COURSE CODE: COURSE TITLE: SPECIAL ELECTRICAL L T P C

1152EE116 MACHINES 2 0 0 2
COURSE CATEGORY:
Program Elective
PREAMBLE :
This course exposes the students to the construction, principle of operation and performance
of special electrical machines as an extension to the study of AC & DC electrical machines.
PREREQUISITE COURSES:
• Basic Electrical Engineering
RELATED COURSES:
AC Machines, DC Machines & Transformers
COURSE EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of the course are to make the students,
 Construction, principle of operation and performance of synchronous reluctance
motors.
 Construction, principle of operation, control and performance of stepping motors.
 Construction, principle of operation, control and performance of switched reluctance
motors.
 Construction, principle of operation, control and performance of permanent magnet
brushless D.C. motors.
 Construction, principle of operation and performance of permanent magnet
synchronous motors.
COURSE OUTCOMES :
Upon the successful completion of the course, students will be able to:
Level of learning
CO domain (Based on
Course Outcomes
Nos. revised Bloom’s
taxonomy)
Understand the Construction, principle of operation and
C01 K2
performance of synchronous reluctance motors.

Understand the Construction, principle of operation, control

C02 K2
and performance of stepping motors.
Understand the Construction, principle of operation, control
C03 K2
and performance of switched reluctance motors.
Understand the Construction, principle of operation, control
C04 and performance of permanent magnet brushless D.C. K2
motors.
Understand the Construction, principle of operation and
C05 performance of permanent magnet synchronous motors. K2

CORRELATION OF COs AND POs

COs PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12
CO1 M L M L
 CO2 L M M L M
CO3 M L L M
CO4 L L M
CO5 M H L M

COURSE CONTENT:
UNIT I SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS 9
Constructional features – Types – Axial and Radial flux motors – Operating principles –
Variable Reluctance and Hybrid Motors – SYNREL Motors – Voltage and Torque Equations
- Phasor diagram- Characteristics.
UNIT II STEPPING MOTORS 9
Constructional features – Principle of operation – Variable reluctance motor – Hybrid motor –
Single and multi stack configurations – Torque equations – Modes of excitations –
Characteristics – Drive circuits – Microprocessor control of stepping motors – Closed loop
control.
UNIT III SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTORS 9
Constructional features – Rotary and Linear SRMs - Principle of operation – Torque
production – Steady state performance prediction- Analytical method -Power Converters and
their controllers –Methods of Rotor position sensing – Sensorless operation – Closed loop
control of SRM -Characteristics.
UNIT IV PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS D.C. MOTORS 9
Permanent Magnet materials – Magnetic Characteristics – Permeance coefficient -Principle
of operation – Types – Magnetic circuit analysis – EMF and torque equations –Commutation
– Power controllers – Motor characteristics and control.
UNIT V PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 9
Principle of operation – Ideal PMSM – EMF and Torque equations – Armature reaction MMF
– Synchronous Reactance – Sinewave motor with practical windings - Phasor diagram –
Torque/speed characteristics - Power controllers - Converter Volt-ampere requirements.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. T.J.E. Miller, ‘Brushless Permanent Magnet and Reluctance Motor Drives’,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1989.
2. 2. T. Kenjo, ‘Stepping Motors and Their Microprocessor Controls’, Clarendon Press
London, 1984.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. R.Krishnan, ‘Switched Reluctance Motor Drives – Modeling, Simulation, Analysis,
Design
 UNIT I SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS

1.1 CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

The structure of reluctance motor is same as that of salient pole synchronous

machine as shown in fig. The rotor does not have any field winding .The stator has
three phase symmetrical winding, which creates sinusoidal rotating magnetic field in
the air gap, and the reluctance torque is developed because the induced magnetic field
in the rotor has a tendency to cause the rotor to align with the stator field at a
minimum reluctance position

Fig 1.1 Idealized Three Phase Four Pole Synchronous Machine (Salient Pole)

Fig 1.2 Cross Section of Synchronous Reluctance Motor.

The rotor of the modern reluctance machine is designed with iron laminations in the
axial direction separated by non-magnetic material. The performance of the reluctance
motor may approach that of induction machine. With high saliency ratio a power
factor oh 0.8 can be reached. The efficiency of a reluctance machine may be higher
than an induction motor, because there is no rotor copper loss. Because of inherent
simplicity, robustness of construction and low cost.
The synchronous reluctance motor has no synchronous starting torque and runs up
from stand still by induction action. There is an auxiliary starting winding. This has
increased the pull out torque, the power factor and the efficiency. Synchronous
reluctance motor is designed for high power applications. It can broadly be classified
into Axially laminated and Radially laminated.

Fig.1.3 cross section of axially laminated

Reluctance motors can deliver very high power density at low cost, making them
ideal for many applications. Disadvantages are high torque ripple (the difference
between maximum and minimum torque during one revolution) when operated at low
speed, and noise caused by torque ripple. Until the early twenty-first century their use
was limited by the complexity of designing and controlling them. These challenges are
being overcome by advances in the theory, by the use of sophisticated computer
design tools, and by the use of low-cost embedded systems for control, typically based
on microcontrollers using control algorithms and real-time computing to tailor drive
waveforms according to rotor position and current or voltage feedback. Before the
development of large-scale integrated circuits the control electronics would have been
prohibitively costly.

Fig 1.4 cross section of radially laminated

The stator consists of multiple projecting (salient) electromagnet poles, similar to a
wound field brushed DC motor. The rotor consists of soft magnetic material, such as
laminated silicon steel, which has multiple projections acting as salient magnetic poles
through magnetic reluctance. The number of rotor poles is typically less than the
number of stator poles, which minimizes torque ripple and prevents the poles from all
aligning simultaneously—a position which cannot generate torque.
When a rotor pole is equidistant from the two adjacent stator poles, the rotor pole
is said to be in the "fully unaligned position". This is the position of maximum
magnetic reluctance for the rotor pole. In the "aligned position", two (or more) rotor
poles are fully aligned with two (or more) stator poles, (which mean the rotor poles
completely face the stator poles) and is a position of minimum reluctance.
When a stator pole is energized, the rotor torque is in the direction that will reduce
reluctance. Thus the nearest rotor pole is pulled from the unaligned position into
alignment with the stator field (a position of less reluctance). (This is the same effect
used by a solenoid, or when picking up ferromagnetic metal with a magnet.) In
order to sustain rotation, the stator field must rotate in advance of the rotor poles, thus
constantly "pulling" the rotor along. Some motor variants will run on 3-phase AC
power (see the synchronous reluctance variant below). Most modern designs are of
the switched reluctance type, because electronic commutation gives significant control
advantages for motor starting, speed control, and smooth operation (low torque ripple).

Dual-rotor layouts provide more torque at lower price per volume or per mass.
[The inductance of each phase winding in the motor will vary with position, because
the reluctance also varies with position. This presents a control systems challenge.

Applications
 Some washing machine designs.
 Control rod drive mechanisms of nuclear reactors.

1.2 ROTOR DESIGN

1.2.1 Salient rotor (Segmental)

Salient rotor shape such that the quadrature air gap is much larger than the direct
air gap. This yields reactively small Ld/Lqrations in the range of 2.3.

Fig.1.5 Salient rotor

Salient rotor design is as shown. The low Ld. /Lq ratios are largely the result of
Circulating flux in the pole faces of the rotor. However the ruggedness and simplicity
of the rotor structure has encouraged for high speed applications.

1.2.2 Radially Laminated Rotor (Flux Barrier)

Another approach is to use laminations with flux barriers punched into the steel
for a 4 pole machine. The flux barriers and the central hole of the lamination required
for the shaft weaken the rotor structurally and thus make this approach a poor choice
for high speed design.
 Fig.1.6 Radially Laminated Rotor

1.2.3 Axially Laminated Rotor

Fig.1.7 Axially Laminated Rotor

Two pole phase axially laminated rotor with a Ld. /Lqratio of 20, the maximum
efficiency is 94% has been reported in the literature. It is observed that torque ripple
and iron losses are more axially laminated rotor than radially laminated rotor. Another
rotor design as shown in fig. The rotor consists of alternating layers of ferromagnetic
and non-magnetic steel. If choose the thickness of the steel such that the pitch of the
ferromagnetic rotor segments matched the slot pitch of the stator. The ferromagnetic
rotor segments always see a

Fig 1.8 New rotor design

stator tooth pitch regardless of the angle of rotation of the rotor. This is done to
maximize flux variations and hence iron losses in the rotor. Special rotor laminations
make it possible to produce the same number of reluctance path as there are magnetic
poles in the stator. Synchronous speed is achieved as the poles lock in step with
magnetic poles of the rotating stator field and cause the stator to run at the same speed
as the rotating fields. The rotor is pressures with end rings similar to induction
motor.Stator winding are similar to squirrel cage induction motor.

1.3 ROTOR CONSTRUCTION

Explosion bonding technique as shown in fig. Other joining techniques such as
brazing roll bonding, or diffusion bonding may also appropriate for rotor construction.
First sheets of ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic steel are bonded. The bonded
sheets are then cut into rectangular blocks hare machined into the desired rotor. The
rotor shaft can also be machined out of the same block as the rotor.

Fig 1.9 Explosion bonding

The rotor joining technique known as explosion bonding. Explosion bonding uses
explosive energy to force two or more metal sheets together at high pressures.
Conventionally the high pressure causes several atomic layers on the surface of each
sheet to behave as a fluid. The angle of collision between the two metals forces this
fluid to jet outward. Effectively cleaning the metal surface, these ultra clean surfaces
along with the high pressure forcing the metal plates together provide the necessary
condition for solid phase welding. Experimental tests on a stainless steel/mild steel
bond indicate that the tensile and fatigue strengths of the bond are greater than those of
either of the component materials due to the shock hardening which occurs during the
process. The bond was also subjected to 10 cycles of temperature variation from 20° C
- 70°C, with no significant reduction in tensile strength.

1.4 WORKING OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

In order to understand the working of synchronous reluctance motor, when a

piece of magnetic material is located in a magnetic field, a force acts on the material
tending to bring it into the desert portion of the field. The force tends to align the
specimen of the material in such a way that the reluctance of the magnetic path that
passes through the material will be minimum.
When supply is given to the stator winding, the revolving magnetic field will
exert reluctance torque on the unsymmetrical rotor tending to align the salient pole
axis of the rotor with the axis of the revolving magnetic field, because in this position,
the reluctance of the magnetic path would be minimum. If the reluctance torque is
sufficient to start the motor and its load, the rotor will pull into step with the revolving
field and continue to run at the speed of the revolving field. Actually the motor starts
as an induction motor and after it has reached its maximum speed as an induction
motor, the reluctance torque pulls its rotor into step with the revolving field, motor
now runs as synchronous motor by virtue of its saliency.

Reluctance motors have approximately one third the HP rating they would have as
Induction motors with cylindrical rotors. Although the ratio may be increased to 9one
half by proper design of the field windings, power factor and efficiency are poorer
than for the equivalent induction motor. Reluctance motors are subject to cogging,
since the locked rotor torque varies with the rotor position, but the effect may be
minimized by skewing the rotor bars and by not having the number of poles.

Fig1.10 Rotor Position due to Revolving Magnetic Field

1.6 TORQUE – SPEED CHARACTERISTICS

The torque speed characteristic of synchronous reluctance motor is shown in fig.

The motor starts at anywhere from 300 to 400 percent of its full load torque
(depending on the rotor position of the unsymmetrical rotor with respect to the field
winding) as a two phase motor. As a result of the magnetic rotating field created by
a starting and running winding displaced 90° in both space and time.
At about ¾th of the synchronous speed a centrifugal switch opens the starting
winding and the motor continues to develop a single phase torque produced by its
running winding only. As it approaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque is
sufficient to pull the rotor into synchronism with the pulsating single phase field. The
motor operates at constant speed up to a little over 20% of its full load torque. If it is
loaded beyond the value of pull out torque, it will continue to operate as a single phase
induction motor up to 500% of its rated speed.
Application Characteristics:
 Comparable power density but better efficiency than induction motor.
 Slightly lower power factor than induction motor.
 Slightly small field weakening range than induction motor.
 High cost than induction motor but lower than any type of PM motors.
 Need speed synchronization to inverter out frequency by rotor position sensor
sensorless control.
 Sensor less control is much easier due to motor saliency.
 By adding squirrel cage induction motor to synchronous reluctance motor one
obtains line starting reluctance motors.
 Line started reluctance motors can be parallel with open loop control if the load
does not change suddenly.
 Other combinations are possible such as adding PM for improved performance
 Rotor design for best manufacturability is still being optimized especially for high
 speed applications.

1.7 PHASER DIAGRAM OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

The synchronous reluctance machine is considered as a balanced three phase
circuit, it is sufficient to draw the phasor diagram for only one phase. The basic
voltage equation neglecting the effect of resistance is

Fig 1.12 Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Reluctance Motor

V = E – j IsdXsd – j Isq…………(1.1)

Where

V is the Supply Voltage

Is is the stator current

E is the excitation emf

Ȣ is the load angle

ɸ is the phase angle

Xsd and Xsq are the synchronous reactance of direct and quadrature axis
Isd and Isq are the direct and Quadrature axis current

I = Isd + Isq…………….(1.2)

Isd is in phase Quadrature with E and Isq is in phase with E.

V = E – j IsdXsd – j IsqXsq

From Phasor diagram

V cosȢ = E + Isd + Xsd ………………(1.3)

Isd = IsqXsq = V sinȢ

Isq = V sinȢ / Xsq………………..(1.4)

Is cos = Isq cosȢ - Isd sin……………(1.5)

Where

Xsd and Xsq are synchronous reactance of d and q axis.

Sub (3) and (4) in Equ (5)

Fig 1.13 Torque Angle Characteristics of Salient Pole Machine
Plotting the equation (9) as shown in fig indicates that the stability limit is reached at Ȣ
=±
/4
And by increasing g load angle torque also increases.
V2 [
] sin 2 ȣ = reluctance Power
In synchronous reluctance motor, the excitation emf(E) is zero.

Fig 1.14 Phasor Diagram of Synchronous Reluctance Motor with E=0

1.8 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS

RELUCTANCE MOTOR

Advantages
 There is no concern with demagnetization; hence synchronous reluctance
 machines are inherently more reliable than PM machines.
 There need not be any exciting field as torque is zero, thus eliminating
electromagnetic spinning losses.
 Synchronous reluctance machine rotors can be constructed entirely from high
strength, low cost materials.

Disadvantages
 High cost than induction Motor.
 Need Speed synchronization to inverter output frequency by using rotor position
sensor and sensor less control.
 Compared to induction motor it is slightly heavier and has low power factor.
 By increasing the saliency ratio Lds/Lqs, the power factor can be improved.

