Lecture Notes on FOOD SCIENCE

MHH215

UNIT-1

Definition and Scope of Food Science and It’s Inter-relationship with food Chemistry, Food
Microbiology and Food Processing
Food science is an interdisciplinary field that draws upon principles from chemistry,
microbiology, and food processing to understand the nature of food and its relationship to human health.
At its core, food science seeks to explain the physical and chemical properties of food, as well as how
these properties influence the sensory experience and nutritional value of different foods. In this article,
 we’ll explore the definition and scope of food science, including its various sub-disciplines and key
applications in the food industry.
What is Food Science?
Food science is the study of the physical, biological, and chemical properties of food and the principles
underlying food processing. It encompasses a range of topics, including the composition and structure of
foods, their nutritional value, and how they interact with the human body. Food scientists use a variety of
tools and techniques to analyze and manipulate food at the molecular and macroscopic levels, with the
aim of improving food quality, safety, and health outcomes.
Scope of Food Science
The scope of food science includes a wide range of areas, such as food chemistry, food microbiology,
food processing, food packaging, food preservation, and food engineering. Food scientists may work in
industry, government, or academic settings to develop new food products, improve existing products, and
ensure food safety. They may also work to develop new methods of food preservation, packaging, and
storage to extend the shelf life of food products. Additionally, food scientists play a critical role in
ensuring that food products are nutritious and meet regulatory requirements.
Sub-disciplines of Food Science
Food science is a broad and multidisciplinary field, with several sub-disciplines that focus on different
aspects of food and its processing. Some of the major sub-disciplines of food science include:
 Food chemistry: the study of the chemical properties of food, including its composition, structure, and
reactivity.
 Food microbiology: the study of microorganisms in food, including their growth, metabolism, and
interactions with the food environment.
 Food engineering: the application of engineering principles to the design and optimization of food
processing and preservation systems.
 Sensory science: the study of how humans perceive and respond to the sensory properties of food, such as
taste, aroma, and texture.
 Food safety and quality: the study of the factors that affect the safety and quality of food, including
microbial contamination, chemical hazards, and physical hazards.
Applications of Food Science
Food science has a wide range of applications in the food industry, from product development to quality
assurance to regulatory compliance. Some of the key applications of food science include:
 Developing new food products with improved taste, texture, and nutritional value
 Ensuring the safety and quality of food products through effective processing, packaging, and storage
 Identifying and mitigating foodborne hazards, such as pathogens and chemical contaminants
 Improving the efficiency and sustainability of food production and processing systems
 Meeting regulatory requirements and industry standards for food safety and quality

Conclusion
Food science is a dynamic and multidisciplinary field that plays a critical role in understanding the nature
of food and its relationship to human health. By drawing upon principles from chemistry, microbiology,
and food processing, food scientists are able to develop new products, improve food safety and quality,
and address some of the major challenges facing the food industry. Whether you’re interested in pursuing
a career in the food industry or simply want to learn more about the science behind what you eat, food
science is a fascinating and important field with wide-ranging applications.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are one of the three macronutrients essential for the human body, along with fats
and proteins. They are the primary source of energy for the body and are present in a wide variety of
foods, from fruits and vegetables to grains and dairy products. In this blog, we will cover the function and
types of carbohydrates.
What are Carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1,
respectively. They are the most common source of energy in the human diet, with a single gram providing
four calories of energy.
Carbohydrates are classified into three main types – monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and cannot be broken down into
smaller units. Glucose, fructose, and galactose are examples of monosaccharides. Disaccharides are made
up of two monosaccharides joined together. Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are examples of disaccharides.
Polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharides joined together. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose
are examples of polysaccharides.

Function of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the body. Glucose, the simplest form of carbohydrate,
is the preferred fuel source for the brain and central nervous system. Carbohydrates are also important for
exercise, as they provide energy for the muscles. In addition to providing energy, carbohydrates also have
other important functions in the body. For example, they are involved in the structure of cells, play a role
in the immune system, and are important for the digestive system.

