BES 3144 - FINALS

Notes Overview:
I. Fundamentals of Research
II. Non-Experimental/Descriptive Approaches
III. Experimental Methods
IV. Steps in Conducting Experimental
Research
V. Conceptualizing your Experiment
VI. Basic Tenets of Experimental Method

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Fundamentals of Research
Scientific Method

Goals of Psychology 1. Formulate testable questions

2. Develop a hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis
Description
4. Design study to collect data
● Psychologists are always asked to say
a. Experimental
something about an individual. Traits, the type
b. Descriptive
of character, his capabilities, etc. Describing
the behavior in a scientific way.
5. Analyze data to arrive at conclusions
● Ex. Administration of psychological test
a. Use of statistical procedures

Explanation/understanding
6. Report results
● A psychologist gives an elucidation of the
a. Publication
determinants of behavior so that people may
b. Replication
understand the ‘why’ of the behavior.
○ Elucidation - explanation that makes
something clear; clarification.

Theory
● Ex. Psychologist being invited as a resource
person to shed light
● A potential explanation (for an observation or
Prediction phenomenon
● Give the outcome or the consequences ○ Keyword “potential” because theories
● Ex. Entrance exam as a predictor of GPA, often change as we gain more
employee/SEAFARER’s exam knowledge around a given
phenomenon
Control
● prevent or give solutions behavior and mental ● Not a fact, not a truth, but one possible
processes explanation among many possible
● Ex. How to control chain-smoking, substance explanations
abuse, and gambling. Psychotherapy,
psychoeducation, etc. ● Good theories are supported by further
investigations and new knowledge often
uncovered through research. We can
Psychology: The Scientific Methodology
strengthen/weaken the theory depending on
the quality of it. The use of scientific
● Psychology is about trying to determine the explanations, we can test those
facts and reduce uncertainty explanations/theories using hypothesis
● Researchers want to see only what is really
there and not what their biases might lead
them to see
Formulating testable questions
● Therefore, psychology should be factual,
unbiased, objective as well as reliable 1. The first step is derived from the goal of
description. What is happening out there?
Scientific method
● A system for reducing bias and error in the 2. Once you have a question, you want an answer
measurement of data
● A way to accomplish the goals of psychology Ex. You wonder if the violence in the cartoon could be

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creating the aggressive behavior in your children

c) I predict couples who are loyal and honest will
stay together longer and will be happier
Hypothesis

● A verifiable prediction intended to put a given Testing the Hypothesis

theory to the test ● The method you use for this depends on what
kind of answer you think you might get
Verifiable
● Scientific hypotheses need to be ● Testing the hypothesis is all about the goal of
verifiable/testable, meaning we can observe explanation for behavior
and measure them
● Ex. If it only rains when God is upset: Verifiable ● These research methods include observations,
or not? doing a survey or designing an experiment

Develop a Hypothesis
Develop a Hypothesis
3. The Second step is to form a tentative
answer/explanation for the behavior you have 5. Once you know the results of your hypothesis
seen testing, you will find that either your Hypothesis
is supported (the experiment worked) or wasn’t
4. An educated guess about the explanation for supported
your observations, putting it into the form of a
statement Ex. Could it mean that Saturday morning makes
children a little more aggressive? Or Saturday
Ex. Children who watch video cartoons will become breakfast?
aggressive

Report your results

What is your theory on why some couples stay in long ● You have come to some conclusion about your
and happy marriages? investigation’s success or failure, and you want
to let other researchers know what you have
found

OBSERVATION: Some couples are able to stay in a

loving relationship for much longer than others. Why?

THEORY:
a) Share similar values and common interest
b) Are more patient with each other
c) Loyal and honest

HYPOTHESIS:
a) I predict that couple who share similar values
will stay together longer and will be happier

b) I predict couples of who are more patient with

each other will stay together longer and will be
happier

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Non-Experimental/Descriptive studying rare and

Approaches atypical behavior ● Time-consuming
and expensive
● Extensive range of
Case Study variables ● Difficult to get
access

● It is a descriptive record of an individual’s ● Difficult to

experiences and/or behaviors kept by an replicate and
outside observer reliability may be
● No manipulation of antecedent conditions questioned

Used in a variety of ways:

● To make inferences about the developmental
processes
● The impact of life events Phenomenology
● A person’s level of functioning
● The origin of disorders
● Involves a close examination of the
○ mostly in clinical cases
experiences and meaning-making activities
● Rather than looking at behaviors and events
The Genain Quadruplets: A Case Study that are external to us, it begins with our own
experience as a source of data
● Qualitative data from research participants
using techniques
○ Interview
○ Diaries
○ Focus group
● Asking open-ended questions allowing the
experiences of respondents to emerge

Data analysis
● Recording, transcribing, coding, looking for
themes
All four of these identical quadruplets, born in 1930,
suffer from schizophrenia. (The name Genain is Themes
fictitious to preserve their anonymity) ● Recurring patterns of meaning throughout the
text
○ Ideas, Thoughts, Feelings
● Themes are likely to identify both something
Case study that matters to the participants
○ Object of concern or Topic of some sort
Advantages Disadvantages ● And also convey something of the meaning of
that thing for the participants
● Very detailed ● No determination
information of cause and
Young people learning how to drive
effect
● In-depth analysis
In a study of the experiences of young people learning
● Unrepresentative
to drive, we might find themes like driving as a rite of
● Only method for sample

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passage difficult to access,

● In-depth and analysis and
Where one key psychosocial understanding of the wholistic summarization
meaning og learning to drive, is that it marks a cultural understanding of
threshold between adolescence and adulthood individual ● Subjectivity of the
phenomena data leads to low
validity and
Becoming and Being HIV-Positive: The subjective ● Contribute to the reliability
experience of young Filipino gay men living with HIV development of
new theories
By Nico Canoy and M.A. Ofreneo

● This research examined the lived experiences Field Study

of young Filipino gay men living with HIV

● Non-experimental approach used in the field

● Interpretative phenomenological analysis was
or in real life settings
used to explore patterns of meaning-making
● Combine various types of data gathering to
within a year of HIV diagnosis
capitalize on the richness and range of
behavior found outside the laboratory
● Data analysis produced a synthesis of seven
● Capture behavior in real-life setting and
individual cases from a focus group discussion
natural environment
(FGD)
● Participants may behave more naturally
● Often difficult to exert conntrol over situation
● A call for a phenomenologically-guided
and environment
intervention for HIV is needed towards the
● Low cause and effect because Extraneous
humane treatment for young gay men with HIV
variabes are inevitable
○ Extraneous variable - any variable not
being investigated that has the
THEMES FOUND:
potential to affect the outcome of a
a) Young gay men’s experiences of HIV testing
research study
and the process of othering in te workplace

Observational methods
b) Experiences of emotional struggles and the
● The act of recognizing and noting facts or
process of disclosure in the family
occurences
● DIRECT OBSERVATION
c) Experiences of coming to terms with their HIV
○ Observe behavior present” while it
status and the process of reconstructing the
occurs
self

2 Types of Direct Observation

Phenomenology 1. Observation without Intervention (Naturalistic)

Advantages Disadvantages 2. Observation with intervention

○ Participant observation
● Data rich ● Findings are ○ Structured observation
difficult to ○ Field experiment
● Help understand generalize
people’s
meanings ● Data is often