1.9 APPLICATIONS OF SYNCHRONIZATION

 Metering Pumps.
 Auxiliary time Mechanism.
 Wrapping and folding Machines.
 Proportioning Devices on Pumps or conveyors.
 Synthetic fibre manufacturing equipment.
 Processing continuous sheet or film material.
UNIT-1 SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS
(SYRM or SYNREL Motor)

Constructional features – Types – Axial and Radial flux motors – Operating principles – Variable
Reluctance Motors – Voltage and Torque Equations - Phasor diagram - performance characteristics –
Applications.

1. INTRODUCTION

Synchronous Reluctance Motor

 The name ‘Synchronous Reluctance Motor’ indicates, must rotate at synchronous speed.
 It is a serious competitor to the induction machine in variable speed applications.
 The synchronous reluctance motor is completely free of magnets and their operational problems.
 It is inexpensive to make, and can operate at extremely high speeds and at higher temperatures than PM
motors.
 However, its power factor and efficiency are not as high as those of a PM motor, and the converter kVA
requirement is higher.
 It can operate from essentially standard p.w.m. a.c. inverters and has lower torque ripple.

1.1. SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR (SyRM) (or) SYNREL MOTOR

The PM synchronous motor operates as a synchronous reluctance motor, if the magnets are left out
or demagnetized .i.e. the synchronous reluctance motors do not have any field winding or permanent magnet
on the rotor. The rotor has salient poles but the stator has smooth, distributed poles. The synchronous
reluctance machines are low-cost, rugged, have high-efficiency (ideally no rotor loss), and are capable of
operating at very high speeds, at higher at higher temperatures than PM motors.

1.2. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

The synchronous-reluctance motor consists of two main parts,
(a) Stator and
(b) Rotor
a)Stator
The stator of the synchronous reluctance motor has smooth, distributed poles. It has a laminated iron
core with open or semi closed uniformly distributed slots. The open slot configuration may' be used to house
multiphase concentrated (single) coils per phase as shown in Fig.l.l

Figure. 1.1. Open slot stator structure of synchronous reluctance motor

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 This open slot structure allows for automated insertion of coils in the slots and may be used either
for low power (or) two/three phase motors for higher torque. In this open slot structure, because of the
presence of air gap field and considerable harmonics, significant torque pulsations occur which may not be
tolerable in some drive applications.

In order to improve the performance, semi closed slots are used as shown in following Fig.l.2.

Figure. 1.2. Semi closed slot stator structures of synchronous reluctance motor

In general, the stator has multiple slots which are placed at an even pitch angle. Each slot is consisting of a
stator winding for creating stator magnetic poles with a predetermined phase alternating current being
supplied.
(b) Rotor:
The rotor of synchronous reluctance motor needs salient poles to create a variable reluctance in the
motor's magnetic circuit which depends on the angular position of the rotor. These salient poles can be
created by milling axial slots along the length of a squirrel cage rotor. The rotor of synchronous reluctance
motor consists of plurality of pairs of slots. The slots may be at outer or inner.

Figure. 1.3. Basic salient rotor structure of synchronous reluctance motor

The outer side slots are formed at an outer periphery and the inner slots are formed at inside of the rotor. The
distance between the outer periphery of the rotor and the outer side slot is determined to be the width of the
magnetic pole portion of the stator multiplied by 0.7 to 1.3. The first total magnetic flux amount of an outer
permanent magnet disposed in the outer side slot is determined to be larger than or equal to the second total
magnetic flux amount of an inner permanent magnet disposed in the inner side slot. To construct the rotor, a
technique known as explosion bonding is applied. This explosion bonding technique uses explosive energy
to force two or more metal sheets together at high pressures. The high pressure causes several atomic layers
on the surface of each sheet to behave as a fluid.

The angle of collision between the two metals, forces this fluid to jet outward. Effectively cleaning
the metal surface, these ultra clean surfaces along with the high pressure forcing the metal plates together
provide the necessary condition for solid phase welding. Experimental tests on a stainless steel/mild steel
bond indicate that the tensile and fatigue strengths of the bond -are greater than those of either of the

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component materials due to the shock hardening which occurs during the process. The bond was also
subjected to 10 cycles of temperature variation from 200c - 70oc, with no significant reduction in tensile
strength. The explosion bonding technique in shown in above Fig.1.4. There are some other joining
techniques available such as brazing, roll bonding, or diffusion bonding which may also be appropriate for
rotor construction.

Figure. 1.4. Explosion bonding

First sheets of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic steel are bonded as shown in Fig.1.4. The bonded sheets are
then cut into rectangular blocks which are machined into the desired rotor. The rotor shaft can also be
machined out of the same block as the rotor.

1.3. TORQUE EQUATION

The idealized structure of a reluctance motor is the same as that of the salient pole synchronous
machine except that the rotor does not have any field winding. In general, a three-phase machine can be
represented by an equivalent two-phase machine as shown in following Fig.1.5 & Fig.1.6, where ds- qs
correspond to stator direct and quadrature axes, and dr - qr correspond to rotor direct and quadrature axes.

Although this transformation is somewhat simple, to counter the problem of time-varying parameters
(like time varying inductances) some effective transformation methodologies are formulated. In one such
proposed methodology, both stator and rotor variables are transformed into a synchronously rotating
reference frame that moves with the rotating magnetic field.

Another methodology proposes a transformation of stator variables to a rotating reference frame that
is fixed on the rotor. Another proposed transformation shows the elimination of time-varying inductances by
referring the stator and rotor variables to a common reference frame which may rotate at any speed
(arbitrary reference frame).

Figure. 1.5. Coupling effect in three-phase stator

and rotor windings of motor

Figure. 1.6. Equivalent two-phase machine

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1.4 .TORQUE EQUATION OF SALIENT POLE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Derivation of the torque equation, we have to develop a dynamic machine model in
which the three-phase stationary reference frame (as-bs-cs) variables are transformed into
two-phase stationary reference frame (ds - qs) variables and then transforming these to
synchronously rotating reference frame (de - qe). The Fig.l.7 shows an idealized three-phase,
two pole wound field synchronous machine. The d.c. field current is supplied to the rotor
from a static rectifier through slip rings and brushes. (but in synchronous reluctance motor,
the rotor does not have any field winding. Let us first develop the torque equation of salient
pole synchronous machine, then let us modify the same for synchronous reluctance machine.
Here, we have to remember that the rotor of synchronous reluctance motor has salient poles,
so we have to consider only the development of torque equation of salient poles synchronous
machine and not non salient pole machine). Since the rotor always moves at synchronous
speed (ie., the slip is zero), the synchronous rotating (de - qe) axes are fixed with the rotor,
where the de axis corresponds to the north pole, a shown in Fig.l.7.

The difference in the characteristics of a salient pole machine from those of a normal
salient pole machine is due to the non uniform air gap reluctances in the d e and qe axes. The
resulting asymmetry in the direct and quadrature axes magnetizing reactances causes the
corresponding synchronous reactances to be unsymmetrical.

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 Figure. 1.8. Phasor diagram of salient pole synchronous machine in motoring mode

The following Fig.1.8 shows the, phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous
machine for the motoring mode which includes the flux linkages. Here, for simplicity, the
stator resistance has been dropped.
The excitation or speed emf Vf is shown aligned with the q e axes, whereas Ψf is the flux
linkage induced by the field-current (If) is aligned with the de axes. The phase voltage (Vs)
and phase current (Is) are resolved into corresponding de and qe components, and a voltage
phasor diagram is drawn with the corresponding reactive drops.In the phasor diagram, the
armature reaction flux Ψa aids the field flux to result in the stator flux Ψs as shown. In this
motoring, mode phasor diagram, which is drawn or lagging power factor, Ψs > Ψr [In case of
generating mode Ψs < Ψf because it is operating at leading power factor].The power input to
the machine is,
Pi = 3 Vs Is cos Φ
From the phase diagram of Fig.1. 8, we can write
Is cos Φ = Iqs cos δ - Ids sin δ
The Fig. 1. 8, can also be a vector diagram, if all the rms phasors are multiplied by the factor
√2
Substituting the equation, the input power Pi can be given as,
Pi = 3 Vs (Iqs cos δ - Ids sin δ) ... (1.3)
From the phasor diagram we can write,
Vs cos  − Vf V sin 
Ids = , Iqs = s
Xds Xqs
Substituting the equations , the power input is,

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 V sin  V cos  − Vf
Pi = 3Vs s cos  − s sin 
Xqs Xds

 V sin  cos  V sin  cos  − Vf sin  

= 3Vs s − s 
 Xqs Xds 

 V sin  V sin 2 V sin  

= 3Vs s − s + f 
 2Xqs 2Xds Xds 

3V 2s sin 2 3V 2s sin 2 3Vs Vf sin 

= − +
2Xqs 2Xds Xds

3V 2s Xds sin 2 − 3V 2s Xqs sin 2 3Vs Vf sin 

= +
2Xds Xqs Xds

3V 2s (Xds − Xqs ) sin 2 3Vs Vf sin 

= +
2Xds Xqs Xds
We can relate the power delivered to the shaft with the torque developed in the machine as,
2
Ps = e Te
P
If machine losses are ignored, the power input Pi is directly delivered to the shaft.
2
Pi = Ps = e Te
P
2
so Pi = e Te
P
when machine losses are ignored.
 P  1 
Te =   Pi
 2  e 
 2 
 P  1   3Vs Vf sin  3V s (Xds − Xqs )
Te =   + sin 2
 2  e   Xds 2Xds Xqs 
 
 2 
 P  1   Vs Vf sin  V s (Xds − Xqs ) 
Te = 3   + sin 2
 2  e   Xds 2Xds Xqs 
 
If supply voltage to frequency ratio is constant then (Ψs) i.e. stator flux linkage I be constant.
So the torque remains unchanged. The resistance drop is small and is then neglected.
Neglecting Rs, the stator flux linkage,
Vs 
s = −
e 2
Considering only magnitude,
Vs = Ψs ωe
Similarly Vf = Ψf ωe

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Also, from the basics, the synchronous reactance Xs, can be expressed as,
Xs = ωe Ls
Xds = ωe Lds
Xqs = ωe Lqs
Substituting the equations
  L  
 P  1   (  s  e )(  f  e ) e ds − eL qs 
Te = 3  
2 2
sin  +  s  e  sin 2

  e 
2  (  L )  2  
 2 eL ds L qs 
 e ds 
 2   (L − L qs )  
 P  (  e  s  f ) 2s 2e  e ds  sin 2
Te = 3  sin  +
 2   ( 2eL ds ) e  22 L L  
  e ds qs  
 2(L ds − L qs ) 
 P  (  s  f )
Te = 3  sin  + sin 2
 2   ( L ds ) 2(L ds L qs ) 
 
This equation gives the developed torque with torque angle δ for a salient pole
synchronous machine. The first component of the equation is contributed by the field  f .
The second component is defined as reluctance torque, which arises due to rotor saliency
(i.e., Xds ≠ Xqs), where the rotor tends to align with the position of minimum reluctance and is
not influenced by the field excitation.

1.4.1. Torque equation of Synchronous Reluctance motor

The Permanent magnet synchronous motor operates as a synchronous reluctance
motor if the magnets are left or demagnetized. The developed torque equation for salient pole
synchronous motor has been given by the expression. The equation consists of two
components in which, the first component is due to the field. This component should be left
out for obtaining the torque equation of synchronous reluctance motor. In the equation, the
second component is defined as reluctance torque.
So the developed torque of the reluctance motor can be expressed as,

 2 2(L ds − L qs ) 
 P    s (L ds − L qs )
Te = 3  sin  + sin 2
2  ( L ds ) 2(L dsL qs ) 
 
where,
Te=Developed torque of synchronous reluctance motor.
P = Number of poles.
Ψ = The flux linkage induced by the field current (If)
Lds = Direct axis inductance with respect to synchronously rotating frame.
Lqs = Quadrature axis inductance with respect to synchronously rotating frame.
δ = Torque angle.

The synchronous reluctance machines are low-cost, rugged, have high efficiency
(ideally no rotor loss), and are capable .of operating at very high speeds. The traditional

| 7
SyRM has low saliency that is low Ldm/Lqm ratio, which gives poor torque density, low power
factor and poor efficiency.
However, the recent development of SyRM by anisotropic construction has made a
much higher Ldm/Lqm ratio possible, which has significantly improved torque density, power
factor, and efficiency. Their application has grown recently, although there are only a few
manufactures of this machine worldwide. Let us see the classification of the synchronous
reluctance motor with the presence of anisotropic constructional structure.

1.5. TYPES OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

1.5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

ACCORDING TO ROTOR CONFIGURATION
(i) Cage rotor synchronous reluctance motor for line start
(ii) Cageless rotor synchronous reluctance motor for variable speed.

1.5.1.1. Cage rotors for line start

A line start cage rotor synchronous reluctance motor comprises, a single phase stator
arranged at an inner circumferential surface of a motor body and on which main coil and a
sub coil are wound; a magnet unit is free-rotatebly arranged along a inner circumferential
surface of the stator in order to maintain an air gap with the stator and a cage rotor provided
with a rotational shaft at centre in order to be a readable along an inner circumferential
surface of the magnet unit. The cage bar located at the peripheral portion is provided with
magnetic barriers to accommodate the same pole numbers as the magnet unit.

Figure. 1.9. Flux barrier type rotor

Distributed Anisotropy Cage-rotors
These rotors are used for line-start (constant voltage and frequency) applications.
Fig.1.9 shows the flux-barrier rotor and may be built with conventional laminations
(Fig.1.9(a),(b)), or with axial laminations (Fig.1.11(a),(b)). Here, we increase Ld/Lq to obtain
both higher efficiency as well as power factor and to improve the starting self

| 8
synchronization performance more than that can be achieve by conventional salient pole or
segmented solid-iron rotor (Fig.1.12).

Figure. 1.10. Distributed anisotropy structures with conventional laminations

The rotor configuration built with stamped conventional laminations having a flux
barrier below each closed (or semi closed) rotor slot with quickly saturable bridges provides a
quadrature axis magnetizing inductance Lqm which sharply decreases with stator quadrature
current (Iq) and has a small rotor-cage leakage inductance during asynchronous starting .

The rotor-cage slot area is reduced and high starting torque can be expected. Also as
Lq decreases with load, the synchronous torque increases as it depends on (Ld - Lq) [.: Te
Lds - Lqs from equation and thus the high resistance leakage inductance rotor-cage produces
sufficient asynchronous (damping) torque to secure an inherently stable reluctance motor.
The uniform distribution of closed or semiclosed rotor slots can be expected to lower
additional losses and lower noise.

Figure. 1.11. Axially laminated anisotropic rotor structures

| 9
 Figure. 1.12. Segment solid-iron rotor.

1.5.1.2. Distributed Anisotropy Cageless Motors

The cageless rotor structure of synchronous reluctance motor is used for variable
speed applications. The Figs.1.13 and 1.14 depict this kind of construction.
For the conventional-lamination rotor, the saturable bridges are "moved" towards the airgap
and the length is increased to produce an reluctance. In the two-pole configuration with two-
end shafts, the conventional back iron is eliminated and thus the rotor diameter may be
reduced to produce low inertia rotors. It is shown in the Fig.1.15

.
Figure. 1.13. Figure. 1.14.