Types of Carbohydrates
Simple Carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates are made up of one or two sugar molecules and are quickly broken down by the
body. They are often referred to as “bad” carbohydrates because they can cause a rapid increase in blood
sugar levels. Simple carbohydrates are found in foods such as table sugar, honey, candy, and soft drinks.
Complex Carbohydrates
Complex carbohydrates are made up of many sugar molecules and take longer to break down. They are
often referred to as “good” carbohydrates because they provide a slow, steady release of energy. Complex
carbohydrates are found in foods such as whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes.

Effect of cooking (Gelatinization and Retrogradation),

Cooking is an important process that alters the properties of carbohydrates and affects their
functionality in food. In this blog, we will delve into the effects of cooking carbohydrates, specifically
gelatinisation and retrogradation, and understand their impact on food texture and quality.
What is Gelatinisation?
Gelatinisation is a process in which starch granules absorb water and swell, resulting in the thickening of
a liquid. This process occurs when starch is exposed to heat in the presence of water. As the temperature
rises, the starch granules start to absorb water and swell, eventually bursting and releasing their contents
into the surrounding liquid. This causes the liquid to thicken and form a gel-like substance.
Gelatinisation is an important process in cooking as it provides the desired texture to many food
preparations such as sauces, gravies, and soups. It is also responsible for the smooth and creamy texture
of custards and puddings.
What is Retrogradation?
Retrogradation, on the other hand, is the opposite of gelatinisation. It is a process in which the gel-like
substance formed during gelatinisation loses its water-holding capacity and becomes more rigid.
Retrogradation occurs when the starch molecules in the gel reorganize and form a crystalline structure.
This process happens over time, and as a result, the gel becomes hard and loses its smooth texture.
Retrogradation is responsible for the firming of stale bread and the gritty texture of leftover cooked rice.
In many cases, retrogradation is an undesirable outcome, and food scientists and chefs work to minimize
its effects to maintain the quality of food.

Factors affecting texture of Carbohydrates (Stiffness of CHO gel & Dextrinization)

Carbohydrates are a fundamental macronutrient and play a significant role in food texture. The
texture of carbohydrates is dependent on their structure, which is influenced by various factors such as the
presence of water, heat, and enzymes. This blog discusses the two most significant factors that affect the
texture of carbohydrates: Stiffness of CHO Gel and Dextrinization.

Stiffness of CHO Gel

 Starch is a carbohydrate that forms a gel when cooked. The texture of the gel depends on the
amount of water present and the presence of other ingredients such as sugars, salts, and acids. The
stiffness of the gel is directly proportional to the concentration of starch and inversely
proportional to the amount of water present. Therefore, a high concentration of starch and a low
amount of water lead to a stiff gel, while a low concentration of starch and a high amount of
water lead to a softer gel.
 In addition to the concentration of starch and water, the pH and the presence of other ingredients
also affect the stiffness of the gel. Acids, such as lemon juice and vinegar, weaken the gel, while
salts, such as calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate, strengthen the gel. Furthermore, the
addition of sugar results in a softer gel, while the presence of protein, such as egg whites, leads to
a firmer gel.

Dextrinization
 Dextrinization is the breakdown of starch into smaller carbohydrate molecules called dextrins.
This process occurs during cooking when starch is exposed to high heat. Dextrinization results in
a change in texture, color, and flavor of the carbohydrate.
 The extent of dextrinization depends on various factors such as the type of starch, the cooking
method, and the temperature. Amylose, a linear chain of glucose molecules, is more susceptible
to dextrinization than amylopectin, a highly branched molecule. Boiling, baking, and frying are
common cooking methods that lead to dextrinization, and the extent of dextrinization increases
with an increase in temperature and time.
  Dextrinization plays a crucial role in the texture of various foods such as bread, cakes, and
cookies. Dextrins absorb water, resulting in a change in texture, from crispy to soft. The color
change is also significant, as dextrinization leads to the formation of a brown color, which adds to
the aesthetic appeal of the food.

