Anatomy & Physiology

Level 3 Extended Diploma in Health and Social Care

Tutor: Elle Benson

September – December 2018

Exam Date: 17th January

A The structure and organisation of the human body
A1 How cells work
• The function and structure of cells, including membrane, nucleus, ribosomes, rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes and Golgi apparatus.
A2 Characteristics of tissues
The function, structure and location of:
• epithelial – simple (cuboidal, columnar, squamous, ciliated), compound (simple, keratinised)
• connective – blood, cartilage, bone, areolar, adipose
• muscle – striated, non-striated, cardiac
• nervous – neurones, neuroglia.

A3 The structure and function of body organs

• Location, structure and function of heart, lungs, brain, stomach, liver, pancreas, duodenum, ileum, colon,
kidneys, bladder, ovaries/testes, uterus, skin.

A4 Energy in the body

• Transformation of energy (chemical, heat, sound, electrical, light). • Energy metabolism – role of energy
in the body, anabolism and catabolism (aerobic and anaerobic respiration). • Basal metabolic rate.

A5 Human genetics
• Principles of Mendelian inheritance.
• Genetic variation, to include: genetic and chromosome disorders, Downs syndrome, phenylketonuria
(PKU), sickle cell disease, cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s chorea.
• Diagnostic testing for genetic and chromosome disorders, to include amniocentesis and chorionic villus
sampling.

B The structure, function and disorders of body systems

B1 Homeostatic mechanisms
• Definition of homeostasis.
• Internal environment.
• The concept of negative feedback as a regulatory mechanism.
• Body temperature – production of heat by the body, loss of heat by the body, roles of hypothalamus and
autonomic nervous system (role of arterioles and sweat glands), effects of shivering, implications of surface
area to volume ratios, fever.
• Blood glucose levels – roles of pancreas, liver, insulin, glucagon.
• Fluid balance – water intake/output/loss, role of kidneys and renal system.
• Failure of homeostatic mechanisms – hypothermia, dehydration.
B2 The structure, function and main disorders of the cardio-vascular system
• The structure and function of the cardiovascular system, heart structure, cardiac cycle, heart rate
(including regulation), stroke volume, blood pressure.
• Blood vessels – arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins.
• Pulmonary and systemic circulation.
• The structure and function of the blood.
• Disorders of the cardiovascular system – CHD, stroke, anaemia, hypertension.

B3 The structure, function and main disorders of the respiratory system The structure and function of
the respiratory system:
• the role of air passages in nose
• the structure and functions of trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchial tree, alveoli
• the role of ciliated epithelial tissue
• respiratory muscles – intercostal muscles, diaphragm
• ventilation (including regulation), gaseous exchange, diffusion • disorders of the respiratory system –
smoking related, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pneumonia.
B4 The structure, function and main disorders of the skeletal system
• The structure of the skeletal system: axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, types of bone (long bones,
short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, sesamoid bones).
• The function of the skeletal system: support, protection, attachment for skeletal muscle, source of blood
cell production, store of minerals, structure and function of ligaments and cartilage.
• The location of major bones – cranium, parietal, temporal, occipital, mandible clavicle, ribs, sternum,
humerus, radius, ulna, scapula, ilium, pubis, ischium, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, femur, patella, tibia,
fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, vertebral column, vertebrae.
• The classifications of joints – fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, synovial joints.
• Synovial joint structure.
• Movement allowed at each joint, to include flexion, extension, circumduction, adduction, abduction,
gliding.
• Disorders of the skeletal system, to include fractures osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, increase in people with
rickets.
B5 The structure, function and main disorders of the muscular system
• The structure of striated muscle.
• How muscles are attached to the body: tendons, fascia.
• Types of contraction: isometric, concentric, eccentric.
• Function of the muscular system: movement – antagonistic pairs (agonist, antagonist), synergist, fixator.
• Location and action of major muscles, to include erector spinae, rectus abdominis, internal and external
obliques, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, deltoids, pectoralis major, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, gluteus
maximus, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris, adductors, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis,
vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, tibialis anterior, gastrocnemius, soleus.
• Disorders of the muscular system – muscular dystrophy.