Figure. 1.15.

| 10
Instead of using the insulation spacers, ferrite permanent magnets may be used to decreases
the field further in quadrature axis and to obtain a considerable constant power speed range.

1.5.2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE MAGNETIZATION OR

LAMINATION OF THE ROTOR
In accordance with the variation in the airgap or magnetization, two types of
construction are possible in synchronous reluctance motor. They are,

(i) Axial air gap motor

(ii) Radial air gap motor

The choice of the motor type depends on the requirement in applications. The axial air
gap synchronous reluctance motor is axially laminated. Similarly the radial type motor is
radially laminated. These motors have the same stator constructions as the multi phase
induction motor. The axially laminated reluctance motors are designed to have high saliency
in order to offer very good performance in terms of torque capacity, power factor and
efficiency. The radially laminated reluctance motors which are also known as flux barrier
type reluctance motors are designed to have optimized flux guide/flux barrier thickness ratio
to produce less torque ripple and less iron losses.

1.5.2.1. Axial air gap motor

The Fig.1.16 shows the axially laminated rotor. The approach in this motor is to
laminate the rotor in the axial direction. By increasing the ratio Ld / Lq motor power factor
and efficiency can be increased. Higher Ld / Lq ratios are obtained with axial-lamination
rotors. For a two pole, two phase axially laminated rotor with a Ld/Lq ratio of 20,we can get
the maximum efficiency of 94%. For two pole rotors, with axial laminations, the shaft should
be made either of two parts attached axially to the rotor core or it may go through (for
conventional laminations) but, in this case, it should be of rectangular cross-section with
grooves the quadrature axis magnetic
reluctance high.

Figure. 1.16. Axially laminated rotor

In the Fig.1.11 (a),(b) packs of axial laminations are interleaved with aluminium
sheets 0.2 mm thick with end rings to make an equivalent squirrel-cage rotor. The 0.2mm

| 11
aluminium sheet thickness is not high for motors in the tens and hundreds of kW and thus the
noise level will be lower.

Another rotor design is shown in Fig.1.17. In this case, the rotor consists of
alternating layers of ferromagnetic and non-magnetic steel. If the thickness of the steel is
chosen such that the pitch of the ferromagnetic rotor segments matched the slot pitch of the
stator, then regardless of the angle of rotation of the rotor, the ferromagnetic rotor segments
always see a stator tooth pitch. This is done to minimize flux variations and hence iron losses
in the rotor.

Figure. 1.17. Alternate rotor design of axial type motor

In reluctance motor, a reluctance torque is to be created on the rotor by the way of
making the magnetic field induced in the rotor as a root cause to align the rotor with the stator
field in a minimum reluctance position. The rotor has magnetic poles which have a low
magnetic reluctance in an axial
direction of the magnetic poles.
Also in order to align the rotor with the stator field in a minimum reluctance position
to produce reluctance torque, it is better to have same number of reluctance path as the
number of magnetic poles in the stator. Special laminations are done to make these equal
numbers of reluctance path and magnetic poles. Synchronous speed is achieved as the salient
poles lock in step with magnet poles of the rotating stator field and make it to run at the same
speed as the rotating field.
The stator windings are similar to squirrel cage induction motor, as the synchronous
reluctance motor is not self starting without the squirrel cage. During run up, it behaves as an,
induction motor but as it approaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque takes over and
the motor locks into synchronous speed. The motor is pressure cast with end rings similar to
induction motor.

1.5.2.2. Radially laminated rotor [Flux barrier type]

The rotor of radially laminated or flux barrier type synchronous reluctance motor
prises a rotational shaft. The rotor core which is formed as a plurality of steel plates are
laminated to one another, the steel plate having a shaft hole for inserting the rotational shaft, a
plurality of flux barrier groups spaced from one another in a circumferential direction and
having a plurality of flux barriers spaced from one another in a radial direction.

| 12
 A coupling hole is penetratingly formed between the adjacent two flux barrier groups
and a coupling member inserted into the coupling hole and fixing the steel plate.
Consequently, the fabrication cost and entire weight of the motor are decreased. The
fabrication process is facilitated with a shortened fabrication time. Also, a large coupling
intensity is obtained and a magnetic saturation does not occur, thereby preventing a
functional

Figure. 1.18. Radially laminated rotor

degradation of the motor. The Fig.1.18 shows the radially laminated rotor of synchronous
reluctance motor. For a four pole machine, the laminations are used with flux barriers
punched into the steel as shown. The basic structure of this type of rotor will be as shown in
Fig.1.19. It is having salient rotor shape and is such that the quadrature air gap is much larger
than the direct air gap. This yields relatively small Ld/Lq ratios. The low Ld/Lq ratios are
largely the result of circulating flux in the rotor pole faces.

Figure. 1.19. Basic structure of radially laminated rotor of salient pole type
Eventhough the salient pole basic rotor structure shown in Fig.1.19 is good choice for
high speed applications, the flux barriers and the central hole of the lamination required for
the shaft weaken the rotor structurally and the radially laminated rotor shown in Fig1.18 is a
poor choice for high speed applications

| 13
1.5.2.3.Low and High Magnetic Reluctances in Magnetic Circuits and
their influences'

The low or high values of magnetic reluctances have definite influence for the
alignment of rotor with stator or revolving field, in turn for the operation of machine under
consideration. when the spaces or notches between the rotor poles are opposite to the stator
poles, the magnetic circuit of the motor has a high magnetic reluctance. But when the rotor
poles are aligned with the stator poles, the magnetic circuit has a low magnetic reluctance.
When a stator pole pair is energized, the nearest rotor pole pair will be pulled into alignment
with the energized stator poles to minimize the reluctance path through the machine .
In synchronous reluctance motor, the rotor has magnetic poles which have a low
magnetic reluctance in an axial direction of the magnetic poles, and high magnetic reluctance
towards the circumference of the rotor. Hence the influence of magnetic reluctance in
variable reluctance and synchronous
reluctance machines during their operations can be understood in following way. In a variable
reluctance machine, when the stator winding is energized, the nearest rotor pole comes in
alignment with the energized stator pole. When the stator and rotor pole axes are' in
alignment with each other, they are in minimum reluctance position. When the deviation in
between the stator and rotor pole axes are maximum, that condition is known as maximum
reluctance position.
The non-alignment between the stator and rotor poles is generally termed as variable
reluctance position. In synchronous reluctance machine, when the stator is excited, the three
phase symmetrical winding of stator creates sinusoidal rotating magnetic field in the air gap
and the induced magnetic field in the rotor has a tendency to cause the rotor to align with the
stator field at a minimum reluctance position and hence the reluctance torque is developed.
1.6. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR
To understand the working principle of synchronous reluctance motor, let us keep in
mind the following basic fact when a piece of magnetic material, tending to bring it into the
most dense portion of the field. The force tends to align the specimen of material in such a
way that the reluctance of the magnetic path lies through the material will be minimum.
In a nutshell, when a piece of magnetic material is free to move in a magnetic field, it
will align itself with the field to minimize the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.

Figure. 1.20. Synchronous reluctance motor

| 14
 A A' → Phase A
BB' → Phase B
CC' → Phase C
The Fig.l.20 shows the synchronous reluctance motor. The stator has open slot and
semiclosed slot structures. The rotor has two types of air gap viz., radial and axial. Here for
simplicity, the synchronous reluctance motor having the open slot stator and axial air gap
rotor structure is shown in Fig.l.20. All the configurations of synchronous reluctance motor
are having the same working principle. The stator has a 3Φ, symmetrical winding, which
creates a sinusoidal rotating field in the air gap when excited. The rotor has an unexcited
ferromagnetic material with polar projections. When the supply is given to the stator winding,
the revolving magnetic field exerts reluctance torque on the unsymmetrical rotor tending to
align the salient pole axis of the rotor with the axis of the revolving magnetic field. [It is the
position, where the reluctance of the magnetic path would be minimum]. So the reluctance
torque is developed by the tendency of ferromagnetic rotor to align itself with the magnetic
field. The reluctance torque developed in this type of motor can be expressed as,
 2 2(L ds − L qs ) 
 P    s (L ds − L qs )
Te = 3  sin  + sin 2
2  ( L ds ) 2(L dsL qs ) 
 
where,
P → Number of poles
Ψs → Stator flux linkage
Lds → Direct axis inductance with respect to synchronously rotating
frame
Lqs → Quadrature axis inductance with respect to synchronously
rotating frame
δ → Torque angle
If the reluctance torque is sufficient to start the motor and its load, the rotor will pull
into step with the revolving field and continue to run at the speed of the revolving field. The
motor starts as an induction motor and after it has reached its maximum speed as an induction
motor, the reluctance torque pulls its rotor into step with the revolving field, so that the motor
now runs as synchronous motor by virtue of its saliency.
Even though the rotor revolves synchronously, its poles lag behind the stator pole by a
certain angle known as torque angle, [something similar to that in a synchronous motor]. The
reluctance torque increases with the increase in torque' angle, attaining maximum value when
= 45°. Reluctance motors are subjected to "cogging" since the locked rotor torque varies
with the rotor position, but the effect may be minimised by skewing the rotor bars and by not
having the number of rotor slots exactly equal to an exact multiple of the number of poles.
The operation of motor at synchronism with ideally zero rotor electrical losses will
improve the efficiency. But the reluctance motors have approximately one third the hp rating,
when compared with the condition that they would have operated as induction motors with
cylindrical rotors. Although the ratio may be increased to one half by proper design of the
field windings, power factor and efficiency are poorer than for the equivalent induction
motor.

| 15
 Once the rotor of synchronous reluctance motor is synchronized, the cage winding
rotates synchronously with the stator field. Thus, the rotor winding plays no part in the steady
state synchronous operation of the motor. The machine continues to operate synchronously,
provided the pull-out torque of the motor is not exceeded. This is the load torque required to
pull the rotor out of synchronism.
The pull in torque is defined as the maximum load torque which the rotor can pull into
synchronism with a specified load inertia. The pull-in torque can be increased at the expense
of larger starting current, but it is always less than the pull-out torque. The reluctance motors
have been widely used in adjustable-speed multimotor drives requiring exact speed
coordination between individual motors. If all the motors in multi motor drive system are
accelerated simultaneously from standstill by increasing the supply frequency, the machines
operate synchronously at all times, and
they can be designed for optimum synchronous performance without regard to the pull-in
torque requirements.
The reluctance motor unfortunately exhibits a tendency towards instability at lower
supply frequencies, but it forms a low cost, robust and reliable synchronous machine. The
constant speed characteristics of the synchronous reluctance motor makes it very suitable for
the applications, such as, recording' instruments, many kinds of timers, signalling devices and
phonographs.
An expression for open circuit emf of a synchronous reluctance motor
* The stator and rotor steel is assumed to be infinitely permeable, except in the link
section .
* This permits surfaces to be represented by equipotential.
* q-axis also have equipotential.
* Model has 2 boundary potentials u 0 and u1
* Potential → magnetic potential, unit is amperes.
* Link section assumed to saturate at Bs.
* On open-circuit, flux through them is leakage flux.
* The equipotential is assumed to be distorted by this leakage flux.
* We can arbitrarily assign one of the 2 potential to be 0.
u0 =0
* If the air gap is small, and if fringing is neglected, the radial flux density in the
gap is,
o
Bg = (u1 − u0 )
g'
o
= (u1T )
g'
* It gives rise to a rectangular distribution of flux across the pole .
* In terms of the reluctance of the air gap,
Φg = u1Pg

* Where the air gap permeance is given by

| 16
 1 oA g
Pg = =
Rg g'
* If the pole arc/pole pitch ratio is α, the stator base radius is r1- stack length is l.

Ag =  r1.l
P
* On the underside of pole-piece, magnet can be represented as a magnetic
equivalent circuit.

* Link sections included in the equivalent circuit.

* Each carrying fixed leakage flux,
1
 y = Bs yl
2
* Magnetic potential difference across the magnet is same as that across the air gap
r −  y
u1 =
Pm + Pg
Φr → Magnet remanent flux
Φr →BrAm
Am → Pole area of the magnet
* The effective permeance Pm assigned to the magnet includes a component.
* This leakage flux flows in a circumferential direction .
* Magnet pole width were increased

| 17
 W’m = a v (Wm' Wm + h) = Wm + h/2
A'm = W'm l
  A'
Pm = rec o m
lm
* Hence the air gap flux is given as
r −  y
g = u1Pg = = Bg A g
1 + Pm + R g
* The pole piece can be regarded as a "potential island".
* The model is "per-pole" model and is same for every pole in the machine.
* The rectangular flux distribution in the air gap is identical to the ideal distribution
calculated for surface magnet motor.
* Motor could be driven as a square-wave motor.
* This would be true if there were no reluctance torque.
* For reluctance torque to be 0, Xd and Xq must be equal.
* The fundamental open circuit flux per pole can be determined by Fourier analysis of
the waveform.
BM1Dl
M1 =
P
* Amplitude of the fundamental component of the air gap flux due to magnet acting
alone is,
4 
BMI = k1Bg Where k1 = sin
 2

| 18
 * With rectangular distribution of the flux, the result is
8 
M1 = g sin
2 2
* For a practical winding with Nph series turns per phase and a winding factor Kw1
2
Eq = (K w1Nph ) M1f
* The result is 2
* This equation can also be expressed in the form
~ ~ 1
Eph = jEq = j  M1 = 2 K w1Nph  M1

1.7. ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUSRELUCTANCE MOTOR

1. There is no need for field excitation in this motor at zero torque thus the
electromagnetic spinning losses are eliminated.
2. There is no concern with demagnetization, hence synchronous reluctance machines
are inherently more reliable than permanent magnet machines.
3. The rotors of synchronous reluctance machine can be constructed entirely from
high strength, low cost materials.
4. The torque ripple in this motor is low.
5. The motor can be operated from standard P.W.M. ac inverters.
6. The synchronous reluctance motor has the capability to survive very high
temperature.
7. The motor has simple and rugged construction.
8. It has high speed capability.
9. With the high saliency ratio (Ld/Lqs), a power factor of 0.8 can be reached. Also,
since there is no copper loss, efficiency of reluctance motor is higher than an induction
motor.
10. Because of its inherent simplicity, it can be applied in multimotor drive where a
number of motors operate synchronously with common power

1.8. DISADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

1. When compared with induction motor, the synchronous reluctance motor is slightly
heavier and has low power factor. But by increasing the saliency ratio Lds / Lqs the power
factor can be improved.
2. The cost is higher than induction motor.

1.9. APPLICATIONS OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

1. It is popularly used in many low power applications such as fiber spinning mills
because of inherent simplicity, robustness of construction and low. cost.
2. Widely used for many constant speed applications such as recording instruments,
timing devices, control apparatus and phonograph.
3. Used as proportioning devices in pumps or conveyors.
4. Applied in auxillary time mechanism,

| 19
 5. Used in processing of continuous sheet or film material.
6. Used in regulators and turntables.
7. Applied in wrapping and folding machines.
8. It can be used in synchronized conveyors.
9. In metering pumps also, the synchronous reluctance motor is used.
10. Used in synthetic fibre manufacturing equipment.