Uses of Carbohydrates in Food Production

Carbohydrates are used in food production for

 Colour
 Flavour
 Sweetness
 Thickening
 Stabilizing
 Gelling
 Binding
 Sweetmeats
 Adding Variety to food.
 Glazing
 Fermentaion
 Caramelization
 Preservatives
 Alcoholic Beverages

FAT & OILS

Classification based on the origin and degree of saturation

On The Basic of Origin

Lipids
 Animal Fat – Butter, Lard, Tallow, Suet
 Marine Oils – Cod Liver Oil, Shark Liver Oil, Halibut Oil
 Vegetables Oils – Coconut Oil, Soyabean Oil, Mustard Oil

ON THE BASIS OF DEGREE OF SATURATION

Lipids
 Simple – Fatty Acid + Glycerol
 Compound – Fatty Acid + Glycerol + Components Likes P,N
 Derived – Large Compounds

 1 fatty acid+ hydroxyl group(glycerol) = monoglyceride

 2 fatty acid+ glycerol = diglyceride
 3 fatty acid+ glycerol = triglyceride
 Autoxidation
Autoxidation is any oxidation that occurs in open air or in presence of oxygen (and
sometimes UV radiation) and forms peroxides and hydroperoxides.
MECHANISM OF AUTO-OXIDATION: Takes place in 3 steps. The rate of oxidation increases as the
reaction proceeds.
1. the first stage is INITIATION or formation of free radicals
2. PROPOGATION or free radical chain reaction
3. TERMINATION or terminal point i.e. formation of non radical products. Termination occurs when two
free radicals interact to form a non- radical.
FACTORS LEADING TO AUTOXIDATION
1. temperature
2. moisture content
3. air
4. light
5. metals
6. degree of unsaturation
7. absence of anti-oxidants
PREVENTION
1. Store fat at low temp in cool dark place.
2. Use air tight containers
3. Use opaque containers to cut off the exposure o light and air.
4. Do not keep strong smelling foods in the vicinity of fats and oils as they absorb foreign odor.
5. Copper container and rusted iron accelerate rancidity. Only steel or aluminium containers should be used.
6. Natural antioxidants like Vit E can be used.
7. Artificial antioxidants like BHA, BHT can be used.
8. If fats and oils have to be stored for some time, they should be hydrogenated and stored. Hydrogenation
increases the shelf life of fats and prevents rancidity
Flavor Reversion

Flavour Reversion is defined as a change in edible fats that is characterized by the development, in the
refined material, of an objectionable flavour prior to the onset of true rancidity. It may develop during the
exposure of the fat to ultraviolet or visible light or by heating. A small amount of oxygen seems to be
 necessary for the reaction that is catalysed by the presence of small amounts of metals such as iron and
copper. Selective hydrogenation decreases the amount of linolenic acid and aids in preventing flavour
reversion. Soyabean oil is most susceptible to flavour reversion.
Factors affecting flavour reversion-
a) Metals like iron, copper
b) Presence of U-V rays
c) Heat
d) Oxygen
Flavor reversion is more prominent in some fats like-Soybean oil has a tendency to have ‘Beany’,
‘haylike’and eventually ‘fishy’ off flavours.
Prevention- the addition of sequester ants such as-
Ethylene dioxide tetraacetic acid (EDTA)