B6 The structure, function and main disorders of the digestive system

• Alimentary canal – oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon. • Liver, pancreas, salivary glands.
• The role of the digestive system in the breakdown and absorption of food materials, ingestion, peristalsis,
digestion, absorption, egestion.
• The role of enzymes in digestion – amylases, proteases, lipases, sites of secretion, role in digestion.
• The role of microorganisms in the gut.
• Major products of digestion – peptides and amino acids, sugars, glycerol and fatty acids, roles in the
body, storage of excess fats and carbohydrates, deamination of excess amino acids and the fate of end
products, the role of the liver, the role of the kidneys.
• Absorption of food – into blood, into lacteals, role of villi and microvilli.
• Disorders – ulcers, hepatitis, coeliac disease.

B7 The structure, function and main disorders of the nervous system

• The central nervous system (CNS), the brain and spinal cord – co-ordination of both voluntary and
involuntary activities of the body.
• The peripheral nervous system – motor neurones, sensory neurones, nerve cells.
• The parasympathetic nervous system and sympathetic nervous system. Conduction of nerve impulses to
and from the CNS.
• Disorders – Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis (MS), dementia.

B8 The structure, function and main disorders of the endocrine system

• Hypothalamus – control of pituitary gland via releasing hormones, control of daily rhythms.
• Pituitary gland – control of growth, function of sex organs, osmoregulation.
 • Thyroid gland – regulation of growth and function of many body systems, role in regulation of blood
calcium levels.
• Ovaries – production of oestrogen and progesterone (sex hormones).
• Pancreas – regulation blood sugar via production of insulin and glucagon.
• Adrenal glands – the ‘fight or flight’ response via the hormone adrenaline, regulation of blood pressure
via the hormone aldosterone.
• Testes – production of androgen hormones which are involved in the development of maleness and the
production of sperm.
• Disorders of the endocrine system – diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus, hypothyroidism.

B9 Structure, function and disorders of the lymphatic and immune systems

• Lymph – formed from tissue fluid and carries fluids back to the blood system.
• Lymphatic vessels – carriage of lymph.
• Lymphatic organs – the formation and maturation of lymphocytes.
• Lymphocytes – the immune response via T and B cells.
• Spleen – filtration of the blood, destruction and recycling of parts of red blood cells.
• Disorders of the lymphatic and immune system – Hodgkin’s disease, leukaemia.

B10 Structure, function and disorders of the renal system

• Kidneys – filtering toxins from the blood, regulating water and salt balance and pH.
• Ureters – carrying urine form the kidney to the bladder.
• Bladder – storage or urine.
• Urethra – carrying urine from the bladder to the outside world.
• Disorders of the renal system – urinary tract infections (UTIs), renal failure.

B11 Structure, function and disorders of the reproductive system

• Female: ovaries – production of eggs ,fallopian tubes – carrying eggs to uterus and site of fertilisation
uterus – site of development of embryo and foetus ,cervix – neck of the womb canal for sperm entry
vagina – muscular, lubricated canal providing point of entry for penis and exit of baby during childbirth
vulva – external opening of vagina disorders – endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome.
• Male: penis – introduction of semen with sperm into female urethra – carriage of semen along penis
scrotum – holds testes outside body to keep them cooler than body temperature , testes – manufacture of
sperm ,vas deferens – carries sperm from testes to penis , seminal vesicles – secretion of fluids of semen
prostate gland – production of secretions of fluids of semen , disorders – hydrocele, prostate cancer/BPH.
• The way in which natural conception occurs and patterns of pre-natal growth: o the production of
gametes, to include meiosis o the physiological process of conception from fertilisation to birth, to include
cell division and chromosomal behaviour ,the stages and significant developments during foetal growth
through the trimesters , birth ,cell division for growth, to include mitosis and DNA replication.

• Factors affecting prenatal development: how the following factors affect foetal development – positive
and negative factors, to include genetic, age, diet, health, smoking, alcohol consumption ,forms of
teratogen and their effects, congenital disorders, to include spina bifida, cerebral palsy, effects of rubella.

C Medical research
C1 How data is collected and used
• Clinical trials – double blind, placebo.
• Epidemiological studies.
• Mortality and morbidity statistics.
• Data analysis skills to evaluate the efficacy of medical procedures and effects of lifestyle choice
 Structure and function of human cells:
How cells work together.

All humans are made up of billions of individual cells. Cells are

responsible for lots of jobs within the human body, although they
rarely work alone. Groups of cells of the same type are known as
tissues. When lots of tissues are grouped together they make organs.

