indicator fashion
e. Social change and social problems
f. Social planning and control
5. Patterns of change
a. Cyclic pattern of change

b. Cumulative pattern change

c. Rise and decline change pattern
d. Declining change pattern
6. Factors which promote of socio-cultural changes
a. Cultural goals
b. Availability of natural resources
c. Attitude towards change
d. Cultural accidents – discoveries and inventions made by chance
e. Diffusion – invention diffusion change
7. Factors promoting acceptance of change
a. Prestige of innovator
b. Personality of innovator
c. Meaning of innovation
d. Conformation to cultural values
e. Greater efficiency
f. Less cost
8. Cultural factors hampering social change
a. Cultural inertia
b. Cultural lag
c. Cultural formalism