1.10. PHASOR DIAGRAM (OR) TORQUE EQUATION

The idealized structure of a reluctance motor is same as that of the salient pole
synchronous machine except that the rotor does not have any field winding. The rotor of the
modem reluctance machine designed with iron laminations in the axial direction separated by
non-magnetic material.
Generally in salient-pole motors, air-gap is much greater between the poles than
along the poles. (i.e.,) air gap is non-uniform. So the analysis is not easier when compared
with cylindrical rotor synchronous motors which have uniform air-gap. Also the
characteristics of a salient pole machine differs from those of a non salient pole machine
because of non uniform airgap reluctance in the de and qe axes. The resulting asymmetry in
the direct and quadrature axes magnetizing reactances causes the corresponding synchronous
reluctances to be unsymmetrical.
The Figures 1.21(a) and 1.21(b) show the phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance
motor. Since the machine is considered as a balanced 3 phase circuit, it is sufficient to draw
the phasor diagram for only one phase.In general, for a two phase machine [of Fig.1.6(b)], we
need to represent both ds – qs (stator) and dr - qr (rotor) circuits and their variables in a
synchronously rotating de - qe frame.

| 20
 Figure.1.21. (a) Phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor with q axis as reference.
A special advantages of the de - qe dynamic model of the machine is that all the sinusoidal
variables in stationary frame appear as d.c. quantities in synchronous frame.

Figure. 1.21. (b) Phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance motor with d axis as reference
[shown with vectors]
The motor has d-axis reactance Xd and q-axis reactance Xq. Also, Id and Iq are
the direct and quadrature axis currents respectively. The following symbols should be
clearly kept in mind while studying the phasor diagram.
Ψqs - Quadrature axis flux linkage with respect to synchronously
Rotating frame
Ψqs - Direct axis flux linkage with respect to synchronously rotating
frame
Xds -Direct axis synchronous reactance
Xqs -Quadrature axis synchronous reactance
Ids -de component of the stator current
Iqs -qe component of the stator current
Is -Stator current
Vs -Phase voltage
Vf -The excitation or speed emf [eventhough it is accounted for our
convenience in the phasor diagram 1.21(a), it will be made zero during the derivation as there
is no excitation in synchronous, reluctance motor Hence, it is absent in the phasor diagram
1.21(b)].
Ψs - Space vector flux
Ψs - Stator flux linkages
 - Stator power factor angle
δ - Torque angle [In general, it is the angle between V s and V f in
synchronous machine.
At higher value of Ids, the corresponding flux [say Ψds] tends to saturate. In fact there
is some cross saturation effect of Lds due to Iqs current. The stator resistance drop has been
| 21
neglected for simplicity. Note that there is no excitation in synchronous reluctance motor,
hence the (excitation flux) Ψf phasor an corresponding (excitation or speed emf) Vf phasor are
absent in the phasor diagram.1.21(b). Since, the stator supplies magnetizing current like an
induction motor, the stator power factor angle Φ is large. From the phasor diagram 1.21(a),
the basic voltage equation neglecting the effect of resistance is given by,
Vf = Vs + j Ids Xds + j Iqs Xqs

I = Ids + Iqs
It is evident from the phasor diagram 1.21(a) that Iq is in phase with Vf and Ids is in phase
quadrature with Vf.
Vs = Vf - j Ids Xds - j IqsXqS
Vs cosδ= Vf - Ids Xds
Vs cos  − Vf
Ids = and Iqs Xqs = Vs sin 
Xds
Vs sin 
Iqs =
Xqs
Also we can write Is cos Φ = Iqs cosδ – Ids sinδ.
In the phasor diagram (1.21)(a) the excitation or speed emf V f is shown aligned with qe axis,
where as Ψf is aligned with the de axis. The phase voltage Vs and phase current Is are
resolved into corresponding de and qe components, and a voltage phasor
diagrams is drawn with corresponding reactive drops.
Vs sin  V cos  − Vf
Is cos  = cos  − s sin 
Xqs Xds
Vs V sin  cos  − Vf sin 
= sin  cos  − s
Xqs Xds
Vs V V sin 
= sin  cos  − s sin  cos  + f
Xqs Xds Xds
Vf sin  1 1
= + Vs sin  cos ( − )
Xds Xqs Xds

Vf Xds − Xqs
= sin  + Vs ( ) sin  cos 
Xds XqsX
ds
Vf Xds − Xqs
Iscos = sin  + Vs ( ) sin 2
Xds 2 XqsXds
The Power Input to the motor is Pin = 3 VsIs cos Φ
Substituting the value of IscosΦ
 Vf X ds − X qs 
Pin = 3Vs  sin  + Vs ( ) sin 2 
 X ds 2 X qsX ds 
 3VsV f 3V 2 s ( X ds − X qs) 
Pin =  sin  + sin 2 
 X ds 2 X qsX ds 

| 22
Since , there is no exciting filed winding in synchronous reluctance motor, in the equation,
the value of Vr = 0.
 3V 2 ( X 
 s ds − Xqs )
Pin = sin 2
 2 XqsXds 
 
 3( Xds − Xqs ) 
Pin = V 2s  sin 2
 2 XqsXds 

 P 2(X X 
in ds qs ) 
V2s = 
 3 (Xds − X ) 
 qs 

2Pin(Xds Xqs )
Vs = is voltage equation
3 (Xds − Xqs )

If the machine losses are ignored

Pin= Pm
Where Pin = Input power to the motor
Pm =Power delivered to the shaft of the motor
Let as assume Pin = Pm =P
In general P=ωt. But when we consider the load angle in electrical Degree.
Pin = (2/P ) ωeTe Where P= Number of Poles.
Pin = (2/P ) ωeTe
Te =(P/2)(1/ωe)( Pin)
 3V 2 ( X 
 s ds − Xqs )
Te = (P / 2)(1 / e ) sin 2
 2 XqsXds 
 
 V2 (X 
s ds − Xqs )
Te = (P / 2)(3 / e )  sin 2
 2 XqsXds 
 
Vs −
s = 
e 2
 s  e = Vs
The stator flux linkage , X ds =  e Lds
X qs =  e Lqs
  e Lds −  e Lqs ) 
Te = ( P / 2)(3 /  e ) s2 2 e  sin 2 
 2  e Lds Lqs
2


| 23
   (L − L qs ) 
Te = (P / 2)(3 / e ) 2 2e  e ds sin 2
s  2 2 L L 
 e ds qs 
 (L ds − L qs ) 
Te = 3(P / 2) 2s  sin 2
 2 L ds L qs 

 (L ds − L qs ) 
ˆ 2s / 2) 
Te = 3(P / 2)( sin 2
 2 L ds L qs 

Where space vector flux magnitude  2s = 2s ,

P = No.of poles ,  = Torque
Substituting sin 2δ = 2sinδ cosδ
 (L ds − L qs ) 
ˆ 2s / 2) 
Te = (3 / 2)(P / 2)( 2 sin  cos 
 2 L dsL qs 

 (L ds − L qs ) 
ˆ 2s / 2) 
= (3 / 2)(P / 2)( sin  cos 
 L dsL qs 
qs ds
put sin  = and cos  =
ˆs
 ˆs

 (L ds − L qs ) 
Te = (3 / 2)(P / 2)  qs ds 
 L dsL qs 
 ds = L ds ids

 qs = L qs iqs


Te = (3 / 2)(P / 2) (L ds − L qs )iqs ids 
L ds =  ds / ids

L qs =  qs / iqs

Te = (3 / 2)(P / 2)  ds iqs −  qs ids 

 
which is the general torque equation.

1.11. CHARACTERISITC OF SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTOR

1.11.1. Torque angle characteristic
We know that the developed electrical torque of synchronous reluctance motor canbe
expressed as,
 (L ds − L qs ) 
Te = 3(P / 2) 2s  sin 2
 2 L ds L qs 
The plotting of the above equation for different field excitations gives the various torque (Te)
- δ angle curves as shown in Fig.1.22, for both motoring and generating modes. The steady-

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state limit corresponds to the maximum points and is indicated by the dots in the Fig.1.22.It is
evident from the equation that if Vs/ωe is maintained constant (i.e., the supply voltage is
changed in proportional to the frequency), for a fixed excitation and torque
angle, the developed torque remains constant. But we have defined the synchronous
reluctance motor as the motor which has the same structure as that of a salient pole
synchronous motor except that it does not have a field winding on the rotor. So, there is no
excitation in the motor. So, in the torque
angle characteristic of fig1.22 drawn for salient pole machine , the reluctance torque
component is the lowest curve which corresponds to zero percent excitation or zero
excitation, where the stability limit is reached at δ = ± /4.

Figure. 1.22. Torque-S angle characteristics of salient pole machine

The reluctance torque component is in such a shape as shown in Fig.1.22 because the
ideal synchronous reluctance machine, is having a rotor whose structure is such that the
inductance of the stator windings in the dq reference frame varies sinusoidally from a
maximum value Ld [Direct inductance] to a minimum value Lq [Quadrature inductance] as a
function of angular displacement of the rotor.
1.11.2. Torque - speed characteristic
In synchronous reluctance motor, the reluctance torque is developed by the tendency
of a ferromagnetic material to align itself with a magnetic field. On a fixed frequency a.c.
supply, the synchronous reluctance motor is not self-starting unless the rotor is fitted with a
squirrel-cage winding to permit starting by induction motor action. When the rotor speed
approaches synchronous speed, the reluctance torque is super imposed on the induction motor
torque, and as a result, the rotor speed oscillates above and below its average value. If the
load torque and inertia are not excessive, instantaneous rotor speed increases such as to reach
synchronous speed and the rotor locks into synchronism with the stator field. The Fig.1.23
shows the torque-speed characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor.
The motor starts as an induction motor at anywhere from 300 to 400 percent of its full
load torque (depending upon the salient pole axis of the rotor with the axis of the revolving
magnetic field) as a two phase motor. When the motor reaches its maximum speed as an
induction motor, the reluctance torque pulls its rotor into step with the revolving field, so that
the motor now runs as synchronous motor by virtue of its saliency. As it approaches
synchronous speed, the reluctance torque is sufficient to pull the rotor into synchronism with

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the pulsating single phase field. From the Fig.1.23, it is known that eventhough the torque is
increased, the motor speed remains constant. But when the torque exceeds maximum value,
the motor goes out of synchronism.
The motor operates at constant speed upto a little over 200% of its full load torque.

Figure. 1.23. Torque-speed characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor

If it is loaded beyond the value of pull out torque, it will continue
to operate as a single phase induction motor up to 500% of its rated output.
The torque-speed characteristics of synchronous reluctance motor is shown in fig.
➢ The motor starts at anywhere from 300 to 400 percent of its full load torque as a two
phase motor.
➢ As a result of the magnetic rotating field created by a starting and running winding
displaced 90 degree in both space and time.
➢ At 3/4th of the synchronous speed a centrifugal switch opens with starting winding
and the motor continues to develop a single phase torque product by its running
winding only.
➢ As its approaches synchronous speed the reluctance torque is sufficient to pull rotor
into synchronism with pulsating single phase field .
➢ The motor operates at constant speed up to a little over 200% of its full load torque.
➢ If it is loaded beyond the value of pull out torque it will continue to operate as a single
phase induction motor upto 500% of its rated output.

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 Figure. 1.24. Circle diagram of synchronous reluctance motor
➢ In the complex phasor diagram the maximum continuous phase current define
circular locus Fig.l.24(a) and (b).
➢ With a sine-distribution of ampere conductors whose magnetic axis is aligned with the
d-axis.
➢ The mmf integral ∫Hdl for flux lines that cross the air gap via the pole is given.
➢ Fig. (a) calculate of d-axis synchronous reactance showing the assumed magnetic
potential boundaries. Fig.(b) Distribution of d-axis flux excited by sine-distributed
stator winding.
➢ The expression equals one half the ampere-conductors enclosed within a closed flux
line that crosses the air gap at the angle O. The other half of the enclosed ampere
conductors cab is thought of us forcing the flux line across the air gap via the adjacent
poles. Thus the equations developed here arc all on a 'per-pole' basis.
➢ If all the poles are in series, N, is the number of the turns in series per phase, and Ns/p
is the number of turns per pole. Flux entering the sides of the pole is classified as
fringing flux and is ignored at this stage.
➢ The dotted line drawn across the rotor and along the q-axis is in equipotential Vo and
as before , this potential may be assigned to zero with no loss generality, since it is
common between adjacent poles.

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 Figure.1.25
➢ The Pole Pieces is at a uniform magnetic potential V1 as yet unknown, the Fig.1.25
circle diagram showing loci of maximum current limited by both current and voltage
,for hybrid motor with ceramic magnets (0.4T; V1 = l5V and 38V).
➢ This is a rectangular hyperbola asymptotic to the negative d-axis and to a q-axis offset
to the right.
➢ Note that all these relationship are independent of frequency and speed.
➢ With high energy magnet the offset Eq/Ax is so large that the constant-torque
contours are almost horizontal straight lines, as they arc for the surface magnet. This
is again shows the similarity between the two machines when high energy magnets
are used.
➢ For the pure synchronous reluctance motor the constant-torque contours are also
rectangular hyperbolas but with no offset.
➢ When the hybrid motor is under excited , as it may well be with ceramic magnets, the
constant torque contours have more curvature.
➢ The torque contour for 0.312 Nm in Fig.1.25 is tangent to the maximum current circle
at point. This torque is attainable at 300 rpm with a controller voltage of only 15 V.
➢ As the speed increases the size of the voltage - limited current locus can be
maintained by increasing the voltage (by P.W.M control) up to maximum of 38V,
which is reached at 8400 rpm (point 13). This is the highest speed at which the torque
of 0.312 Nm can be attained, giving an electromagnetic power of 274.5 W at the air
gap.
➢ If the speed is raised to 10500 rpm, the torque must decrease as the operating point is
constrained by maximum current limit.

1.12. VERNIER MOTOR (or) TYPES OF SYSREL MORTOR.

A vernier motor is an unexcited reluctance type synchronous motor which has the feature
of high torque at low speed. This high torque at low speed feature is based on the 'magnetic
gearing effect' and applied where mechanical gearing is undesirable. Since the vernier motor
is a synchronous machine, useful torque is developed only when it operates at synchronous
speed. To be capable of self-starting without any auxiliary means, the rotor must be pulled
into synchronism within the time of one half cycle. Hence, the vernier motor must be
designed to run at a low speed [around 200 rpm] and to have high torque to inertia ratio.
1.12.1. Construction
The vernier motor has a stator and rotor.
Stator
The stator of the vernier motor has uniformly pitched teeth units surface towards the
air gap. In between the teeth, the stator has slots and a distributed winding. There are two
typical configurations that exist for stator of vernier motor.
(i) Split - pole type
(ii) Open - slot type·

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 (a) Split-pole type (b) Open-slot type
Figure. 1.26. Two types of the stator configurations of vernier motor
The split-pole type configuration finds its application in most of the small power
stepper motors, in which the large-number of teeth is necessary for the high-resolution
Position control. But this structure has problems in case of a large machine in the sense that
the slots between the teeth become large 'dead' spaces, and that the copper density in a slot
must be lower because of the difficulty in winding coils due to the narrow open slot. In open-
slot type configuration, there is no such "dead" spaces because its slots
re utilized as the locations for the coils and the coils can apparently be wound more densely.
Therefore, for high power applications, open-slot type is more suitable.
Rotor
The rotor of vernier motor is a slotted iron core without winding. It has three typical
configurations.
(i) Axially sandwiched magnet type
(ii) Surface magnet type
(iii) Inset surface magnet type.