Organs work together to perform functions and tasks within body

systems.
Structure: How the part of the cell is made, what the texture is and
how it looks, what it’s made of.

Function: What its job is, what part it plays, how it works, how it teams
up with the other parts to do its job in the cell.

Complete the following table for the functions and structure of the
relevant cell components.

membrane

nucleus

ribosome

Rough reticulum
Smooth reticulum

mitochondria

centrioles

Lysosomes

golgi apparatus
Types of tissues within the human body, their function, structure and where they are found

EPITHELIAL TISSUES
Cuboidal

Columnar

Squamous

Ciliated

Simple compound

keratinised

CONNECTIVE

Blood
Cartilage

Bone

Areolar

Adipose

MUSCULAR
Striated

Non-striated

Cardiac
 NERVOUS

Neurones

Neuroglia

Tissues which are collected together to perform a function are known as organs. We will cover, in depth
the role of the organs when we look at the system which they are part of. Below is a table which gives a
brief description of where the organ is located and its main function. Use the information below to
complete the diagram on the following page.
 Energy in the body

There are several forms of energy within the human body including heat, sound, sound and chemical.
Chemical is the most commonly used, when atoms and molecules bond and break, energy is used and
released through this process, and is happening all the time in the processes used by our organs.

Energy cannot be made or destroyed, it can only change its form from one to the other, and this is known
as the law of conservation of energy. Within the human body energy is needed for the following
processes:

 Blood circulation
 Muscular movement
 Lymph and tissue fluid
 Breathing
 Oxygen intake
 New cell production and repairs
 Transmission of nerve impulses
 Building complex molecules e.g enzymes and hormones
1.

2.

3.

4.

Aerobic respiration

Anaerobic respiration
 Human genetics and inheritance

Mother phenotype: Brown

B b

B
phenotype:
Brown
Father

b
Genetic and chromosome disorders
 Homeostasis

What does the word homeostasis mean? ______________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

Our bodies have to keep three important matters balanced, they are:
1. ______________________________________
2. ______________________________________
3. ______________________________________

Too hot/ Too cold!

Explain what happens to your body when you get too hot:

Explain what happens to your body when you get too cold:

Fill in the gaps using the words: increase, decrease, 37

Too Hot
Sweating, hairs lie flat, and
_____________________ increased blood flow to
in temperature the skin leads to a
___________ in temperature

Negative
Core temperature feedback Core temperature
_______ ⁰C _______ ⁰C

_____________________
In temperature
Shivering, hairs stand on
end and decreased blood
flow to the skin leads to an Too Cold
___________ in temperature
How can the core body temperature be measured?
Very high and very low temperatures

If you get too cold you can develop If you get too hot you can develop
_______________________________________ _______________________________________

Blood glucose levels

Inject sugar hormone diabetes blood

pancreas food levels insulin

Some people suffer from a disease called d ___________. They do not produce enough of a
h____________ called i_____________ from the organ in the body called the p ______________. Insulin
controls the b____________ s___________ levels. Diabetics have to be careful that they do not eat
too much sweet f__________. They may also need to i______________ themselves with the hormone
insulin to help control there blood sugar l_________.
 Cardiovascular System

E
 Describe the double circulation
shown in the diagram

How does their structure help with their function?

 Cardiovascular disorders

Coronary Heart Disease

Stroke
Hypertension

Aneamia
 Respiratory System

The respiratory system is collection of organs and tissues which allow us to breath. The components of
this system work in harmony to warm, moisten and filter the air which we breathe in and in order to
understand the whole system we first need to look at the roles of the individual parts and the structure
which allows them to do this.

Structure Function
 Function
Structure

Structure Function

Function
Structure

Structure Function
In your own words explain how the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles work together to facilitate
breathing….

Remember to identify
the point and then
expand and justify.

Inspiration Expiration
Gaseous exchange
 Respiratory disorders

Smoking related

Asthma

COPD

Pneumonia
Skeletal System
 The function of the Skeletal System

Support

Protection

Attachment for skeletal muscles

Sources of blood cell production

Store of minerals
 Disorders of the skeletal system
Fractures

Osteoarthritis

Osteoporosis

Rickets
Muscular system
Types of contraction and how muscles are attached to the body.

Using the lesson materials make notes here to cover this section. You must
include the following terms: Isometric, concentric, eccentric, fascia and tendons.