REFINED OILS
Oils and fats do not occur free in nature. They occur in animal tissues and in seeds and fruits from which
they are isolated. The extracted oils are crude and contain many constituents like free fatty acids,
unsaponifiable matter, gums, waxes, mucilaginous matter, variety of colouring matter, metallic
contaminants and undesirable odour producing constituents. In refining these constituents are removed by
the following steps:
 Suspended particles are removed by filtration or centrifugation.
 Free fatty acids are removed by alkali treatment.
 Any remaining free fatty acids are removed by neutralisation.
 Pigments are removed by bleaching using adsorbents like activated earth or carbon and sometimes
chemical bleaching agents.
 The oil is finally deodorized by injecting steam through the heated fat under reduced pressure to obtain
refined oil.
HYDROGENATION –
Plant oils contain a large percentage of unsaturated fatty acids and hence have a tendency to become
rancid. These unsaturated glycerides in oil can be converted to more saturated glycerides by the addition
of hydrogen. This process is known as hydrogenation.
Hydrogenated fat is manufactured from vegetable oils by the addition of molecular hydrogen to the
double bonds in the unsaturated fatty acids in the presence of nickel. The double bonds take up hydrogen
and saturated fatty acids are obtained. By this process, liquid fats can be converted to semi solid and solid
fats for use as shortening in the preparation of biscuits, cakes and butter substitutes.
Hydrogenation is of great economic importance because it allows oils to be converted into fats, which
have better keeping quality.As hydrogenated fats are prepared from refined deodourised oils, the resulting
fats are odourless and colourless and blend well in several food preparations.

Vanaspathi:
Hydrogenated oil in India is known as vanaspathi. It is manufactured by hydrogenating refined groundnut
oil or a mixture of groundnut oil with other edible vegetable oils. According to vanaspathi control order,
the melting point of vanaspathi should be between 31°C and 37° C and it should contain 5 percent sesame
oil and should be fortified with vitamin A.
Margarine :
Margarine is often used as a substitute for butter. It is made from vegetable oils or a mixture of vegetable
and animal fat by hydrogenation. It is then blended with cultured skim milk and salt. The fats most
commonly used in the manufacture of margarine are cotton seed oil, soyabean oil, corn oil, groundnut oil,
coconut oil and meat fat. Additional additives may include diacetyl for butter flavour, sodium benzoate
for preservation, mono and diglycerides or lecithin for emulsification, yellow colouring matter and
vitamin A and D.
Winterization : some cooking oil become cloudy when they are stored in the reftrigerator. This occurs
because some of the triglyceride molecules in the oil have higher melting points than other molecules in
the mixture and crystallize or become solid at the lower temperature. In manufacturing oils intended to be
used primarily for the making of salad dressings, a winterizing process is applied. In this process, the
temperature of the oil is lowered to a point at which the higher melting triglycerides crystallize. Then the
oil is filtered to remove the crystal the remaining oil has a lower melting point and does not crystallize at
refrigerator temperature. It is referred to as salad oil. Removing the solid particles is called winterization
Leavening : When fats are creamed with sugars as in preparation of cake, butters, they help to
incorporate air into the batter making it tight and foamy. On baking the protein films coagulate enclosing
the air and making the end products light in texture and soft in mouthfeel. In biscuits since foaming is not
required the fat is rubbed into the flour gently to provide slight aeration to impart a light crisp texture.

Shortening : Fats provide a crumbly texture to food by foaming a film around the starch and protein
particles in flours preventing the formation of long gluten strands in them. This accomplished when fat is
rubbed into a flour gently using the tips of the fingers only. Such treatment to flours before dough
formation makes products soft and tender or short after cooking. This effect is called shortening and is
used for making biscuits, cakes pie bases, pastry products etc. where a golden color and crisp texture is
required through baking and frying.