(a) Sandwiched magnet (b) Surface magnet (c) Inset surface magnet
Figure. 1.27. Three types of the rotor structures
In the axially sandwiched magnet type, the iron part of the rotor is directly facing the
air gap. So, the coil inductance tends to be quite large and can reach 2 or 3 p.u. The another
reason for the tendency of coil to have high inductance is the number of poles should be
small for obtaining a high torque. The same is the case for inset surface magnet type rotor
configuration. But from the point of view of the power factor and current control this value
of2 or 3 n.u coil inductance is too him. In surface magnet type of rotor configuration, because
of the presence of virtual air gap, the value of inductance is in reasonable limit.
1.12.2. Principle of operation of Vernier Motor
To understand the principle of operation of a vernier motor, consider the following
Fig.l.28 which shows a 2 pole machine with 12 stator slots and 10 rotor slots.

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 Figure. 1.27. Vernier motor
The stator and rotor teeth are facing each other in the vertical axis at the position
shown in above figure. The fluxes in the air gap are assumed to be in the radial direction. The
axes at which maximum and minimum permeance occur are the direct and quadrature axes
respectively of the vernier motor. The permeance of air space between stator and rotor at any
location is inversely proportional to the radial length of air space at that location. In the
Fig.l.27, The stator teeth are facing the rotor slots in the horizontal axis. So, at this position,
the maximum permeance is along the vertical axis and the minimum permeance is along the
horizontal axis.
When the stator winding is excited by poly phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is
produced. This rotating magnetic field is introduced in the air gap of the machine, the rotor
now rotates slowly and at a definite fraction of the speed of the rotating field. As the rotor
speed steps down from the speed of the rotating field, the motor torque steps up. This high
torque at low speed feature is based on the so-called “magnetic gearing effect”. Whenever the
rotating field rotates for 90 degrees, the rotor will rotate one half its slot pitch. When the rotor
is rotated one half of its slot pitch, the rotor slots will
face the stator teeth in the vertical axis. The rotor and stator teeth will face each of other in
the horizontal axis. The axis of maximum permeance is now horizontal and the axis of
minimum permeance is now vertical. Thus the rotor movement of one half rotor slot pitch
results in a 90 degree displacement of the permeance axes.
The peculiar feature of vernier motor is such that a small displacement of the or
produces a large displacement of the axes of maximum and minimum permeance. When the
rotor rotates, the permeance wave rotates at much faster speed approximately five times the
rotor speed).The permeance distribution curve is shown in Fig.1.28 (a). The technique of
replacing a permeance curve of Fig. 1.28(b) by an equivalent curve of Fig.1.26 (a) is an
accepted practice in machine design.

Figure.1.28 (a) Air gap permeance distribution of vernier motor

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 Figure.1.28 (b) Equivalent permeance
From the analysis of air gap permeance distribution in a vernier motor, it is
realized that the design of a vernier motor is equivalent to the design of an ordinary poly
ph.ase reluctance motor with an odd shaped rotor so that the air gap permeance distribution is
a displaced triangular wave as shown in Fig.1.28(b).
1.13. SYNCHRONOUS RELUCTANCE MOTORS - APPLICATIONS
Since synchronous reluctance motors are completely free of magnets they can be used
in a wide variety of applications.
Shipping applications:
.:. Synchronous reluctance motors can be presented as a possible alternative for all electrical
ship applications.
.:. In synchro lifts for lifting ships out of water.
Domestic applications :
.:. Synchronous reluctance motors are use in house hold appliances like washing machines,
time devices, wrapping and folding machines.
Industrial applications
.:. Prominently used in AC servo applications where a variable speed motor is
required. Other applications would include fiber-spinning mills, metering
pumps and industrial process equipments.

TWO MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. What is a synchronous reluctance motor?
It is the motor driven by reluctance torque which is produced due to tendency of the
salient rotor poles to align themselves with synchronously rotating field produced by stator.
In this motor, the magnets are left out of the rotor or they are demagnetized. The rotor of a
synchronous reluctance motor has salient poles but neither have field windings nor permanent
magnets.
2. What are the types of synchronous reluctance motor?
A. The main types are,
1. Cageless
2. Line-start
B. According to the magnetization (when the stator winding is energized),
1. Radial type
2. Axial type

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3. State the principle of operation of synchronous reluctance motor.
When a piece of magnetic material is located in a magnetic field, a force acts on the
material tending to bring it into the most dense portion of the field. The force tends to align
the specimen of material in such a way that the reluctance of the magnetic path that lies
through the material will be minimum. In general, reluctance torque is developed by the
tendency of a ferromagnetic material to align itself with a magnetic field. (i. e.,) when the
stator winding is energized, the evolving magnetic field produces reluctance torque.
4. State any four advantages of synchronous reluctance motors.
1. It can operate from essentially standard P.W.M. a.c. inverters.
2. Lower torque ripple.
3. Simple and rugged construction.
4. It has high speed capability.
5. List any four applications of synchronous reluctance motor.
1. The synchronous reluctance motor is widely used for many constant speed
applications such as recording instruments, timings devices, control
apparatus and photograph.
2. It is employed for low power application such as spinning mills.
3. Used in processing of continuous sheet or film material;
4. Applied in synthetic fibre manufacturing equipment.
6. Define: Torque Angle.
In reluctance type synchronous motor, when the load is increased lightly, the rotor
momentarily slows down, causing the salient poles of the rotor to lag the rotating field. This
angle of lag is called the torque angle.
7. What is vernier motor?
A vernier motor is an unexcited reluctance type synchronous motor which has the
feature of high torque at low speed. This feature is based on the principle of vernier or
magnetic gearing effect such that a small displacement of the rotor produces a large
displacement of the axes of maximum and minimum permeance.
8. Write down the important features of vernier motor.
1. High torque to inertia ratio.
2. High torque at low speed.
3. The stator has uniformly pitched teeth on its surface towards the air
gap.
4. The air gap permeance distribution is a displaced triangular wave.
9. Define reluctance torque.
In a synchronous reluctance motor, the torque which is produced at critical speed, due
to the tendency of the salient rotor poles to align themselves with synchronously rotating field
produced by the stator is known as reluctance torque. (i.e.,) the reluctance torque is produced,
when the low-reluctance path provided by the salient rotor poles causes them to snap into
synchronism with the rotating flux of the stator and the rotor is pulled around by simple
magnetic attraction.

10. What is meant by "flux concentrating" or ''flux focussing" design synchronous

reluctance motors?
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 In a six-pole circumferentially magnetized synchronous reluctance motor, the design
is such that the magnet pole area exceeds the pole area at the air-gap, producing an air gap
flux-density higher than that in the magnet. This arrangement is known as "flux
concentrating" or "flux focussing" design.

11. What are the factors to be considered while designing a vernier motor?
1. The airgap permeance wave should have the same number of poles as the stator
mmf wave.
2. The number of stator (N1) and rotor slots (N 2) should be such that N1= N2 + P,
where, P is number of poles of the rotating magnetic field.
12. What are the applications of vernier motor?
1. Direct drive applications.
2. Applications which require high torque at low speed.
13. When does a PM synchronous motor operate as a synchronous reluctance motor?
If the cage winding is included in the rotor and the magnets are
left out or demagnetized, a PM synchronous motor operates as a
synchronous reluctance motor

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the constructional features of synchronous reluctance
motor.
2. What are the types of synchronous reluctance motor? With neat
diagrams, explain the same.
3. Explain the operation of axial type synchronous reluctance motor.
4. Explain the operation of radial type synchronous reluctance motor.
5. Explain the working principle of synchronous reluctance motor.
6. Draw the steady state phasor diagram of synchronous reluctance
motor and explain.
7. Draw and discuss a typical torque-speed characteristics of
synchronous reluctance motor.
8. Describe the constructional features of vernier motor.
9. Explain the working principle of vernier motor with neat diagram.
10. Enumerate the advantages, disadvantages and applications of
synchronous reluctance motor.

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Stepper Motor Basics

A stepper motor is an electric motor whose main feature is that its shaft
rotates by performing steps, that is, by moving by a fixed amount of degrees.
This feature is obtained thanks to the internal structure of the motor, and
allows to know the exact angular position of the shaft by simply counting how
may steps have been performed, with no need for a sensor. This feature also
makes it fit for a wide range of applications.

Stepper Motor Working Principles

As all with electric motors, stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator)
and a moving part (the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on which coils are
wired, while the rotor is either a permanent magnet or a variable reluctance
iron core. Rotor has different structures. Figure 1 shows a drawing
representing the section of the motor is shown, where the rotor is a variable-
reluctance iron core.

Figure 1: Cross-Section of a Stepper Motor

The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following: By

energizing one or more of the stator phases, a magnetic field is generated by
the current flowing in the coil and the rotor aligns with this field. By supplying
different phases in sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a specific amount to
reach the desired final position.
Figure 2 shows a representation of the working principle. At the
beginning, coil A is energized and the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field it
produces. When coil B is energized, the rotor rotates anticlockwise by 30° to
align with the new magnetic field. The same happens when coil C is energized.
In the pictures, the colours of the stator teeth indicate the direction of the
magnetic field generated by the stator winding.

Figure 2: Stepper Motor Steps

Stepper Motor Types and Construction

The performance of a stepper motor — both in terms of resolution (or step

size), speed, and torque — is influenced by construction details, which at the
same time may also affect how the motor can be controlled. As a matter of
fact, not all stepper motors have the same internal structure (or construction),
as there are different rotor and stator configurations.

Rotor

For a stepper motor, there are basically three types of rotors:

 Permanent magnet rotor: The rotor is a permanent magnet that aligns

with the magnetic field generated by the stator circuit. This solution
guarantees a good torque and also a detent torque. This means the motor
will resist, even if not very strongly, to a change of position regardless of
whether a coil is energized. The drawbacks of this solution is that it has
a lower speed and a lower resolution compared to the other
types. Figure 3 shows a representation of a section of a permanent
magnet stepper motor.
Figure 3: Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

 Variable reluctance rotor: The rotor is made of an iron core, and has a
specific shape that allows it to align with the magnetic field (see Figure
1 and Figure 2). With this solution it is easier to reach a higher speed
and resolution, but the torque it develops is often lower and it has no
detent torque.
 Hybrid rotor: This kind of rotor has a specific construction, and is a
hybrid between permanent magnet and variable reluctance versions. The
rotor has two caps with alternating teeth, and is magnetized axially. This
configuration allows the motor to have the advantages of both the
permanent magnet and variable reluctance versions, specifically high
resolution, speed, and torque. This higher performance requires a more
complex construction, and therefore a higher cost. Figure 3 shows a
simplified example of the structure of this motor. When coil A is
energized, a tooth of the N-magnetized cap aligns with the S-magnetized
tooth of the stator. At the same time, due to the rotor structure, the S-
magnetized tooth aligns with the N-magnetized tooth of the stator. Real
motors have a more complex structure, with a higher number of teeth
than the one shown in the picture, though the working principle of the
stepper motor is the same. The high number of teeth allows the motor to
achieve a small step size, down to 0.9°.
Figure 4: Hybrid Stepper Motor

Stator

The stator is the part of the motor responsible for creating the magnetic field
with which the rotor is going to align. The main characteristics of the stator
circuit include its number of phases and pole pairs, as well as the wire
configuration. The number of phases is the number of independent coils,
while the number of pole pairs indicates how main pairs of teeth are occupied
by each phase. Two-phase stepper motors are the most commonly used, while
three-phase and five-phase motors are less common (see Figure 5 and Figure
6).

Figure 5: Two-Phase Stator Winding (Left), Three-Phase Stator Winding (Right)

Figure 6: Two-Phase, Single-Pole Pair Stator (Left) and Two-Phase, Dipole Pair Stator (Right). The
Letters Show the Magnetic Field Generated when Positive Voltage is Applied between A+ and A-.

Stepper Motor Control

We have seen previously that the motor coils need to be energized, in a

specific sequence, to generate the magnetic field with which the rotor is going
to align. Several devices are used to supply the necessary voltage to the coils,
and thus allow the motor to function properly. Starting from the devices that
are closer to the motor we have:

o A transistor bridge is the device physically controlling the electrical

connection of the motor coils. Transistors can be seen as electrically
controlled interrupters, which, when closed allow the connection of a coil
to the electrical supply and thus the flow of current in the coil. One
transistor bridge is needed for each motor phase.
o A pre-driver is a device that controls the activation of the transistors,
providing the required voltage and current, it is in turn controlled by an
MCU.
o An MCU is a microcontroller unit, which is usually programmed by the
motor user and generates specific signals for the pre-driver to obtain the
desired motor behavior.

Figure 7 shows a simple representation of a stepper motor control scheme.

The pre-driver and the transistor bridge may be contained in a single device,
called a driver.
Figure 7: Motor Control Basic Scheme

Stepper Motor Driver Types

There are different stepper motor drivers available on the market, which
showcase different features for specific applications. The most important
charactreristics include the input interface. The most common options are:

 Step/Direction – By sending a pulse on the Step pin, the driver changes

its output such that the motor will perform a step, the direction of
which is determined by the level on the Direction pin.
 Phase/Enable – For each stator winding phase, Phase determines the
current direction and triggers Enable if the phase is energized.
 PWM – Directly controls the gate signals of the low-side and high-side
FETs.

Another important feature of a stepper motor driver is if it is only able to

control the voltage across the winding, or also the current flowing through it:

 With voltage control, the driver only regulates the voltage across the
winding. The torque developed and the speed with which the steps are
executed only depend on motor and load characteristics.
 Current control drivers are more advanced, as they regulate the current
flowing through the active coil in order to have better control over the
torque produced, and thus the dynamic behavior of the whole system.

Unipolar/Bipolar Motors

Another feature of the motor that also affects control is the arrangement of
the stator coils that determine how the current direction is changed. To
achieve the motion of the rotor, it is necessary not only to energize the coils,
but also to control the direction of the current, which determines the direction
of the magnetic field generated by the coil itself (see Figure 8).

In stepper motors, the issue of controlling the current direction is solved with
two different approaches.