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NOTE: Intervention refers to a change or create a 3. Avoidance of proximity and contact

context for observation 4. Resistance to contact and comforting

Naturalistic observation
● The technique of observing behaviors as they
occur spontaneously in natural settings
● Usually participants are NOT AWARE that their
behavior is being observed
○ To achieve genuine data that truly
reflects their nature
● Descriptive method that involves no
manipulation of antecedent conditions
○ Antecedent conditions - a stimulus
that cues an organism to perform a NOTE: The observer noted down the behavior displayed
learned behavior during the 15-second intervals and scored the behavior
for intensity on a scale of 1-7
● Ex. an educational psychologist maybe
interested in the behavior of the pupils once
the teacher leaves the classroom
● During the naturalistic observation, the Observation without Intervention (Naturalistic)
observer remains unobtrusive so that the
behaviors observed are not altered by the
Naturalistic observation
presence of the observer
● Research method commonly used by
psychologists and other social scientists
Controlled observation
● Involves observing and studying the
● Also called “structured observation” are likely
spontaneous behavior of participants in
to be carried out in a psychology laboratory
natural surroundings
● The researcher decides
● The researcher simply records what they see in
○ where the observation will take place
whatever they can
○ at what time
○ with which participants
● Ex. Margaret Mead used this method to
○ In what circumstances
research the way of life of different tribes living
○ And uses a standardized procedure
on islands in the South Pacific
● Participants are randomly allocated to each
● Ex. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play
independent variable group
by observing their behavior in a playgroup in
Oxfordshire
Ainsworth’s strange situation

Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule too study

Observation with Intervention
how infants responded to brief periods oof separation
from their mothers
Participant observation
During the Strange Situation procedure, infant’s ● A variant of Natural observation, but the
interaction behaviors were directed toward the mother researcher joins in and becomes part of the
were measured: group they are studying to get a deeper insight
into their lives
1. Proximity and Contact seeking ● Can either be:
2. Contact maintaining ○ Covert

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■ the study is carried out

Field Study
‘undercover’
■ The researcher’s identity and Advantages Disadvantages
purpose are concealed from
the group being studied ● Can be useful for ● Sometimes yields
■ The researcher takes a false generating based results
identity and role, usually hypotheses
posing as a genuine member ● Maybe difficult to
of the group ● Provides do unobtrusively
○ Overt information
■ The researcher reveals thei true about behavior in ● Doesn’t allow
identity and purpose to the the natural conclusions about
group and asks for permission environment cause and effect
to observe relationship
● Similar to survey
● Ex. Leon Festinger in a famous study into a but questions are ● Risks involved
religious cult who believed that the end of the not asked
world was about to occur. He joined the cult ● People may
and studied how they reacted when the ● High ecological behave
prophecy did not come true validity unnaturally as
they know that we
● More insights are observing
Recording of Data gained them

● Not possible to
● With controlled/structured observation studies, observe all types
it is crucial how the researcher classifies and of behavior in a
records the data natural setting
○ Usually involves a method of sampling

3 main sampling methods

Survey
1. Event sampling - the observer decides in
advance what types of behaviors (events) she
● Techniques of interviews and questionnaires
is interested in and records all occurrences. All
are used in field settings
other types of behavior are ignored
● Can be used to investigate the characteristics,
behaviors or opinions of a group/person
2. Time sampling - the observer decides in
○ Ex. demography, experiences, opinions
advance that observation will take place only
and hypothetical scenarios
during specified time periods, and records the
occurrence of the specified behavior during
● Usually in self-report form/survey
that period only
questionnaire or an interview

3. Instantaneous (target time) sampling - the

Techniques
observer decides in advance the pre-selected
● Mail
moments when observation will take place and
○ Ex. an alumni survey distributed via
records what is happening at that instant.
direct mail by your alma mater
Everything happening before or after is ignored
● Telephone

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○ Ex. a market research call about your

collection ● The social
experiences with a certain consumer
techniques desirability bias
product
can leadpeople to
● Online
● Can collect respond in a way
○ Ex. might focus on your experience with
information on a that makes them
a particular retailer, product, or website
broad range of look better than
● At home interviews
things (personal they really are.
○ Government aided interviews
facts, attitudes,
Instrument
past behaviors For example, a
● A carefully pretested questionnaire. Easier to
and opinions, and respondent might
administer, more economical and ensuring the
sensitive report that they
anonymity of respondents
information) engage in more
healthy behaviors
Sampling
than they do in
● Should be representative of the populaiton
real life
being studied
○ Ex. predicting a political candidate to
win even if the respondents are from
Correlational Research
the region where he resides

● Relationships between pairs of scores from

Survey each subject are known as Simple correlations
● The Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Advantages Disadvantages Coefficient ( r )
○ is the most commonly used procedure
● It allows us to ● Poor survey for calculating simple correlations
gether data construction
about andadministration Direction of correlation
experiences, can undermine ● Positive (direct relationship)
feelings,, well-designed ○ Ex. College exam score and GPA, Height
thoughts and studies and weight, education and income
motives that are ● Negative (inverse) relationship
hard to observe ● The answer ○ Ex. education and prejudice
directly choices provided ● Zero (no correlation)
in a survey may
● Allows not be an Form (shape) of a relationship
researchers to accurate reflection ● Linear
collect a large ofhow the ○ A straight relationship is called a linear
amount of data in participants because it approximates a straight line
a relatively short actually feel ● Curvilinear correlation
period ● While random ○ One variable increases as the other
sampling is increases until the relationship
● Surveys can be generallyused to between X and Y that begins as
created quickly select positive becomes negative
and administered participants, ○ Ex. TV viewing tends to decrease with
easily responserates can age, until 30s after which viewing tends
bias the results of to increase with age
● Less expensive a survey
than other data

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Degree (strength) of a relationship For example, we require high school students to take
the SAT exam because we know that in the past SAT
scores correlated well with the GPA scores that the
● Correlation coefficient measures the degree of
students get when they are in college.
the relationship between two variables
● The measures we discuss only measure the
Thus, we predict high SAT scores will lead to high GPA
strength of the linear relationship between two
scores, and conversely.
variables. Numerically express both the
strength and direction of a straight-line
correlation Validity
● Correlation can be used in an instance where
we have supposedly developed a new test of
1.00 Perfect Negative
intelligence
Correlation
○ We can then determine its validity of
-0.60 Strong Negative measuring intelligence by correlating
Correlation the new test’s scores with the scores
that the same people get on
-0.30 Moderate Negative standardized IQ tests, or their scores
Correlation on problem-solving ability tests, or
their performance on learning tasks,
-0.10 Weak Negative etc.
Correlation
● This is a process for validating the new test of
.00 No correlation intelligence. The process is based on
correlation
+0.10 Weak Positive Correlation

Reliability
+0.30 Moderate Positive
● Correlations can be used to determine the
Correlation
reliability of some measurement process
+0.60 Strong Positive
Correlation For example, we could administer our new IQ test on
two different occasions to the same group of people
+1.00 Perfect Positive and see what the correlation is. If the correlation is high,
Correlation the test is reliable. If it is low, it is not

Theory verification
Where and Why do we use Correlation?
Prediction
● Correlations can be used to help make
predictions
● If two variables have been known in the past to
correlate, then we can assume they will
continue to correlate in the future
● We can use the value of one variable that is
known now to predict the value that the other
variable will take on in the future
● Many Psychological theories make specific
predictions about the relationship between two
variables
For example, it is predicted that parents' and children's
intelligences are positively related.
We can test this prediction by administering IQ tests to
the parents and their children and measuring the
correlation between the two scores.