Tell me about muscular

dystrophy
Digestive System

Oesophagus

Stomach

Duodenum
 Ileum

Colon

Liver

Pancreas

Salivary glands
 The role of the digestive system

The main role of the digestive system in our body is the breakdown and absorption of food and the
nutrients which are within it. The digestive system uses enzymes in order to aid this process. Research the
following enzymes and describe the role and use within the digestive system.

Amylases

Proteases

Lipases

Sites of secretion

Microorganisms play a part in the digestive system and are

found in the gut…..

Explain what their role is..

Explain in the box below the role of the digestive system in the breakdown and adsorption of food
materials – you must include the following terms.
 Ingestion Villi
 Peristalsis Microvilli
 Digestion
 Absorption
 Egestion

Through the process of digestion the body produces by-products such as sugars and amino acids.
Explain what these are and the role these then play in the human body – and why we needs them.

Peptides Amino acids sugars

Glycerol Fatty acids Excess amino

Fate of end Liver Kidneys
products

Disorders of the digestive system

Ulcers

Hepatitis

Coeliac disease
 The Nervous System

The brain and the spinal cord make up the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM in the
human body. They are responsible for coordination of our limbs, along with
both voluntary and involuntary activity. The brain is responsible for interpreting
our external environment and reacting appropriately. The spinal cord then acts
as a travel system to conduct information to our limbs and organs to respond to
the brain’s message.

What is a sensory neuron and a motor neuron?

Sensory neurons carry signals from the outer parts of your body
(periphery) into the central nervous system. Motor neurons
(motoneurons) carry signals from the central nervous system to the outer
parts (muscles, skin, glands) of your body. Interneurons connect various
neurons within the brain and spinal cord.
As you can see from the diagram above, the parasympathetic and the
sympathetic nervous systems are the opposite of each other. Using the
information above answer the following question – include as many of the
biological aspects as you can…

Darren has gone camping in the woods, when he wakes in the morning
he sees a bear. Explain how Darren’s nervous system will change from
parasympathetic to sympathetic and why his body does this?

Disorders of the nervous system

Parkinson’s Disease
 Multiple Sclerosis

Dementia

The Endocrine System

Area of the endocrine system Structure and function

Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland

Thyroid Gland
Ovaries

Pancreas

Adrenal glands

Testes

Disorders of the endocrine system

Diabetes

Hypothyroidism
 Lymphatic and Immune systems

What is the lymphatic system and what does it do?

The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions: It is responsible for the
removal of interstitial fluid from tissues. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats
as chyle from the digestive system. It transports white blood cells to and from the
lymph nodes into the bones.

What are the three main functions of the lymphatic system?

The lymphatic system has three functions:
 The removal of excess fluids from body tissues. ...
 Absorption of fatty acids and subsequent transport of fat, chyle, to
the circulatory system.
 Production of immune cells (such as lymphocytes, monocytes, and
antibody producing cells called plasma cells).
 The role and function of the elements of the lymphatic system

Lymph

Lymphatic vessels

Lymphatic organs

Lymphocytes
Spleen

Disorders of the immune and lymphatic system

Hodgkin’s disease

Leukaemia
The Renal System

The urinary system, also

known as the renal system,
produces, stores and
eliminates urine, the fluid
waste excreted by the
kidneys. The kidneys make
urine by filtering wastes and
extra water from blood. Urine
travels from the kidneys
through two thin tubes called
ureters and fills the bladder
Disorders of the renal system

Renal failure
Reproductive System
Natural conception and pre-natal growth
Disorders of the reproductive system

Endometriosis

Polycystic ovaries

Prostate Cancer
 Factors effecting prenatal development

Genetic

Mother’s age Mother’s health

Smoking in
pregnancy

Alcohol in
pregnancy Diet in pregnancy
Congenital disorders

Spina Bifida

Cerebral Palsy

Rubella
 Clinical and Medical Trails

Medical Research is a continuous and ever changing process which never ends. However, it is not solely
limited to the work of those based within science labs , many working professionals , who are patient
facing, such as nurses and O.T’s play a part within clinical research. This research is often carried out within
their chosen field of interest or in the benefit of the service users whom they are directly working with.

Research may be carried out to try new medication, ways of working or the environment in which care is
given, in order to achieve the best outcome for the service users.

We are going to look at a few of the different types of trials carried out.

Double blind trials

Placebo trials
Epidemiological
trials