Figure 8: Direction of the Magnetic Field based on the Direction of the Coil Current

In unipolar stepper motors, one of the leads is connected to the central point
of the coil (see Figure 9). This allows to control the direction of the current
using relatively simple circuit and components. The central lead (AM) is
connected to the input voltage VIN (see Figure 8). If MOSFET 1 is active, the
current flows from AM to A+. If MOSFET 2 is active, current flows from AM to A-,
generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. As pointed out above,
this approach allows a simpler driving circuit (only two semiconductors
needed), but the drawback is that only half of the copper used in the motor is
used at a time, this means that for the same current flowing in the coil, the
magnetic field has half the intensity compared if all the copper were used. In
addition, these motors are more difficult to construct since more leads have to
be available as motor inputs.
Figure 9: Unipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

In bipolar stepper motors, each coil has only two leads available, and to
control the direction it is necessary to use an H-bridge (see Figure 10). As
shown in Figure 8, if MOSFETs 1 and 4 are active, the current flows from A+
to A-, while if MOSFETs 2 and 3 are active, current flows from A- to A+,
generating a magnetic field in the opposite direction. This solution requires a
more complex driving circuit, but allows the motor to achieve the maximum
torque for the amount of copper that is used.
Figure 10: Bipolar Stepper Motor Driving Circuit

With technology progress, the advantages of unipolar are becoming less

relevant, and bipolar steppers are currently the most popular.

Stepper Motor Driving Techniques

There are four different driving techniques for a stepper motor:

 In wave mode, only one phase at a time is energized (see Figure

11). For simplicity, we will say that the current is flowing in a
positive direction if it is going from the + lead to the - lead of a phase
(e.g. from A+ to A-); otherwise, the direction is negative. Starting
from the left, the current is flowing only in phase A in the positive
direction and the rotor, represented by a magnet, is aligned with the
magnetic field generated by it. In the next step, it flows only in
phase B in the positive direction, and the rotor spins 90° clockwise
to align with the magnetic field generated by phase B. Later, phase A
is energized again, but the current flows in the negative direction,
and the rotor spins again by 90°. In the last step, the current flows
negatively in phase B and the rotor spins again by 90°.
Figure 11: Wave Mode Steps

 In full-step mode, two phases are always energized at the same

time. Figure 12 shows the different steps of this driving mode. The
steps are similar to the wave mode ones, the most significant
difference being that with this mode, the motor is able to produce a
higher torque since more current is flowing in the motor and a
stronger magnetic field is generated.

Figure 12: Full-Step Mode Steps

 Half-step mode is a combination of wave and full-step modes

(see Figure 12). Using this combination allows for the step size to
be reduced by half (in this case, 45° instead of 90°). The only
drawback is that the torque produced by the motor is not constant,
since it is higher when both phases are energized, and weaker when
only one phase is energized.
Figure 13: Half-Step Mode Steps

 Microstepping can be seen as a further enhancement of half-step

mode, because it allows to reduce even further the step size and to
have a constant torque output. This is achieved by controlling the
intensity of the current flowing in each phase. Using this mode
requires a more complex motor driver compared to the previous
solutions. Figure 14 shows how microstepping works. If IMAX is the
maximum current that can flow in a phase, starting from the left, in
the first figure IA = IMAX and IB = 0. In the next step, the currents are
controlled to achieve IA = 0.92 x IMAX and IB = 0.38 x IMAX, which
generates a magnetic field that is rotated by 22.5° clockwise
compared to the previous one. This step is repeated with different
current values to reach the 45°, 67.5°, and 90° positions. This
provides the ability to reduce by half the size of the step, compared
to the half-step mode; but it is possible to go even further. Using
microstepping helps reaching very high position resolution, but this
advantage comes at the cost of a more complex device to control the
motor, and a smaller torque generated with each step. Indeed, the
torque is proportional to the sine of the angle between the stator
magnetic field and the rotor magnetic field; therefore, when the
steps are smaller, the torque is smaller. This may lead to missing
some steps, meaning the rotor position does not change even if the
current in the stator winding has.

Figure 14: Microstepping

Stepper Motors Advantages and Disadvantages

Now that we understand the working principles of the stepper motors, it is

useful to summarize their pros and cons compared to other motor types.

Advantages

 Due to their internal structure, stepper motors do not require a

sensor to detect the motor position. Since the motor moves by
performing “steps,” by simply counting these steps, you can obtain
the motor position at a given time.
  In addition, stepper motor control is pretty simple. The motor does
need a driver, but does not need complex calculations or tuning to
work properly. In general, the control effort is lower compared to
other motors. With microstepping, you can reach high position
accuracy, up to approximately 0.007°.
 Stepper motors offer good torque at low speeds, are great for
holding position, and also tend to have a long lifespan.

Disadvantages

 They can miss a step if the load torque is too high. This negatively
impacts the control, since there is no way to know the real position
of the motor. Using microstepping makes stepper motors even more
likely to experience this issue.
 These motors always drain maximum current even when still,
which makes efficiency worse and can cause overheating.
 Stepper motors have low torque and become pretty noisy at high
speeds.
 Finally, stepper motors have low power density and a low torque-
to-inertia ratio.

To summarize, stepper motors are good when you need an inexpensive, easy-
to-control solution and when efficiency and high torque at high speeds are not
necessary.

Stepper Motor Uses and Applications

Due to their properties, stepper motors are used in many applications where a
simple position control and the ability to hold a position are needed,
including:

Printers: Printheads, Paper Feed, Scan Bar

3D Printers: XY Table Drive, Media Drive

Robots: Arms, End Effectors

DSLR Cameras: Aperture/Focus Regulation

Video Cameras: Pan, Tilt, Zoom, Focus

Engraving Machines: XY Table Motion

ATM Machines: Bill Movement, Tray Elevator

Advantages
The advantages of stepper motor include the following.
 Ruggedness
 Simple construction
 Can work in an open-loop control system
 Maintenance is low
 It works in any situation
 Reliability is high
 The rotation angle of the motor is proportional to the input pulse.
 The motor has full torque at standstill.
 Precise positioning and repeatability of movement since good
stepper motors have an accuracy of 3 – 5% of a step and this error
is noncumulative from one step to the next.
 Excellent response to starting, stopping, and reversing.
 Very reliable since there are no contact brushes in the motor.
Therefore the life of the motor is simply dependant on the life of
the bearing.
 The motor’s response to digital input pulses provides open-loop
control, making the motor simpler and less costly to control.
 It is possible to achieve very low-speed synchronous rotation with
a load that is directly coupled to the shaft.
 A wide range of rotational speeds can be realized as the speed is
proportional to the frequency of the input pulses.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of stepper motor include the following.
 Efficiency is low
 The Torque of a motor will declines fast with speed
 Accuracy is low
 Feedback is not used for specifying potential missed steps
 Small Torque toward Inertia Ratio
 Extremely Noisy
 If the motor is not controlled properly then resonances can occur
 Operation of this motor is not easy at very high speeds.
 The dedicated control circuit is necessary
 As compared with DC motors, it uses more current
Applications
The applications of stepper motor include the following.
1. Industrial Machines – Stepper motors are used in automotive
gauges and machine tooling automated production equipment.
2. Security – new surveillance products for the security industry.
3. Medical – Stepper motors are used inside medical scanners,
samplers, and also found inside digital dental photography, fluid
pumps, respirators, and blood analysis machinery.
 4. Consumer Electronics – Stepper motors in cameras for
automatic digital camera focus and zoom functions.
And also have business machines applications, computer peripherals
applications.
 Unit – II

1. What is stepper motor?

A stepper motor is a digital actuator whose input is in the
form of programmed energization of the stator windings and
whose output is in the form of discrete angular rotation.

2. Define the term step angle. [May/June 2007, May 2008,

Nov/Dec 2013 April/May 2013]
Step angle is defined as the angle through which the stepper
motor shaft rotates for each command pulse. It is denoted as
β.
Formula for step angle (β)

Ns  N r
  360
Ns  N r

360

mN r

Where
Ns – No. of stator poles or stator teeth
Nr – No. of rotor poles or rotor teeth
m – No. of stator phases
3. What are the main features of stepper motor which are
responsible for its wide spread use? [April/May 2008
Nov/Dec 2013]
1) It can driven open loop without feedback
2) It is mechanically simple
3) It requires little or no maintenance
4) Responds directly to digital control signals, so stepper
motors are natural choice for digital computer controls.

4. Give the classification of stepper motor. [Nov/Dec 2009

April/May 2010]
1) Variable reluctance stepper motor:
(i) Single Stack
(ii) Multi Stack

2) Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

(i) Hybrid Stepper motor
(ii) Claw pole Motor.

5. Define slewing. [Nov/Dec 2009 April/May 2010]

The stepper motor may be operate at very high stepping rates
i.e., 25000 steps per second. A stepper motor operates at high
speeds is called slewing.
6. Write down the formula for motor speed of stepper motor.
Motor speed

f
n rps
360

Where
 - Step angle
f – Stepping frequency or pulse rate in pulses per
second (pps)

7. Define resolution.
It is defined as the number of steps needed to complete one
revolution of the rotor shaft.

8. State some applications of stepper motor.[May 2017]

1) Floppy diskdrives
2) Quartzwatches
3) Camera shutter operation
4) Dot matrix and line printers
5) Machine toolapplications
6) Robotics

9. What are the advantages and disadvantages of stepper

motor? (Nov/Dec-13)
Advantages:
1) It can driven open loop without feedback.
2) Responds directly to digital control signals, so stepper
motors are natural choice for digital computer controls.
3) It is mechanically simple.
4) It requires little or no maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1) Low efficiency with ordinarycontroller.
2) Fixed stepangle.
3) Limited ability to handle large inertiaload
4) Limited power output and sizesavailable.

10. What are the different modes of excitation in a stepper

motor? [May/June 2012]
1. 1 - Phase on or full - stepoperation
2. 2-phaseonmode
3. Half- step operation (Alternate 1-phase on and 2-phase
onmode)
4. Micro steppingoperation

11. What is meant by full-step operation? Nov/Dec-14

It is the one-phase on mode operation. It means, at
that time only one winding is energized. By energizing one
 stator winding, the rotor rotates some angle. It is the full-step
operation.

12. What is meant by half- step operation? Nov/Dec-14

It is the alternate one-phase on and 2-phase on mode
operation. Here, the rotor rotate an each step angle is half of
the full-step angle.

13. Sketch the diagram of a VR stepper motor

14. What is meant by micro stepping in stepper motor?

[Apr/May 2015]
Micro stepping means, the step angle of the VR
stepper motor is very small. It is also called mini - stepping.
It can be achieved by two phases simultaneously as in 2-
phase on mode but with the two currents deliberately made
unequal.

15. What is the main application of micro stepping VR stepper

motor? [Nov/Dec2014]
Micro stepping is mainly used where very fine
resolution is required. The applications are printing and
photo type setting. AVR stepper motor with micro stepping
provides very smooth low - speed operation and high
resolution.

16. What is a multi - stack VR steppermotor?

Micro stepping of VR stepper motor can be achieved

by using multi stack VR stepper motion. It has three separate
magnetically isolated sections or stacks. Here the rotor a
stator toothis equal.

17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of VR

steppermotor?
Advantages
1) Low rotorinertia
2) High torque to inertiaratio
3) Lightweight
 4) Capable of high steppingrate.
5) Ability tofreewheel

Disadvantages

1) Normally available in 3.6° to 30 step angles.

2) No detente torque available with windings de – energized

18. What are the advantages & disadvantages of permanent

magnet stepper motor?
Advantages:

1) Low powerrequirement
2) High detente torque as compared to VRmotor
3) Rotor do not require external excitingcurrent
4) It produces more torque per ampere statorcurrent
Disadvantages:

1) Motor has higherinertia

2) Sloweracceleration

19. What is hybrid stepper motor? [Nov/Dec2007,2011]

The hybrid motor is operated with the combined
principles of the permanent and variable reluctance motor in
order to achieve a small step angle and a high torque from a
small size.

20. What are the advantages and disadvantages of hybrid

steppermotor?
Advantages:

1) Less tendency toresonate

2) Provide detent torque with windingsde-energized
3) Higher holding torquecapability
4) High stepping rate capability

Disadvantages:

1) Higher inertia and weight due to presence of rotormagnet.

2) Performance affected by change in magneticstrength.
 21. Draw the typical static characteristics of a steppermotor

22. Differential between VR, PM and hybrid stepper motor.

 Hybrid
VR PM stepper
S. Stepper Stepper motor
No motor motor
Low rotor High
High
inertia inertia
inertia
1 Less
Less More More
weight weight weight
2
Provides
No detente
detente torque
torque Provides
detente with
available windings
windings torque
de-
de- energized
3 energized
Rotor is Rotor is
Rotor is
no permanent
permanent
permanent magnet
magnet
4 magnet
Rotor is a Rotor is a
Rotor is a salient
salient cylindrical
type pole type
5 pole type

23. Define holding torque. [Nov/Dec 2007 April/May 2011]

Holding torque is the maximum load torque which

the energized stepper motor can withstand without slipping
from equilibrium position.

24. Define detent torque. [May/June 2007 May 2011]

Detente torque is the maximum load torque which is

unenergized stepper motor can with stand without slipping. It
is also known as cogging torque.

25. Define torque constant. [ Nov/Dec 2012]

Torque constant of the stepper motor is defined as

the initial slope of the torque current curve of the stepper
motor. It is also called as torque sensitivity.

26. Draw the typical dynamic characteristics of a stepper

motor.
27. Define pull-in torque.

It is the maximum torque the stepper motor can

develop in start - stop mode at a given stepping rate F
(steps/sec), without losing synchronism.

28. Define pull-out torque.

It is the maximum torque the stepper motor can

develop at a given stepping rate F (steps/sec), without losing
synchronism.

29. Define pull-in rate.

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper

motor will start or stop, without losing synchronism, against
a given load torque.

30. Define pull-out rate.

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper

motor will slow, without losing synchronism against a given
load torque.

31. What is a response range?

It is the range of stepping rates at which the stepper

motor can start or stop with losing synchronism, at a given
load torque. Response range spans stepping rates the pull in
rate.

32. What is a slewing range?

It is the range of stepping rates at which the stepper

motor can run in the slow mode, with losing synchronism, at
a given load torque.

The slewing range spans stepping rates

33. What is synchronism in stepper motor?

It is the one-to-one correspondence between the

number of pulses applied to stepper motor controller and the
number of steps through which the motor has actually
moved.
34. Draw the block diagram of the drive system of a stepping

motor

35. What is logic sequencer?

Logic sequence generator generates programmed

logic sequences require for operation of a stepper motor.

36. What is meant by power drive circuit in stepper motor?

[May/June 2013]

The output from the logic sequence generator signals

are low level signals which are too weak to energize stepper
motor windings. To increase the voltage, current and power
levels of the logic sequence output by using power
semiconductor switching circuit. This circuit is called power
drive circuit.
 37. Distinguish the half step and full step operations of a

stepping motor. [Nov/Dec-14]

Half Step Full Step

It means, at that time only one

It is the alternate one-phase on and 2-
winding is energized. By energizing
phase on mode operation. Here, the rotor
one stator winding, the rotor rotates
rotate an each step angle is half of the
some angle. It is the full-step
full-step angle
operation.