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● The participants in this type of study are

Ex-Post Facto Study
● Ex-post facto means “after the fact”
● Also sometimes known as Quasi-experimental
research
● The researcher is interested in the effects of
traits, behaviors, or naturally occurring events
that cannot or should not be manipulated by a
researcher
● The researcher forms treatment groups on the
basis of differences that already exist between
subjects
selected based on particular variables of
interest
● Cross-sectional data on present drinking
habits among men
● This study takes place at a single point in time
● Allows researchers to look at numerous
characteristics at once (age, income, gender,
etc.)
○ It is often used to look at the prevailing
characteristics in a given population
● It can provide information about what is
happening in a current population

Ex. Weight influences self-esteem level

Event - traumatic experiences

Longitudinal Study

● Involves study, over time, of a group of people,

or of samples from the same population using
records, interviews, or both
● Studies which extend over a long period, which
are prospective
● Since changes in each individual’s responses
are assessed, it’s easier to investigate reasons
for attitude or behavior changes
● Longitudinal study is the best survey design
when a researcher wishes to assess the effect
of some naturally occurring event

Ways of Gathering Data

● Questionnaire
● Interview

Cross-sectional study

● A cross-sectional study involves looking at

data from a population at one specific point in
time
● Also known as:
○ Cross-sectional analysis
○ Transverse study
○ Prevalence study

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Experimental Methods variable

● An experiment is a method of data collection

Dependent variable (DV) 1. The measured
desiigned to test hypotheses under controlled
facts
conditions

2. Hypothesized to
Experimental Designs in Psychology be affected

● A true experiment attempts to isolate cause

and effect and to eliminate alternative
explanations of observed relationships
between variables
● In a true experiment, an independent variable
is manipulated and all other salient variables
are controlled inc. random allocation of
participants to conditions
RESEARCH VARIABLES - Dependent Variable
● Behavior being studied
● “Effect”
● Results being measured
Ex. number of cigar sticks per day

RESEARCH VARIABLES - Independent Variable

Experiments
● Hypothesized explanation
● “Cause”
● Direct way to test a hypothesis about a
● Manipulated
cause-effect relationship between factors
● Extraneous V
● Factors are called variables
○ Can also affect change in the
○ Independent variable
measure of the DV
○ Dependent variable

● Must have at least 2 levels

DEFINITIONS
Hypothesis Tentative statement
about the relationship
between variables
○ Categories (male vs. female)
○ Numeric (ages 10, 12, 14)
● Simplest is experimental vs. control group
○ Experimental gets treatment
○ Control does not

Variables Factors that can vary in

Ex. work stress; higher number of tasks to be
ways that can be
accomplished
observed, measured, and
verified

Operational Precise description of

definition how the variables will be
manipulated and Comparison Groups
measured
Control Group
EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES
● Does not receive the treatment
● Not exposed to the intervention
Independent variable Hypothesized to cause
● NO treatment group
(IV) an effect on another

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● Provides a baseline against some variable of

interest

Experimental group
● Receives the treatment
● Exposed to the intervention
● Treatment group

Null and Alternative Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis (Ho)

● A statement of no difference
● That the performance of the experimental
group (EG) is similar with other groups

● Null hypothesis (Ho)

● Equal (=)

Ho = Ha

There is no significant difference between the groups

being studied.(No relationship between variables; no
cause and effect)

Alternative Hypothesis (H1) (Ha)

● A statement that the results of the experiment
from groups are not equal

● Ho ≠ Ha
● Ho (less than) < Ha
● Ho (more than) > Ha

There is a significant difference between the groups

being studied. (There is a relationship between
variables; there is cause and effect)

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This is not solely a step where you collect the

Steps in Conducting Experimental ●
papers, read them, and say your methods were
Research a success. You must show how successful
● You must devise a scale
○ by which you will evaluate the data you
STEP ONE: Identifying a Research Problem receive, therefore you must decide
what indicators will be, and will not be,
important.
● The process starts by clearly identifying the
problem you want to study
● Considering what possible methods will affect STEP FIVE: Report the Results
a solution
● Choose the method you want to test
● Once you have completed the experiment, you
● Formulate a hypothesis to predict the outcome
will want to share findings by publishing
of the test
academic paper (or presentations)
○ These papers usually have the
STEP TWO: Plannning following format, but it is not necessary
to follow it strictly
○ Sections can be combined or not
● Devise an experiment to test your hypothesis
included, depending on the structure of
○ In doing so, you must consider several
the experiment, and the journal to
factors
which you submit your paper
○ For example, how generalizable do you
want your end results to be? Do you
want to generalize about the entire
population of high school seniors
everywhere or just the particular
population of seniors at your specific
school?
○ This will determine how simple or
complex the experiment will be

STEP THREE: Conducting the Experiment

● At the start of an experiment, the control and

treatment groups must be selected
● Whereas the "hard" sciences have the luxury of
attempting to create truly equal groups
○ educators often find themselves forced
to conduct their experiments based on
self-selected groups, rather than on
randomization

STEP FOUR: Analyze the Data

● Collect and analyze the data

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Experimental Design general

● One can infer populations, any
causality through generalizations
Random sample
the manipulation are problematic
● Every member of the population being studied
of the
should have an equal chance of being selected
independent Social scientists
for the study
variable typically say that
experimental
Random assignment
● Prediction is designs have low
● Every subject in the study should have an equal
enhanced external validity or
chance of being placed in either the
that they have
experimental or control group
● There is greater poor
confidence the generalizability
Possible Bias study has internal
validity due to the ● The artificial
systematic settings of
Expectancy effects
subject selection experiments may
● Change in DV produced by subject’s
and equity of alter subject
expectancy that change should happen
groups being behaviors or
compared responses
Demand characteristics
● Subtle cues or signals by the researcher that
● Replication is very ● Experimental
communicate type of responses that are
possible designs can ve
expected
costly if special
equipment or
NOTE: both controlled through the use of double-blind facilities are
procedures needed

● Double-blind procedure
○ neither the participants nor the Liimtations
experimenters know who is receiving a
particular treatment
● Often criticized for having little to do with
○ This procedure is utilized to prevent
actual behavior because of strict laboratory
bias in research results
conditions
○ Double-blind studies are particularly
● Ethical considerations in creating some more
useful for preventing bias due to
“real life” situations
demand characteristics or the placebo
effect
Ethical guidelines

Experimental Method
● Informed consent and voluntary participation
Strengths Weaknesses ● Students as participants
● Use of deception
● Control over the ● Since subjects of ● Confidentiality of records
environment and experimental ● Information about the study and debriefing
other external designs are not
variable is usually
possible representative of

