LESSON#4: CELL BIOLOGY

1. Introduction to Cells:
● Basic unit of life.
● All living organisms are composed of cells.
● Cell theory: All cells come from pre-existing cells, cells are the basic unit of
structure and function in living organisms, and all organisms are made up of one
or more cells.

2. Cell Structure:
● Plasma Membrane: Composed of a phospholipid bilayer embedded with
proteins. It regulates the passage of ions, molecules, and nutrients into and out
of the cell through selective permeability. The membrane also plays a role in cell
signaling and cell recognition.
● Cytoplasm: A semi-fluid substance that fills the cell's interior. It contains various
organelles suspended in a matrix called the cytosol. The cytoplasm is the site of
many cellular processes, including metabolism and protein synthesis.
● Organelles: These are specialized structures within the cell that perform specific
functions. For example:
○ The nucleus houses the cell's genetic material (DNA) and is the site of
transcription, where RNA is synthesized.
○ Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, producing ATP through
cellular respiration.
○ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
○ Golgi apparatus processes, sorts, and modifies proteins for secretion or
delivery to other organelles.
○ Lysosomes contain enzymes for the digestion and recycling of cellular
waste.

3. Cellular Organization:
● Prokaryotic Cells: These cells lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus.
Instead, their genetic material is located in the nucleoid region. Prokaryotes
include bacteria and archaea, and they are generally smaller and simpler in
structure compared to eukaryotic cells.
● Eukaryotic Cells: These cells have membrane-bound organelles, including a
nucleus that houses the genetic material. Eukaryotes encompass plants,
animals, fungi, and protists. They are more complex and larger in size compared
to prokaryotic cells.

4. Cell Function:
● Metabolism: Cells carry out metabolic processes such as cellular respiration,
photosynthesis (in plant cells), and biosynthesis of macromolecules (e.g.,
proteins, lipids, carbohydrates).
 ● Transport: Cells transport molecules and ions across the plasma membrane
through processes like diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active
transport.
● Communication: Cells communicate with each other through chemical signals
such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors. Signaling pathways
regulate various cellular activities, including growth, differentiation, and
responses to environmental stimuli.
● Reproduction: Cells replicate through cell division, which includes mitosis (in
somatic cells) and meiosis (in germ cells). Cell division ensures growth,
development, and maintenance of multicellular organisms.

5. Cellular Processes:
● Protein Synthesis: The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of
genetic information from DNA to RNA to protein. Transcription occurs in the
nucleus, where DNA is transcribed into mRNA. Translation takes place in the
cytoplasm, where mRNA is translated into protein by ribosomes.
● Cell Cycle: Cells undergo a series of phases, including interphase (G1, S, G2),
mitosis, and cytokinesis. The cell cycle ensures accurate replication and
distribution of genetic material during cell division.
● Cell Differentiation: Cells become specialized in structure and function through
the activation or repression of specific genes. Differentiation is crucial for the
development and maintenance of tissues and organs in multicellular organisms.
● Cell Death: Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is a tightly regulated process
essential for tissue homeostasis, development, and the elimination of damaged
or unnecessary cells. Dysregulation of cell death pathways can lead to diseases
like cancer or neurodegeneration.

6. Cellular Diversity:
● Specialized Cell Types: In multicellular organisms, different cell types exhibit
unique structures and functions suited to their roles within tissues and organs.
For example, nerve cells (neurons) transmit electrical signals, muscle cells
contract to produce movement, and epithelial cells form protective barriers.
● Stem Cells: These are undifferentiated cells with the potential to develop into
various cell types. Stem cells play crucial roles in embryonic development, tissue
repair, and regeneration. They are of interest in regenerative medicine and stem
cell therapy for treating diseases and injuries.