38. Write the principles of operation of a VR motor.

[Nov/Dec-14]

The reluctance in the airgap can be varied based on

the excitation of winding’s excitation. The torque exerted by
the reluctance motor because of the tendency of the salient
poles to align themselves in the minimum reluctance
position. This torque is called reluctance torque

39. Compare single stack and multi stack configuration in

stepping motors. [May/June 2012]

In Single Stack: Stator is single stack of steel laminations winding

would wound around poles. Stator and rotor poles may be different.

The rotating step angle is 30°.

Multi stack: it is divided along its axis into a number of stacks each

energized by separate phase. Number of stacks and phases will be 3-

7. Stator and rotor poles are equal. The rotating step angle is 10°.
40. Draw the equivalent circuit of a winding in stepper motor.

[Nov/Dec 2010 May 2017]

41. What is the step angle of a 4-pole stepper motor with 12

stator teeth and 3 rotor teeth? [April/May 2010]

Ns  N r
Step angle s  or     360
Ns  N r

12  3
  360
12  3

= 90.

42. What is the step angle of a 4-phase stepper motor with 12

stator teeth and 3 rotor teeth?[April/May 2010]
No. of phases = 4
No. of teeth in rotor Nr = 3
360
Step angle s 
 mN r 
360
  30
3 4
43. Name the various driver circuits used in stepper motor.
[April/May 2015]
1) Resistance (or) L/R drive
2) Dual voltage (or) bi level driver drive.
3) Chopper driver circuit

44. Write the factors of stepper motor which are responsible for
its wide spread use? [Nov/Dec 2013]
(a) When definite numbers of pulses are applied to the motor,
the rotor rotates through definite known angle
(b) Control of stepper motor is simple because neither a
position or a speed sensor nor feedback loops are required
for stepper motor to make the output response to follow the
input command.
45.Define lead angle.[Nov 2016]

The angle of difference between the phase to be de-energized to

bring the stepper motor to the position of equilibrium(stopping the

motor) and energisation of next phase winding to start the motor during

closed loop operation is known as lead angle.

The relation between the rotor's present position and the phase(s) to

be excited is specified in terms of lead angle.

46.What is the use of supressor circuits?[Nov 2016]

These circuits are used to ensure fast decay of current through the

winding when the transistor is turned off.

 Part -B

1. Explain the construction and various modes of excitation of

PM stepper motor. (16)
[May 2014 May 2010 Nov 2016]

The permanent magnet stepper motor has a stator

construction similar to that of single stack variable reluctance

motor. The rotor is cylindrical and consists of permanent

magnet poles made of high retentivity steel. The field coils of

opposite poles are connected in series to have one phase

winding.

Principle of operation:

(a) Single phase energization:

Two phases 4 pole stepper motor can be considered.

When phase A is energised with positivevoltage applied, it sets

up a magnetic field FA in thedirection as shown in fig (a).

The rotor will positionitself in such a way as to lockits N-pole to

stator S-pole and vice versa.

Now phase A is de-energized and phase B is energized

by applyingpositive voltage to it. Now FA will be zero and stator

magneticfield FB willbe in the direction as shown in fig.(b).

Then the rotor moves through 90° (step angle) in counter

clockwisedirection so as to align with the stator field axis

FB.Rotor will position in such a way that its S-pole lock with

stator N-pole.

Then phase Bis de-energized anda reverse voltage (-v)

is applied tophase A.This results in the stator magnetic field

FAas shown in fig.(c)

Now the rotor rotates through 90° in counter clockwise

direction and aligns with FAas shown in fig.(c).

 Now phase A is de-energized and a reverse voltage (-

v) is appliedto phase B. This results in the stator magnetic field

FB as shown in fig. (d). Rotor further rotates by 90° in counter

clockwise direction and align with FB vector.

The above sequence is single phase

energizationsequencein which only one stator winding is

energized at any time.

(b) Two phase energizations:

In thisinitially positive voltageis applied to phase A.

This gives rise to a stator magnetic field vector FAas shown in

fig.(a). The rotor. N-pole lock with S-pole of stator and vice

versa.

With winding A energized as before, positive voltage is

applied to phase B causing pole B to be N-pole and B' to be S-

pole. This produces another stator magnetic field FB as shown in

fig. (e). The resulting stator magneticfield will be + 45 degree

from its former position.Hence rotor will move through a fixed

angle of+ 45 degree as shownin fig.(e).

With winding B energized as before winding A be de-

energized, FA becomes zero, leaving FB as before. The rotor,

will move through another 45° to align itself with FB as in fig.

(b).

With phase B energized as before, a negative voltage is

applied to phase A. This reverse stator magnetic field FA as in

fig.(f).The resulting vector F shifts byanother 45° causing the

rotor to follow suit.

With phase Aenergized as before phase B is de-

energized the vector- FA alone be there and FB = 0. The rotor

occupies the position as shown in fig.(c).

 With phase A energized as before, negativevoltage is

applied to phaseB, the rotor occupies the position as shown in

fig. (g).

With B phase energized as before as A phase is de-

energized, the rotor occupies the position as shown in fig. (d).

With B phase energized as before and positivevoltage

applied to A. The resulting vector F shifts the rotor by another

45° as shown in fig.(g).

Fig.(a, b, c and d) corresponds to single phase

energization.

Fig. (e, f, g and h) corresponds to. two

phaseenergizations.

Both the above sequences are four step sequences,

since the rotor moves through 90°. With single phase sequence,

rotor positions are ·90°, 180°, 270° and 360°, while rotor

positions are 45°, .135°, 225° and .315° in the case of two phase

sequence.

Fig.(a to h) constitute 8-stepsequence in which the rotor

moves through 45° per step. Here one and two phases are

energized alternatively. This sequence is known as mixed,

hybrid (or) (1-2) sequence.

 Fig. Principle of operation of PM motor

2. Explain the construction and working principle of Hybrid

Stepper motor. [May 2007 May 2008 Nov 2014]
Hybrid stepper motor:

Another type of stepping motor having permanent

magnet in its rotor is the hybrid motor.The term "hybrid"

derives from the fact that the motor is operated with the

combined principles of the permanent and variable reluctance

motors, in order to achieve a small step angle and a high torque

from a small size. The stator core structure is the same as or

very close to that of variable reluctance motors. The important

feature is the rotor structure. A cylindrical or disk-shaped

magnet lies in the rotor core and it is magnetized lengthwise to

produce a unipolar field as shown in fig. (a). Each pole of the

magnet is covered with uniformly toothed soft steel end caps.

Teeth on the two end caps are misaligned with respect to each

other by a half-toothed pitch. The toothed end caps are normally

made of laminated silicon steel. The magnetic field generated

by stator coil is a heteropolar field as shown in fig. b).

(a) (b)

Fig. Magnetic paths in a hybrid motor

(a) The flux due to the rotor's producing a unipolar field

(b) The heteropolar distributed flux due to the currents.

Principle of Operation:
Most widely used hybrid motor is the two phase type as

shown in fig. This model has four poles and operate on one

phase on excitation.
 Fig.Cross-section of a two-phase hybrid motor.

The coil in pole l and that in pole 3 are connected in

series consistingof phase A, and pole 2 and 4 are for phase B.

Fig. shows the process of rotor journey as the winding

currents are switched in one phase ON excitation.

Fig. One-phase-on operation of a two-phase hybrid motor.

The poles of phase A are excited the teeth of pole 1

attract, some of the rotors north poles, while the teeth of pole 3

align with rotor’s south poles. Current is then switched to phase

B, the rotor will travel a quarter tooth pitch so that tooth

alignment takes place in 2 and 4.

Next current is switched back to phase A but in

opposite polarity to before, the rotor will make another quarter

tooth journey. The tooth alignment occurs in opposite magnetic

polarity to state 1.

When current is switched to phase B in opposite

 polarity state (4) occurs as a result of another quarter tooth pitch

journey.

The structure of two phase motor considered in fig. will

not produce force in a symmetrical manner with respect to the

axis. The monitor having 8 poles in the stator shown in fig.

considered as the structure in which torque in generated at a

symmetrical position on the rotor surface.

Fig. Two phase hybrid motor with 8 stator poles.

3. State and explain the static and dynamic characteristics of a

stepper motor. [May 2010 May 2014 May 2015 Nov 2016]
Draw and explain the torque pulse rate characteristics of
stepper motor.[May 2007 May 2010]
Explain torque verses stepping rate characteristics of a
stepping motor. Also explain about slew rate and damping.
[May 2008]
Characteristics of Stepper motor:

Stepper motor characteristics

1. Static characteristics (stationary positions of the motor)

2. Dynamic characteristics (running conditions of motor)

(i) Torque displacement characteristics

(ii) Torque current characteristics

(i) Torque displacement characteristics

Electromagnetic torque (T) (vs) Displacement angle ()

 T

TH

S M 

(a) Holding Torque (TH):

 It is the maximum load torques which the energized

stepper motor can withstand without slipping from the

equilibrium position.

 If the holding torque is exceeded the motor suddenly slips

from the present equilibrium position and goes to the next

static equilibrium position.

 It is the maximum load torque upto which the energized

stepper motor can withstand without slipping.

 It is due to residual magnetism and it is 5-10% of holding

torque. It is a fourth harmonic torque also known as caging

torque.

Torqu
e
Motor
Torque
0.
Detent
Torque
0.

Electric
90 180 90 180 360 al
    
-

Motor torque and Detent torque

 (ii) Torque current characteristics

 Relationship between TH and I (Holding torque)

 Initially curve is linear and then slope decreases as the

magnetic circuit saturates.

Torque current curve

TH

TD Irated I

Unit (Nm/A)

Torque constant (KT)

Initial slope of T.I curve also known as Torque sensitivity.

Dynamic characteristics:

 It gives the information regarding the torque stepping rate.

The characteristics relating to motors which are in motion

(or) about to start are called dynamic characteristics.

 Selection of stepping rate is important for proper

controlling of stepper motor.

 A stepper motor is said to be operating in synchronism

when there exists strictly one to one correspondence

between number of pulses applied and the number of steps

through which the motor has actually moved.

 In stepper motors when the stepping rate increases, the

rotor gets less time to drive the load from one position to
 other. If stepping rate is increased beyond certain limit, the

rotor cannot follow the command and starts missing pulses.

Two modes of operation:

(i) Start stop mode

(ii) Slewing mode

(i) Start stop mode

 This start stop mode is also called as pull in curve (or)

single stopping rate mode.

 In this mode of operation, a second pulse is given to the

stepper motor only after the rotor attained a steady (or) rest

position due to first pulse

 The region of start-stop mode of operation depends on the

torque developed and the stepping rate (or) stepping

frequency of the stepper motor.

3


2


t
T 2 3
T T

Start – Stop Mode of Operation

Slewing Mode:

 In start stop mode, the stepper motor always operate in

synchronism and the motor can be started and stopped

without losing synchronism.

 In slewing mode, the motor will be in synchronism but it

 cannot be started (or) stopped without losing synchronism.

 To operate the motor in slewing mode, first the motor is to

be started in start-stop mode and then to be transferred

slewing mode.

 Similarly to stop the motor operating in slewing mode, first

the motor is to be bought to the start stop mode and then to

be stopped.

 In slewing mode of operation, the second pulse is given to

the motor before the motor has attained steady (or) rest

position due to the first pulse.

 Consequently, the motor can run as a much faster rate in

slowing mode than in start stop mode.

 However, the motor cannot start slewing from rest nor it

can stop immediately when the pulses applied have been

stopped.

3

2

T 2 3 t
T T
Slewing Mode of Operation

Torque – Speed Characteristics:

 Torque developed by the stepper motor and stepping rate

characteristics for both mode of operation s are shown.

 Curve ABC  “Pull-in characteristics”

Curve ADE  “Pull-out characteristics

Pull-in curve
Torque (start – stop)
Pull-out curve
N (slewing)
TPO A

TPI D
M B

T PO
PI
Response Slewing
range range

L
O Stepping rate
f fPI C fPO E fs
(steps/sec)

Area “DABCD” Region: Start -stop mode of operation. At

any operating point in the region the motor can start and stop

without losing synchronism.

Area “ABCEDA” Region: Slewing mode of operation. At

any operating point without losing synchronism to attain an

operating point in the slewing mode at first the motor is to operate at

a point in the start-stop mode any then stepping rate is increased to

operate in slewing mode, similarly while switching off it is essential

to operate the motor from slewing mode to start-stop mode before it

is stopped.

Pull in torque:

It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a

given stepping rate in the start-stop mode of operation without

losing synchronism.

LM  pull in torque
TPI corresponding to the stopping rate f (i.e.,) OL.

Pull out torque:

It is the maximum torque developed by the stepper motor for a

given stepping rate in the slewing mode without losing

synchronism.

LN  pull out torque.

Tpo corresponding to F (i.e,) DL.

Pull in range:

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can

operate an start-stop mode developing a specific torque without

losing synchronism.

P1T1 pulls in range for a torque of T.

(i.e) or

This range is also known as response. Range of stepping rate for

the given Torque T.

Pull out range:

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor can

operate in slewing mode developing a specified torque without

losing synchronism.

P1P0 pull out range for a torque of T.

Range P1P0 is known as slewing range.

Pull in rate (FPI):

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will

start or stop without losing synchronism against a given load torque

T.

Pull out rate (FPO):

It is the maximum stepping rate at which the stepper motor will

slew, without missing steps, against load torque T.

Synchronism:
This term means one to one correspondence between the number of

pulses applied to the stepper motor and the number of steps through

which the motor has actually moved.

4. Explain in detail about different types of power drive

circuits for stepper motor. [May 2014 May 2017]
(OR)
Draw the drive circuits for stepper motor and their
characteristics. [Nov 2007]
(OR)
Write a detailed note on the bipolar dives for stepper
motors. (8) [Nov 2012]
Power Driver Circuit:
The number of logic signals discussed above is equal to

the number of phasesand the power circuitry is identical for all

phases.Fig.(a) shows the simplest possible circuit of one phase

consisting of a Darlington paircurrent amplifier and associated

protection circuits.The switching waveform shown in fig.(c) is

the typical R-L response with an exponential rise followed by a

decay at the end of the pulses.

In view of the inductive switching operation, certain

protective elements are introduced in the driver circuit. These

are the inverter gate 7408, theforward biased diode D1 and the

free wheeling diode D2. The inverter ICprovides some sort of

isolation between the logic circuit and the power driver.

There are some problem with this simple power circuit.

They can be understood by considering each phase winding as a

RL circuit shown in fig. (b) subject to repetitiveswitching. On

application ofa positive step voltage, thecurrent

risesexponentially as


it  I 1 e
t


whereI = V/ R - rated current and
 = L / R windingtime constant.