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Facilitating Online Classroom Experiments
Experiment facilitation
● The ability to conduct an experiment is an
important skill that future practitioners in the
different tracks (ex. Industrial, clinical,
educational, etc.) must possess
Facilitation skills and Characteristics
● Preparedness
○ Being prepared is a contributing factor
to making progress and facilitating a
group
○ A facilitator who is prepared will be
able to provide the resources that the
team needs to move the conversation
toward a common goal
● Ability to set guidelines
○ Setting guidelines from the beginning
of a project allows the group to share a
common goal
○ Progress is often made more quickly
when everyone on the team
understands the guidelines and knows
what the facilitator wants
● Active listening
○ This involves giving each member of
the team your full attention
○ People contribute more when they feel
like they are being heard
○ A faacilitator should make sure to
listent to everything a person has to
say
● Time management
○ When goals must be met or ideas need
to be created by a deadline, time
management is necessary to keep
everyone focused
○ A facilitator uses their time
management skills to ensure that
progress is being mae during a group
project/meeting
● Neutrality
○ The ability to stay unbiased during a
team effort
○ Remaining neutral as a facilitator is
crucial because it allos you to guide
the team without having an agenda
○ The team’s success is your priority, no
matter what choices they make
● Flexibility
○ Flexibility is the ability to adapt to
change
○ A facilitator can do this by adapting to
the current outlook and mindset of the
team whenever necessary
● Effective communication skills
○ An excellent facilitator is one who
knows not only how to speak
comfortably in front of an audience but
can also convey the meeting process
in a simple, concise manner.
○ Facilitators are expected to paraphrase
back individual ideas for purposes of
getting better clarity and/or to validate
the speaker’s intention.
○ Being able to summarize and
communicate back key themes, trends
and/or decisions that the group has
proposed helps the group to effectively
create closure
● Keen observation skills
○ Able to pick up on small gestures,
glances and facial expressions that
can all point to the individual’s honest
reaction and/or opinion.
○ It’s important to get a sense of what is
really happening in people’s minds and
what they are feeling by noting mixed
messages when they occur as a way to
bring concerns, differing opinions, and
resistance to the surface
● Promotes constructive feedback
○ In order to ensure participants are not
caving into one person’s idea(s), the
facilitator will challenge the group by
posing questions to either help them
think more broadly, deeper or wider. If
required, the facilitator encourages the
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BES 3144 - FINALS
group to stop and reflect on their
performance or ideas for purposes of
improvement.
○ Feedback is best when it is constructive
and is based on real, observable
events that others can relate to.
○ The facilitator also demonstrates their
willingness to receive feedback by
actively listening and incorporating
process changes where it make sense.
● Patient
○ Staying patient during the facilitation
process is crucial for the meeting to be
successful.
○ The facilitator does not show their
frustration or anger at the participants
for not being brilliant in generating
ideas or when an individual or the
group is not following the process plan.
Instead, the facilitator evaluates if the
problem is due to a content or a
process issue.
○ Once noted, the resolution of the
problem can be as simple as asking
different questions to help the group
see the issue more clearly, or as
difficult as changing the process plan
to suit the group’s changing needs.
○ A great facilitator values and respects
the power of the group. They believe
better decisions; better ideas and
better outcomes can be achieved
when the intelligence in the room has
been leveraged. By combining their
knowledge, skills and personality in an
effective way a top-notch meeting
leader will be able to facilitate trust and
draw the best out the group.
● Asks versus tells
○ Facilitators use the art of questioning or
asking, rather than telling, to
encourage group members to come up
with their own ideas. If the group is
unable to come up with ideas, the
facilitator will only throw out
suggestions to stimulate further ideas.
○ The facilitator understands that if the
group comes up with the ideas
themselves, ultimately, buy-in and
follow-through are increased.
● Energetic personality
○ A facilitator has to know when to ramp
up the energy in the room and/or when
to bring back the focus of the group.
○ Having an energetic personality can
help heighten the excitement for an
upcoming project or get a
brainstorming session off to the right
start regardless of participant’s
commitment to the process.
○ When tensions between participants
appear, a good facilitator has the
ability to stay calm during
disagreements. This takes tremendous
energy and skill and will help diffuse
tensions and keep dialogue
constructive and on-topic
How to improve your facilitation skills?
● Practicing facilitation skills and developing
your strengths will enable you to become a
better facilitator
Online Experiments
Advantages Disadvantages
● Cost and ● Experimenter’s
efficiency lack of control
● Automation ● Ethical issues
● Ecological validity ● Pre-screen lies
● Sample and ● Random
population responses
● Simplified ● Multiple
replication submissions
● Voluntary ● Cheating
participation
Core competencies of experimenters
16
BES 3144 - FINALS

● Demonstrating the procedures of the

Experiment Conceptualization and design
● To be achieved in the proposal that you shall
submit toward the end of the course
Experiment Conduct and Facilitation
● To be assessed in the series of selected
experiments to be implemented in the second
half of the term
experiment in accordance with the experiment
activity sheet
● Performing part of the procedures, as
necessary, for better understanding of the
participants
● Clarifying if participants understood the
procedures

Types of Manipulation
Experiment Analysis and Interpretation
● To be demonstrated in the analysis that you Straightforward Staged
shall engage within your assigned experiments
● Able to ● Stage events
Guidelines for Facilitating Experiments manipulate the during the
variable by experiment in
presenting order to
Part 1: Priming (10 minutes) written, verbal, or manipulate the
● Delivering the lecturette on the assigned topic visual materials IV successfully
● Giving of informed consent to the
● Discussing the experiment objectives participants ● The researcher
● Soliciting expectations from the participants may try to create
● Control variables some
Online Experiments with the psychological
instructions and state in the
● Potential participants in a research should stimulus participants like
be provided with all the information that presentations. frustration,
might influence the decision of whether to Stimuli may be anger, etc.
not to participate in a study presented
● Most commonly provided with a written verbally, in ● It may be
informed consent form written form via necessary to
videotape, or simulate some
a) Purpose of the research with a computer situation that
b) Procedures occurs in the real
c) Risks and benefits environment
d) Compensation
e) Confidentiality ● Demands a
f) Assurance of voluntary participation and great deal of
permission to withdraw creativity,
g) Contact information for questions ingenuity, and
some acting
ability
Part 2: Organizing (5 minutes)
● Setting up the materials and equipment
Confederate
● Ensuring that participants are properly
● Is employed to
organized
appear to be
● Distributing materials
another
● Preparing the room set-up
participant but is
actually part of
Part 3: Modeling (5 minutes)