Effect of heating on Fats & Oils with respect to Smoke point

What is Smoke Point?
The smoke point of an oil is the temperature at which it starts to smoke and break down. When an oil
exceeds its smoke point, it can create harmful compounds and a burnt taste in your food. Different oils
have different smoke points, which makes some oils better suited for high-heat cooking methods such as
frying, while others are best for low-heat cooking methods such as sautéing.
Factors Affecting Smoke Point
The smoke point of an oil can be affected by several factors, including its quality, degree of refinement,
and the presence of impurities. Some oils with high levels of free fatty acids, such as virgin olive oil, have
a lower smoke point. On the other hand, oils that are highly refined, such as canola oil, have a higher
smoke point.
Effect of Heat on Fats and Oils
When oils are heated, they undergo chemical changes that affect their taste, color, and nutritional value.
As the temperature rises, the oil begins to break down and release volatile compounds, some of which can
be harmful to health. In addition, the heat can cause the oil to oxidize, leading to rancidity and off-flavors.
 Choosing the Right Oil for Cooking
When it comes to cooking with oils, it’s important to choose the right oil for the job. Oils with a high
smoke point, such as avocado, peanut, and canola oil, are best suited for high-heat cooking methods such
as frying. Oils with a low smoke point, such as flaxseed oil, should be reserved for low-heat cooking
methods such as salad dressings.
Tips to Avoid Reaching Smoke Point
To avoid reaching the smoke point of an oil, it’s important to pay attention to the cooking temperature
and use the right oil for the job. Here are some tips to keep in mind:
 Use oils with a high smoke point for high-heat cooking methods.
 Monitor the temperature of the oil and adjust the heat as needed.
 Avoid reusing oil that has already been heated to its smoke point.
 Store oils properly to avoid rancidity.
Commercial Use of Fats
The role of different types of fats and oils in cookery is largely based on their composition and properties.
Thus, liquid fats or oils with a high smoke point are used for deep fat frying purposes and likewise, solid
fats like butter and margarine are used as shortening and tenderizing agents in foods.
Fats are used in food preparation
(i) As a medium of cooking.
(ii) As a shortening in chakali, shankarpala, biscuits, pastry and cakes.
(iii) To add richness and flavor as in halwa, seasoning of vegetables and salads.
(iv) Increase tenderness and make the product short.
(v) Form emulsions.
(vi) Spread and be plastic.
As a medium of cooking
Fats and oils have a high boiling point as compared to water. Therefore foods get cooked in fat in shorter
time than when cooked in water. Fried foods such as wafers and chivda, have a crisp texture and a
delicate flavor. The high temperature used in frying destroys harmful bacteria, thus making the food safe
for consumption. Some fat is absorbed by the food and the calorific value of the food is increased when it
is cooked in fat or oil.
As a shortening
In many preparations, such as cakes, biscuits, kachauri, and namkeen, fats or oils are added to improve
the texture. The fat covers the surface of the flour particles and prevents the sticking of particles together.
Many factors such as the nature of the fat or oil, the amount added, the temperature, presence of other
ingredients, manipulation and the extent of mixing, affect the shortening power.
As a seasoning
Fats and oils are used to season most food preparations. In sweet preparations, fats, such as butter, ghee,
vanaspati
The following factors affect the shortening power of Fats –
1. The nature of the Fat – Fats with the greater unsaturation (3 or more double bonds) have the greatest
shortening power. Greatest shortening power means the greatest surface area of flour covered in a
particular product.
2. Concentration – As the concentration of Fat increases, its shortening power is also increased e.g.
butter has less shortening as compared to hydrogenated Fats.
3. Temperature – Fats are less plastic and oils are more viscous at low temperatures. Therefore, they
spread led readily and are covered is smaller with the same amounts of mixing than at higher temperature.
4. Other ingredients – Presence of other ingredients may modify the shortening power of Fat. When oil
or melted Fat is used in a batter with egg yolk, the Fat is emulsified as an O/W emulsion and has less
shortening power.
5. Manipulation of Fat – In includes creaming or stirring the Fat to soften it, thoroughly mixing Fat with
flour, a way of handling and rolling and this affects shortening power.

A shortening is defined as a fat, solid at room temperature, which can be used to give foods a crumbly
and crisp texture such as pastry. Examples of fat used as “shorteners” include butter, margarine,
vegetable oils and lard.