17
BES 3144 - FINALS
the manipulation
to create a
particular
situation
● The Good samaritan experiment
● Effects of group pressure on the modification
and distortion of judgments
Part 4: Experiencing (25 minutes)
● Giving the go-signal to proceed
● Monbitoring the time
● Signaling the end of the session
● Actual time depends on the type of experiment
Measuring the Dependent variable
Self-report measures
● Used to measure attitudes, liking for someone,
judgment about someone’s personality
characteristics, emotional states, etc.
● Any test, measure, or survey that relies on an
indivisual’s own report of their symptoms,
behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes
● Paper and pencil tests are generally
inexpensive
Behavioral measures
● Are direct observations of behaviors
● The research may record whether a given
behavior occurs
○ Ex. an individual responds to a request
for help
● The researcher needs to quantify obsered
behvaviors
○ Rate of a behavior - how many times
the behavior occurs in a given time
○ Reaction time - how quickly a
response occurs after a stimulus
○ Duration - how long a behavior
persists
Physiological measures
● Recordings of the response of the body
○ Galvanic Skin Response (GVR) -
measures general emotional arousal
and anxiety by electrical conductance
of the skin which changes when
sweating occurs.
○ Electromyogram (EMG) - measures
muscle tension and used as a measure
of tension or stress.
○ Electroencephalogram (EEG) –
measures the electrical activity of brain
cells. Used to record general brain
arousal as a response to different
situations such as active parts of the
brain when a psychological
phenomenon occurs.
○ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) –
provides an image of an individual’s
brain structure. It allows scientists to
compare brain structure of individuals
with a particular mental health
condition
○ Functional MRI – allows researchers to
scan areas of the brain while a
research participant performs a
physical or cognitive task.
Sensitivity of the Dependent variable
● The dependent variable should be sensitive
enough to detect differences between groups.
It is important when measuring human
performance
○ Ceiling effect - A task is so easy that
everyone does well regardless of the
conditions. The IV appears to have no
effect on the DV only because
participants quickly reach the
maximum performance level.
○ Floor effect - occurs when a task is so
difficult that hardly anyone can
perform well
Part 5: Processing (10 minutes)
● Asking the process questions
● Drawing out the learning insights and
experiences from the participants
Additional controls:
Controlling for Participants Expectations
➔ Demand characteristics
18
BES 3144 - FINALS
◆ Experimenters do not wish to inform
participants about the specific
hypothesis of the experiment
◆ The concern is that when participants
form expectations about the
hypothesis of the study, they will then
do whatever is necessary to confirm
the hypothesis
To Resolve:
➔ The use of deception
➔ To make participants think that the experiment
is studying one thing when actually it is
studying something else
➔ Devise elaborate cover stories to explain the
purpose of the study
➔ Demand characteristics may be eliminated
when people are not aware that an experiment
is taking place at their behavior is being
observed
● Placebo Group
○ A special kind of participant
expectation arises in research on the
effects of drugs
Consider an experiment on the effectiveness of of
PROZAC drug on the treatment of depression
1st group: depressive receives treatment or drug
2nd group: receives nothing but a fake pill
Suppose Prozac shows improvement on the mood level
of the 1st group. We do not know if the improvement
was caused by the properties of the drug or by the
participants’ expectations about the effect of the drug
(PLACEBO EFFECT)
Participants in the placebo group receive a pill
containing an inert & harmless drug (fake Prozac)
Additional controls:
Controlling for Experimenter’s Expectations
(Experimenter’s Bias/Expectancy Effects)
● Experimenters are usually aware of the
purpose of the study and thus develop
expectations about how participants should
respond
● The experimenter might unconsciously treat
participants differently in various conditions of
the study such as emphasizing certain words
when reading instructions to one group and
not the other.
● Experimenters record the behaviors of the
participants which there are subtle differences
in the way the experimenter interprets or
records the behavior
Solutions to Expectancy Effects:
➔ Experimenters should be well-trained and
should practice behaving consistently with the
participants
➔ Run all conditions simultaneously so that the
experimenter’s behavior is the same for all the
participants.
➔ Make the procedures automated or use of
computers.
➔ Use experimenters who are unaware of the
hypothesis being studied
◆ Single blind experiment - the
participant is unaware of whether a
placebo or the actual drug is being
administered
◆ Double-blind experiment - neither the
participant nor the experimented
knows whether the placebo or actual
treatment is being given
Part 6: Debriefing (10 minutes)
● Occurs after the completion of the study and
includes an explanation of the purposes of the
research
● An opportunity for the researcher to interact
with the participants to discuss the ethical and
educational implications of the study,
withholding info, deception and harmful effects
of participation.
● The participants should leave the experiment
without any ill feelings
Key discussion points:
➔ Integrating the key learning points from the
session
➔ Explaining the relevance of the experiment
➔ Providing a meaningful closure to the
experiment
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BES 3144 - FINALS

Ask the participants to refrain from discussing

➔
Conceptualizing your Experiment
the study with others
➔ May contact participants to inform about the
results What Psychology experiment
can I possibly work on?
As Experiment facilitators
● Will it be something Physiological? Cognitive?
1. Prepare a lecturette to introduce your Behavioral? Social? On perception? On
participants learning?
2. Ensure complete materials for your experiment ● As a group, think about a problem that you
3. Conduct the experiment yourselves first before want to solve, an issue you would like to
actually implementing your study to your address
participants ● How?
4. Demonstrate and run your experiment to the ○ Brainstorm
participants ○ Read (printed/online journals)
5. Check the results/outcomes of the experiments ○ Do casual talks with people
among your participants
Some guide questions
● Is there a gap in knowledge that the study will
fill in?
● Are there contradictory findings?
● Does a certain phenomenon need to be
explained?

At the end of the tunnel

● Your decision: let’s do something in the area of

Social Psychology
● But which theory? You chanced upon this
article
○ Altitudinal effects of mere exposure

Mere Exposure Effect

● Based on this article, mere repeated exposure
of the individual to a stimulus object enhances
his attitude towards it
○ Mere exposure - means making the
stimulus accessible to perception

● Robert Zajonc - proponent of the “Mere

Exposure Effect” who also performed this 1968
study
● As you reviewed the study, you noted that the
stimulus objects used by Zajonc were a set of
nonsense words and symbols, and he explored
whether people will “prefer” such words and
symbols to which they had prior exposure,

20
BES 3144 - FINALS

compared to those words and symbols to

Mere Exposure Effect by Zajonc
which there was no prior exposure

All these issues kept playing in your head, and as you

And then you wondered, will this design be applicable
for other stimulus objects?
Some related developments - FIRST
were reading Zajonc’s mere exposure effect, you
wondered if it is possible to replace Zajonc’s nonsense
syllables and symbols (as the stimulus objects) with
exposure to Thai BL series, and then see whether
repeated exposure would enhance attitude toward
gays?

● During the academic break, you became so

preoccupied with trending tweets in whether Can an experiment be conducted to determine
there was a certain kind of prevailing attitude whether repeated exposure to gay-oriented shows
towards gays on Twitter. would lead to more favorable attitudes toward gays?

○ Are they seen positively or negatively?

○ Was #baklangkanal limited only to
gays who are critical of the Duterte
For other details
Administration?

What could a suitable problem be?

● PROBLEM: does repeated exposure to Thai BL
series enhance attitudes toward gays?

What about my hypothesis?

● NULL HYPOTHESIS: repeated exposure to Thai BL
series does not enhance attitudes towards
gays?
● ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS: repeated exposure to
Some related developments - SECOND Thai BL series enhances attitudes towards
gays?

● While exploring YouTube, you saw a channel

What about my variables?
devoted to the promotion of news about the
● INDEPENDENT/EXOGENOUS VARIABLE:
latest Thai BL (boy’s love) series
○ how will it be manipulated? (i.e.,
● Reading the posts related to these BL series,
with/without exposure)
you wondered why they have such a huge
● DEPENDENT/ENDOGENOUS VARIABLE:
fanbase not only in Thailand but in the whole of
○ how will it be measured? (i.e.,
Asia including the Philippines
administer “Attitude Toward Gays”
○ Does this translate to better attitudes
scale)
towards gays in general?

Can you think of some Extraneous Variables?

Some related developments - THIRD ● Pre-existing differences in attitudes toward
gays
● Previous exposure to Thai BL series
● You recalled an incident last 2019 wherein a
○ You decided that a filter question must
transgender was not allowed to use the ladies'
be asked to the potential respondents
restroom in a mall in Quezon City
(i.e., only those with minimal prior
● But then you remembered in one of your visits
exposure to Thai BL series would qualify
to a certain campus in Makati, you saw that
for the study)
they have a gender-neutral restroom

21
BES 3144 - FINALS
What Experimental Design would be appropriate?
● You decided that you will have 2 groups
○ EXPERIMENTAL GROUP: exposed to the
treatment (watch Thai BL series)
○ CONTROL GROUPS: will not be exposed
to the treatment
○ What will I administer to the control
group?
Will it be better to conduct a pre-test? Why or Why not?
● Since the study is concerned with determining
whether attitudes toward gays would improve
after repeated exposure to Thai BL series, you
realized that a pre-test would be necessary.
● You decided that the pre-test should be
administered more than two weeks before
exposure to the treatment conditions.
● To prevent practice effects, a second version of
the attitude scale will be administered as a
post-test
How will the treatment be administered?
● You decided that the experimental group will
be exposed to Thai BL series
● Control group will also watch Thai seres with
different themes (Non-BL)
How will participants be selected? Assigned to groups?
● Randomization procedures utilized
Deception and Ethical Issues
● Handling deception; informed consent;
debriefing; beneficence and nonmaleficence
● You decided to use deception so that attitude
scores will not be influenced by their
knowledge about the nature of the study
● You explained that the study will be about
language distraction (i.e., effects of subtitles on
comprehension)
● Debriefing to be conducted afterwards
● Allow participants to withdraw from the
experiment at any time
Your Proposed Design
● Independent measures design
○ EG: R O1 → X → O3
○ CG: R O2 → No X → O4
Writing your Experiment Proposal
The Written Report: Purpose and Format
● The primary purpose of a written report is
communication
● Written reports are written in a scientific writing
style. It is fact-filled, highly structured, and
more concise than other kinds of writing
● The goal is to provide objective information
○ not to entertain, not to express one’s
opinions, or talk about one’s personal
life or experience
● Facts need to be documented by citing the
published sources.
● Most authors avoid personal pronouns (I or we)
● The scientific style is parsimonious
○ The Author gives information in as few
words as possible
○ Because the amount of publication
space is limited, authors write as
concisely as possible, selecting words
carefully
Selecting words carefully
● Always avoid slang (lacks exact meaning/not
familiar)
● Avoid using flowery words
● Use unbiased language (free of gender or
ethnic bias)
● Always use non-sexist language (mankind vs.
all people)
● Pluralize the sentence (when a subject arrived
vs. when subjects arrived)
● Use non-handicapping language when
referring to people with mental or physical
disabilities (a person with schizophrenia vs. a
schizophrenic)
● Avoid using terms elderly or senior
○ Instead say older adults and give the
actual age range
Usage of gender-related terms
● males/females: men/ women (preferred)
● Chairman: chairperson (preferred)
22
BES 3144 - FINALS

● manpower: workforce/ personnel/ staff

8. Appendices
(preferred)
● sex differences: gender differences (preferred)
Title
Format

● Needs a descriptive title that gives readers an

● Follow the format set by APA. It is presented in
detail in the latest edition of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological
Association
● The first manual was a 7-page article that
appeared in Psychological Bulletin in 1929
● The present manual is almost 300 pages long
● If everyone used a different format, reviewers
would have a harder time evaluating the work,
the writer would agonize over its presentation
and readers would have trouble locating the
information they need
idea of what the report is about
● Clearly expresses the study direction
● Includes the variables (IV & DV) of the study
stating the relationship between them
● May or may not contain title enhancers
● Recommended title length
○ Count of words varies based on rules
set by institutions and other entities
(<16)
● The least concern in a study
● Ex. A Psychological Experiment or “An
Experiment on Music” is vague. Be specific

What does a good title tell you?

The IMRAD style
● Good title tells the following details
○ Study direction
● Intended for use by seasoned researchers, ○ Exogenous variables
practitioners, and experimenters ○ Endogenous variables
● Shorter and more concise in format and ○ Number of instruments to be used
content ○ Research locale
● Also known as the research-by-article format ○ Subjects
● Common format used for publications

Abstract

● Brief summary/concise synopsis of the study

usually between 150-200 words
● An important aspect of the research since it will
appear in searchable databases such as
PsychINFO
○ And it increases the tendency of
audience to read the whole/entire
article
● Write in the past tense (because the research
Contents of the Experiment Report has already happened)
● Includes succinctly details about the
1. Title ○ Introduction (statement of the
2. Abstract problem - 10%)
3. Introduction ○ Method (characteristics of the
4. Method participants and procedures - 30%)
5. Results ○ Results, Major Findings, and
6. Discussion implications - 40%
7. References ○ Conclusions and Call to Action - 20%

23
BES 3144 - FINALS

● Written in future tense (proposal stage) ● Statement of the Problem – QUESTION

● Statement of the Objective – DECLARATIVE
STATEMENT
The Introduction
● The introduction also includes the hypothesis
○ defined as a testable statement of a
● Tells the readers what you are doing and why potential relationship between
○ It introduces your hypothesis and how variables, and is proposed as the
will you test solution to the problem (refer to earlier
● Highlight the trend in the field lessons for more details)
● Pinpoint the issues underlying the trend
identified
● Provide justifications as necessary
● State the overall purpose of the paper
● State your context of problematizing
● A few statements on the contribution to theory,
reearch and/or practice of the study
● It usually begins with a description of the
general topic area down to the specific
● Funnel analogy
○ begin with the broad topic area and
gradually narrow the focus to specific
research questions

● Includes a concise RRL (review of related lit.)

● State your hypothesis explicitly in the
introduction. Identify the IV and DV and their
relationship
● Since this is a proposal for an experimental
research paper, the introduction must contain
the rationale why conducting this experiment is
being proposed
● When we “problematize,” we want to make it
appear that the experiment being proposed is
significant
● Write about gaps that exist in the literature,
research findings that disagree, or phenomena
that need to be explained (hence this study is
being proposed)
● The introduction also includes what studies
have already been conducted relative to this
study (what is already known about the chosen
topic)
● This section contains the
○ Main Problem/Objective - states
clearly what the experimenter will do
and expect to find out in general
○ Specific Problem(s)/Objective(s) -
expressed in more measurable and
specific manner
Method
● Tells the readers what you did in the
experiment and becomes the primary basis for
replication,
● Hence you will describe the materials and
procedures used during the experimental
sessions.
● Broken down into a number of subsections:
○ Design
○ Participants
○ Apparatus / Materials
○ Instruments
○ Procedures
○ Statistical Treatment
Design
● States the formal design of the experiment
● Mention explicitly the design to which the
experiment is anchored on
Participants
● Give details of who took part in your
experiment. Explain the important

24
BES 3144 - FINALS

characteristics of your sample. How many

longer be included since the requirements are simply
participants did you have?
a proposal (first 2 chapters)
● Provide details of their sex, age and any special
characteristics of them that might be relevant
to your particular experiment to assess the References
external validity of the results.
● State whether they were volunteers; whether
they were paid for participating; how they were
● Any articles or books mentioned in the report
allocated to the different conditions of the
should be listed in your References section at
study; how many were there per condition
the end.
● Includes the sampling design and sampling
● The list enables readers to go back and make
technique
their own evaluations of the literature.
● Be sure that the references are accurate and
Apparatus
that they follow the most recent APA
● Means things like stopwatches, computers,
procedures
questionnaires, etc.
● Give important relevant details (e.g.
brand-names and model numbers if the Results
equipment is unusual)
● Follow proper operationalization
● The results section of a report should tell
readers what statistical procedures you used
Procedures
and what you found.
● Explain how you actually carried out the
● Describe the statistical tests you used to
experiment in practice.
evaluate the data along with the obtained
● Include information on how subjects were
values of test statistics. Indicate degrees of
assigned to the different groups .
freedom and significance levels.
● Describe the experimental setting , the no of
● Sometimes, results can be summarized most
trials, exposures or treatments and the
easily through figures or tables. A figure or
duration of the treatments.
table should enhance what you have to say
● Give details of exactly what was done to the
about the data.
participants, what they had to do, the order in
● The Results section is used only to present the
which tests were administered, and how long
objective data as they appeared in the
test sessions took
experiment. Interpretation of the results
● Touch ethical considerations as necessary
belongs to the discussion

Measures
● Include descriptions of the measures used for
data collection (e.g. questionnaires, behavioral
observations, interviews, etc.). If you create
your own instrument, describe the instrument
and include sample items.
● Lengthy questionnaires are placed in the
appendix at the end of the report
Statistical treatment
● Mention descriptive and inferential statistics
used
The remaining parts of the complete paper will no
Discussion
● The overall purpose of the Discussion section is
to evaluate your experiment and interpret the
results.
● The discussion should tie things together for
the readers. In the Intro, you reviewed the
literature and showed the readers how you
arrived at your hypothesis. In the Method
section, you described the details of what you
did. In the Results, you presented what you
found. Now, in the Discussion, you need to pull
everything together.

25
BES 3144 - FINALS

● You need to explain what you have

accomplished: Was your hypothesis
supported? How do the findings fit in with prior
research in the area? Are they consistent? If
not, can they be reconciled? What do your
results add to current knowledge?
● The discussion is also a place to talk about
what you think your results mean: What are the
implications of the research? Can you
generalize the findings? Does further research
suggest itself?
● Begin this section with a clear summary
sentence or two restating your results (in words
only –no stats) and explain whether the
hypothesis was supported or not.
● Then go on to explain how your findings fit into
what is already known about the topic. Explain
how your
● findings are consistent with the most important
findings from past studies that you talked
about in your Intro section.
● In contrast, if your results are not in agreement
with findings reported by other researchers, try
to explain why you believe your findings
differed from theirs.
● Any sources of confounding variables or
problems with the experiment that might
influence the data interpretation need to be
reported.
● If your hypothesis was not supported, offer a
plausible explanation if you can. Rethink both
your procedures and your hypothesis like a
small sample.
● If you believe your study suggests a new
theoretical model, you may say so here.
Propose your idea for future research.
● The Discussion section should have a sense of
CLOSURE. They should know where you were
going and why. They should know how you got
there, what you found and where it fits in the
context of what was already known about the
problem

26
BES 3144 - FINALS

of the study as they decide in all matters

Basic Tenets of Experimental
pertaining to the conduct of the study
Method
Strengths Limitations

In Summary: Basic Tenets of the experiment

● Easier to ● Artificiality may
replicate produce
1. The experiment can be conducted in
unnatural
different variations/ways
● Precise control of behaviors
2. The experiment can be specifically designed
all extraneous
depending on the objectives of the
and exogenous ● Demand
experimenters
variables characteristics
3. The experiment is comprised of/affected by
or experimenter
certain variables
expectations
4. The experiment uses topics gleaned from
may confound
other related and allied
the outcomes of
branches/disciplines
the study if not
5. The experiments uses statistical analysis
managed well
and experiential analysis toward the holistic
sense-making of experimental results
Example of Laboratory Experiment
● Contact Comfort Experiment by Harry
Harlow
TENET 1: The experiment can be conducted in
different variations/ways

Experiment Field Experiment

● The systematic manipulation of some factors
in the environment to observe the effect of this
● Conducted as part of the day-to-day life of the
manipulation on behavior (Kantowitz, 2009)
participants
● Experimenters are still in control of the
Experimentation
exogenous variable under study but do not
● A process undertaken to test a prediction
have control of the other extraneous variables
(hypothesis) that particular behavioral events
will occur reliably in certain, specifiable
situations (Myers, 2006) Strengths Limitations

● More likely to ● Less control over

Types of Experiments reflect the real the extraneous
life settings of variables which
1. Laboratory Experiment
the participants may confound
2. Field Experiment
within a study the results of the
3. Natural Experiment
(ecological study
validity)
● Difficulty in
Laboratory Experiment
● Less likelihood of terms of
demand replication
● Conducted under highly controlled conditions characteristics
where getting precise/accurate measures are affecting the
possible study
● Experimenters are in full control of the conduct

27
BES 3144 - FINALS

Use of animal subjects

Example of Field Experiment
● Provide a simpler model of studying processes
● The Good Samaritan Experiment
that operate similarly in humans
● Give researchers far more control over animal
Natural Experiment subjects
● Allow a wider range of manipulations
● Are easily available and more economical to
● Conducted as part of the day-to-day life of the use
participants ● Permit better exploration
● Experimenters are not in control of the
exogenous variable (IV) and other extraneous Use of human subjects
variables ● There are behaviors that can only be studied
● Study is conducted as participants live their on human subjects
day-to-day experiences ● Allows direct interpretation of results
● More realistic since the study manifests actual
Strengths Limitations human reactions and elicitations

● More likely to ● Less control over Objectives of the Experimenters

reflect the real the extraneous ● Comparing Alternatives
life settings of variables which ● Identifying the Significant
the participants may confound ● Inputs (Factors) Affecting an Output
within a study the results of the (Response)
(ecological study ● Achieving an Optimal Process Output
validity) (Response).
● Difficulty in ● Reducing Variability.
● Less likelihood of terms of ● Minimizing, Maximizing, or Targeting an Output
demand replication (Response)
characteristics ● Improving process or product "Robustness"
affecting the ● More expansive ● Balancing Tradeoffs
study and time
consuming as Experiment design guidelines
● Applicable to more resources ● The factors to be tested
studies where it may be needed ● The levels of those factors.
may be until the point of ● The structure and layout of experimental runs,
unethical to the study was or conditions.
manipulate observed ● A well-designed experiment is as simple as
certain already possible
variables ○ obtaining the required information in a
cost-effective and reproducible
manner
Example of Natural Experiment
● Imprinting Experiment by Konrad Lorenz
TENET 3: The experiment is compromised of and
affected by certain variables
TENET 2: The experiment can be specifically designed
depending on the objectives of the experimenters ● Before conducting any experiment, you need to
examine previously conducted studies on the
You can have 2 or more groups or 1 group subject to see what has already been done
●
depending on the objective of your experiment (also called “reconnaissance” or review of
related literature and studies)

28
BES 3144 - FINALS
○ primary materials (journals and
research studies)
○ secondary materials (books,
magazines, blogs, vlogs, essays, etc.)
● From these information, you discover what
variables have already been studied, related to
your topic of interest
● And then perhaps it’s time to explore some new
ones, or find relationships between some of
these previously explored ones
Variables
● Straightforward and specified factors that are
subjected to manipulation, variation, and
measurement in the experiment
Types of Variables
● Organismic/Attribute Variable
● Independent/Exogenous Variable
● Dependent/Endogenous Variable
● Extraneous/Confounding Variable
Organismic Variable
● Also known as demographic or attribute
variable
● Refers to the profile or specific characteristics
possessed by the research respondents
○ Examples: Age, Gender, Job Title,
Organizational Affiliation, Civil Status,
etc.
● Demographic segmentation
Independent Variable
● Also known as exogenous variable
● Refers to the manipulated or
non-manipulated factor in the research
● Prominent in experimental designs and
quasi-experimental designs
● Manipulated IV (true experiments)
○ Basis for differentiating results which is
introduced by the experimenters
themselves as part of the study being
conducted
○ NOTE: The treatment conditions are
directly introduced and manipulated
by the experimenters
● Non-manipulated IV (quasi-experiments)
○ Basis for differentiating results which is
not introduced by the experimenters
but inferred from the participants’
previous experiences
○ NOTE: The “treatment conditions”
already exist at the time the study is
conducted
Dependent Variable
● Also known as endogenous variable
● Refers to the measured factor in the
experimental studies
● Affected or not affected by the IV
Extraneous Variables
● Also known as a nuisance variable
● A factor that is, by design, not manipulated by
the experimenter, but can have an effect on the
dependent variable measures
○ Example: time of day, temperature,
even intelligence, or order of
presentation of the treatment, can
affect scores obtained by the
participants in the study
○ Need to be controlled by the
experimenter, so as not to cause
confounding
Defining Variables
Conceptual Definition
● Also referred to as the lexical definition
● Broad or generic definition inferred from
dictionaries or other relevant sources
● Explanations that elaborate the nature and
meaning of a term
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● FEAR OF MISSING OUT (FOMO) - Refers to
feelings of anxiety that arise from the
realization that one may be missing out on
rewarding experiences that others are having
(Franchina, et al, 2018).
● SELF-QUARANTINE - is a term for the traveling
restriction of people who are presumed to have
been exposed to a contagious disease but are
not ill, either because they did not become
infected or because the disease is still in the
incubation period (Backer, et al., 2020 cited in
Suppawittaya, Yiemphat, and Yasri, 2020).
Operational Definition
● Also known as the particular definition
● Specific definition on how a term is measured
or used in the experiment
● Explanations that contextualize the use of the
term to the experiment at hand
● May be achieved through any of the following
depending on the objective for defining certain
variables or entities in the experiment:
○ By way of specificity (using a proper
noun)
○ By way of measurement (using the
name of a measuring tool or
instrument)
○ By way of indicator (using
accurate/precise markers to concretize
expectations)
● AUTHORITY
○ as used in this study, refers to Tourism
Infrastructure and Enterprise Zone
Authority or TIEZA. (Operational
Definition by way of Specificity)
○ Intravenous nutrition in this study
pertains to Total Parenteral Nutrition or
TPN. (Operational Definition by way of
Specificity)
● SELF-CONCEPT
○ in this study refers to the score
obtained in the Tennessee
Self-Concept Scale (Operational
Definition by way of Measurement)
● EMOTIONAL STABILITY
○ in this study refers to the raw score
obtained in Factor C of the Sixteen
Personality Factors Questionnaire or
16PF (Operational Definition by way of
Measurement)
● HIGH PERFORMING FACULTY MEMBERS
○ as used in this study, consist of those
who obtained a competency
evaluation of “Very Satisfactory”
(Operational Definition by way of
Indicator)
● SUBMISSIVENESS
○ as depicted in this study, is a quality
represented by a sten score lower than
3 in Factor E the 16PF Questionnaire
(Operational Definition by way of
Indicator)
Stipulative Definition
● Applies to terms that are unique only for
specific studies; serves to clarify
● Commonly employed in experiments
● Example
○ XYPHNLOEO – first item in the
ambiguous stimulus experiment
○ GORDY – means “stop” in the
extra-sensory perception experiment
Measuring Endogenous Variables
● Through standardized tests available from
existing sources (requested or purchased)
○ consider issues of reliability and
validity
● Using researcher-made instruments for
specific constructs/variables that have no
available tools yet
○ consider proper test development
procedures, reliability measures, and
validation processes
● Observations and trials made in the
experiments
○ using rubrics for reflecting scores,
should have been pilot-tested
● Validity refers to the extent to which the test (or
instrument) measures what it purports to
measure (Cohen and Swerdlik, 2018)
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BES 3144 - FINALS

● Reliability refers to the consistency in test ● Experiential - actual participation that

scores obtained by the same persons when considers their feelings, reactions, etc.
retested using the same test or an equivalent
version of the test; the extent to which a test is Types of data
free from measurement error (Cohen and ● Categorical (defied categories)
Swerdlik, 2018) ○ Marital status
○ Political party
○ Eye color
TENET 4: The experiment uses topics taken from
● Numerical
other allied/related branches or disicplines
○ Discrete (counted items) - Number of
children, Defects per hour
In BES3141, we talked In Experimental ○ Continuous (measured
about the different Psychology, we can characteristics) - Weight, voltage
stages of memory, and conduct a study
the processes involving comparing the effect of Qualitative
the flow of information different time intervals ● Nominal
from Short Term Memory between initial exposure ○ Variables with no inherent order or
to Long Term Memory. to information and ranking sequence
subsequent recall) ○ Ex. Gender, race, etc.

● Ordinal
In BES3147 (Social In Experimental ○ Variables with an ordered series
Psychology), you will talk Psychology, we can ○ Ex. Blood group, performance, etc.
about Social Identity conduct a “minimal
Theory by Tajfel and groups experiment” in ● Binary
Turner, which states that which we will be ○ Variables with only 2 options
we derive feelings of assigned randomly to a ○ Ex. pass/fail, yes/no, etc.
esteem from group group (that has no
memberships (i.e., being connection with us at Quantitative
a “proud Thomasian), all) and then our ● Discrete
and that the value we identification with this ○ Aka Attribute data
give to group group compared with ○ Discrete data is iofrmation that can be
memberships is another group to whom categorized into a classification
determined by the extent we were not previously ○ Discrete data is based on counts
to which our assigned will be ○ Finite number of values is possible and
membership in this subsequently tested. the values cannot be subdivided
group makes us feel meaningfully
better about ourselves, ○ Ex. number of parts damaged in
compared to others. shipment

● Continuous
○ Continuous data is information that
TENET 5: The experiment uses statistical analysis and can be measured on a continuum or
experiential analysis toward the holistic scale
sense-making of experimental results ○ Continuous data can have almost any
numeric value and can be
meaningfully subdivided into finer and
Analytical Modes in Experiments
finer increments
● Statistical - actual data based on trials, errors,
○ Ex. length, size, width
scores, etc.

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Scales of Measurement
● Nominal scale
○ Are without numerical or quantitative
properties
○ Considered as the lowest level of
measurement
○ Variables vary on labels or names only
○ Ex. color of hair, gender

● Ordinal scale
○ Provides the magnitude which allows
ranking or ordering of a group of
people
○ Provides inferences that one is not just
different or similar but also is greater or
kess than the others
○ Also called ordered data
○ E.g. likert scales (5-pt scales from
strongly agree to strongly disagree)

● Interval scale
○ Difference between any two categories
is known, equal, and constant
○ Does not have a true zero
○ E.g. difference in temperature
■ 30 degrees - 40 degrees
■ 60 degrees - 70 degrees

● Ratio scale
○ Provides the best match to the real
number system because it has a true
zero point
○ E.g. physical characteristics (weight),
distance, length, volume, etc.

Importance of scales of measurement

● Aside from allowing is to better understand our
data, knowing the scales of measurement will
also determine what statistical tool we will use
to analyze our data
● Most experiments use continuous data, in
interval or ratio scales, although the others
(discrete, nominal/ordinal scales) are also
used

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