Fig. Power Driver Stage of Stepper Motor Controller

In practice, thetime constant limits the rise and fall of

currentin thewinding. At low stepping rate, the current rises to

the rated value in eachON interva1 andfalls to zero va1ue

ineach OFF interval.However, as the switching rate increases,

the current is not able. to rise to the steady state, nor fall to zero

value within the on/off time intervals set bythe pulse waveform.

This in effect, smoothens thewinding current reducing the

swing as shown in fig. As a result, the torque developed by the

motor gets reducedconsiderably and for higher frequencies, the

motor just ‘vibrates’ or oscillates within onestep of the current

mechanical position.

Fig. Effect of Increasing Stepping Rate on Current Swing.

In order to overcome these problems and to make

improvement of currentbuild up several methods of drive

circuits have been developed.

For example when a transistor is turned on to excite a

phase, the power supply must overcome the effect of winding

inductance beforedriving at the rated current since the

inductancetends tooppose the current build up. Asswitching

frequency increases the portion that the buildup time takes up

within the switching cycle becomes large and it results in

decreased torque and slow response.

Improvement of current buildup/special driver circuits:

(a) Resistance drive (L/R drive):

Here the initial slope of the current waveform is made

higher by adding external resistance in each winding and

applying a higher voltage proportionally. While this increases

the rate of rise of the current, themaximum value remains

unchanged as shown in fig.

The circuit time constant is now reduced and the

motorisable develop normal torque even at high frequencies.

The disadvantage of method this method is

(a) Flow of current through external resistance

causes I2 R losses and heating. This denotes a wastage of power

as far as themotor is concerned.

(b) In order to reach the same steady state current

IR as before, the voltage required to be applied is much higher

than before. Hence this approach is suitable for small instrument

stepper motors with current ratings of

around100mA,andheatingisnot amajor problem.

(b) Dual voltage drive(or) Bilevel drive:

To reduce the power dissipation in· the

driverandincrease performance of a stepping motor, a dual-

voltage driver is used. The scheme for one phase is shown in

fig.

When a step command pulse is given to the sequencer,

a high level sign will be put out from one of the output terminal
 to excite a phase winding. On this

signalbothTr1andTr2areturnedon,andthehigher voltage EH

willbeappliedtothe winding. The diode D1 isnow reverse biased

to

isolatethelowervoltagesupplyfromthehighervoltagesupply. The

current build up quicklyduetothehighervoltageEH. Thetime

constantof the monostable multivibratoris selected so that

transistor Tr 1 isturnedoff when the winding current exceeds the

ratedcurrentbyalittle. After the higher

Fig. Improvement of current buildup by dual voltage drive

voltage source is cut offthe diode is forwardbiased andthe

winding current is supplied from the lower voltage supply. A

typical current waveform is shown in fig.

Fig. Voltage and current wave form In a dual voltage drive

 When the dualvoltagemethodis employedforthetwo

phaseon drive of a two phasehybridmotor,the

circuitschemewillbe suchasthat shown in fig.Two

transistorsTr1& Tr2andtwo diodesD1andD2 are used for

switching the highervoltage.Indualvoltage schemeasthe stepping

rate is increased, the high voltage isturnedonfor

agreaterpercentageof time.

Fig. A dual-voltage driver for the two-phase-on arrive ofatwo phase

hybrid motor.
This. drive isgoodandenergyefficient.. However it ismore

complex as it requires two regulated power supplies EH& EL

and two power transistor switches Tr1& Tr2,andcomplex

switching logic. Hence it isnot very popular.

(c) Chopper drive:

Here a higher voltage 5 to 10

timestheratedvalueisappliedto the phase winding as shown in

fig. 2.50(a) and the currentis allowedtoraise very fast. As soon

as the current reaches about 2 to 5% above therated current, the

voltage is cut off, allowing the current to decrease

exponentially. Again asthe currentreaches some 2 to5%

belowtherated value, the voltage is applied again. The process is

repeated some 5 - 6 times within the ON period before the phase

isswitched off.During this period the currentoscillatesabout the

rated value as shown infig.2.50(b). A minor modification

istochoptheappliedde voltageat a highfrequencyof around1 kHz,

with e desired duty cycle soasto obtaintheaverage on-state

current equal the rated value.

The chopper drive is particularly suitable for high

torque stepper motors. It is energy efficient like the bilevel drive

but the control circuit is simpler.

Problems with driver circuits:

A winding on a stepping motor is inductive and appears

as a combination of inductance and resistance in series. In

addition as a motor revolves a counter emf is produced in the

warning. The equivalent circuit to a winding is hence, such as

that shown in fig. on designing a power driver one must take

into account necessary factors and behavior of this kind of

 circuit. Firstly the worst case conditions of the stepping motor,

power transistors,

Fig. Equivalent circuit to a winding of a stepping motor.

and supply voltage must be considered. The motor parameters vary

due to manufacturing tolerances and operating conditions. Since

stepping motors are designed to deliver the highest power from the

smallest size, the case temperature can be as high as about 100C and

the winding resistance therefore increases by 20 to 25 per cent.

5. Derive the reluctance torque of a stepper motor [May 2010

May 2015]

Theory of Torque Prediction:

(i) Flux linkages,

d
eN
  N dt
  Li di
eL
dt

MMF Ni
(ii) Flux,   
Reluctance s

N2i
Flux linkage,   N 
s

Flux linkage 
Inductance, L  
current i

N 2i

si
 N2
L
s

Flux linkages can be varied by,

(i) Varying flux (ϕ)

(ii) Varying the current “I”

(iii) Varying reluctance “s”

Consider a magnetic circuit as shown,

Stator 45 90

 

Rotor

(a) (b) (c)

The stator consists of magnetic core with two pole arrangement

stator core carries a coil rotor is also made up of ferrous material. The

rotor core is similar to a two salient pole machine.

Let the angle between the axis of stator pole and rotor pole be 0.

Case I: Angular displacement  = 0

The airgap between stator and rotor is very small. Therefore, the

reluctance of the magnetic path is least.

l
s if l is  s is  L is 
A

Due to minimum reluctance, the inductance is maximum (Lmax)

Case II:  = 45

In figure (b), in this only a portion of rotor poles cover the stator

poles.  Reluctance of the magnetic path is more than case I. Due to

which the inductance becomes less than Lmax

Case II:  = 90

 The airgap between the stator and rotor has maximum values. 

Reluctance has maximum value yielding minimum inductance (Lmin)

Variation in inductance with respect to the angle between the stator

and rotor poles is

Lmax

Lmin

Variation in inductance w.r.t to 0

Derivation of reluctance torque:

As per faradays’s law of electromagnetic induction an emf is

induced in an electric circuit when there exists a change in flux linkage.

 d
e where   N  or  Li
dt

d
 e  Li 
dt

i L 
 L i 
t  t

i L
 L  i
t 

i L
Magnitude of e  L  i  1
t 

Stored magnetic field energy,

1 2
e  Li
2

The rate of change of energy transfer due to variation is stored

energy (or) power.

 de 1 i 1 L
 L  2i  i 2   2
dt 2 t 2 t

Mechanical power developed/consumed = power received from the

electrical source – power due to change in stored energy in the inductor

 (a)

Power received from the electrical source = ei from (1)

i L
 ei  iL  i 2   3
t 

Substitute (2) & (3) in (a)

Mechanical power developed

 i L   i 1 L 
 iL  i 2   Li  i 2 
 t    t 2  

1 L
Pm  i 2   4
2 

2NT
Pm   T
60

Pm
 T   5


Sub (4) in (5),

1 2 L
Reluctance Torque T = i
2 

Note:

L
(i) Torque  Motoring when is +ve


L
(ii) Torque  Generating when is -ve


(iii) Torque is i2.

6. With a neat block diagram explain microprocessor control of

stepping motor.

[Nov 2013 May 2017]

Closed loop control of stepper motor:

 In the drive systems, the step command pulses were given from

an externalsource and it was expected that thestepping motor is able

to followeverypulse.This type of operation is refereed to asthe open

loop drive.

The open loop drive isattractiveand widely accepted in applications

of speedand position controls. However, the performance of a

stepping motor is limited under the open loop drive.For instance a

stepping motor driven in the open loopmode may fai1 to fallow a

pulsecommand when thefrequency of the pulse tram is too high or

the inertial load is too heavy. Moreover the motor motion tends to

be oscillatory in open loopdrives.

The performance of stepping motor can be improved to a great

extentby employing position feedback and/or speed feedback to

determine theproper phases to be switched at proper timings. This

typeof controlistermedthe closed loop drive. ·

A simple closed loop operation of stepper motor is explained

with block diagram fig

In closed loop control, a position sensor is needed for detecting

the rotor position. Nowadays optical encoder is used and it is

usually coupled to the motor shaft. The optical encoder coupled to

the rotor detects the rotor position and supplies its information to

thelogic sequencer.
 Fig. Simple closed loop operation of a stepper motor

Then the logic sequence determines the proper phase(s)

tobeexcited, taking account of position information. The relation

between therotor's presentposition andthe phase(s) to be excited is

specifiedinterms oflead angle.

In this example the motor is a three phase motor and the sequence of

excitationis phase 1phase  2  phase 3 in the singlephase on mode.

Phase 1is now excitedandtherotor is stoppingatanequilibrium position.

Then phase 2isexcitedandphase1isde-energizedto startthe motor. The

leadangleisthis case is one step.

As soon as the positional encoder detects that the rotor reaches an

equilibrium position of Ph(N), the logic sequencer set for operation of

one step lead angle will generate the signal to turnonph (N +

l)tocontinuethemotion.Thusasteppingmotor inaclosedloop

systemrunslike a brushless DC motor in which the proper windings to be

energised is/are automatically

selectedbyapositionsensorincorporatedinorcoupledtothe motor.

Thespeedof a stepping motordriveninaclosedloop mode varies with

load . The bigger the load the slower the speed. Position feedback

mechanism using an opticalencoderisshownin fig.

 Fig. Position feedback mechanismusing anoptical encoder.

Closedloop operationsystem using microprocessor:

The outline ofthesystemusing microprocessor inshownin fig.

 The outline of the system has a dedicated logic sequences

outside the microprocessor. A positional signal is feedback to the block

of hardware with monitors the rotor movement and exchanges

information with the microprocessor. The software must be programmed

so that the microprocessor determines better timings for changing lead

angles, based on the previous experience and present position / speed

data. The microprocessor will finally after several executions find the

optimal timings for each motion used.

7. Explain the working of single and multistack configured

stepping motor. [May 2015 Nov 2016]

Multistack variable reluctance stepper motor:

Theseareusedtoobtainsmallest step sizes, typically intherange of 2

to 15. Although three stacks are common a multistack motor may

employ as many seven stacks. This type is also known as the cascade

type. A cutaway view ofathreestackmotorisshowninfig.

 Fig. Construction of multi-stack VR motor.

A multistack (or m-stack) variable reluctance steppermotor can be

considered to be made up of ‘m’ identical single stackvariablereluctance

motors with their rotors mounted on asingle shaft. The stators and rotors

have the same number of poles (or teeth)andtherefore same pole (tooth)

pitch.For am-stackmotor,thestatorpoles(or teeth) in allm stacks

arealigned,buttherotorpoles(teeth)aredisplacedby1/mofthepolepitchangle

from one another. All the stator pole windings. in a given stack are

excited simultaneously and,thereforethestator windingof each stack

forms one phase. Thus themotorhasthesamenumberof phasesasnumber

of stacks.

Fig. Cross-section of a 3-stack, VR stepper motor parallel to the

shaft.
 Figure shows thecrosssectionofathreestack(3-

phase)motor parallel to the shaft.Ineachstack,statorand

rotorshave12poles(teeth ). Fora12pole

rotor,polepitchis30°andtherefore,therotorpoles (teeth)

aredisplacedfromeachotherby1/3rdofthepolepitchor10°.Thestator

teeth in each stack are aligned. When the phase winding

Aisexcitedrotor teethof stack A

arealignedwiththestatorteethasshowninfig.2.8.

WhenphaseA is de-energisedandphase B

isexcitedtherotorteeth of stackBare aligned

withstatorteeth.Thisnew alignmentismadebythe rotor movement

of 10° in theanticlockwisedirection. Thus the motor moves one

step(equalto1/2polepitch) duetochangeof excitationfrom stack

AtostackB

NextphaseBisde-energisedandphaseCisexcited.Therotor

moves byanother step of 1/3rdofpole

pitchintheanticlockwisedirection. Another change of excitation

fromstack C to stack A will once more align the stator and rotor

teeth in stack A. However during thisprocess (ABCA)

the rotor has moved one rotor tooth pitch.

 Fig.Positionofstator& rotor teeth of 3 stackVR motor

LetNrbethenumberofrotorteethand'm'thenumberofstacks or

phases, then

360
Tooth pitch Tp  ...1
Nr

360
Step Angle   ...2
mNr

In this case,

360
Tooth pitch Tp   30
12

360
Step Angle   10
3  12

The variable reluctance motors, both single and multi stack

types, have high torque to inertia ratio. The reduced inertia enables

the VR motor to accelerate the load factor.

 Ns  N r
Step angle also given by    360 ...3
Ns N r

Where Ns – Stator poles or stator teeth.

Nr – Rotor poles or rotor teeth.

8. Explain the construction and operation of VR stepper

motor. Also explain about micro stepping. [Nov 2007 May
2008 Nov 2012 Nov 2013 May 2010 May 2017]
Singlestackvariablereluctance stepper motor:
Construction:
The VR stepper motor is characterized by the fact that there is

no permanent magnet either on the rotor or

thestator.Theconstructionofa 3-phaseVR steppermotorwith6poles on

thestatorand 4 poles on the rotor isshowninfig.

Fig.Cross sectionalview of variable reluctance motor

The stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward

projected even or oddnumberof poles orteeth (usually thenumber of

poles of stator is an even number). Each and every stator pole

carries a field coil or exciting coil. In case of even number of poles

the exciting coils of opposite poles are connected in series. The two

coils are connected such that their MMF get added. The

combination of two coils is known as phase winding.

The rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with

outward projected poles and it does not have any electrical

windings. The number of rotor poles should be different from that of

stator in order to have self starting capability and bi-directional

rotation. The width of'rotor teeth should be same as statorteeth.

Solidsiliconsteelrotorsareextensivelyemployed.Both the stator and

rotor materials must have high permeability and be capable of

allowing a high magnetic flux to pass through them even if a low

magnetomotive force is applied.

Electricalconnection:

Electrical connection of VR stepper motor is shown in fig. 2.2.

Coils A and A' are connectedinseriesto formaphase winding.This

phasewinding is connectedtoaDCsourcewith

thehelpofasemiconductor switch S1.Similarly BandB'andC andC’

areconnectedto thesame source through semiconductor switches

S2and S3 respectively. Themotorhas 3-phases a, b and c.

* a phase consist of A and A' coils

* b phase consist of B and B' coils

* c phase consist of C and C' coils

Fig. Electrical connection of VR stepper motor

Principleof operation:

It works on the principle of variable reluctance. The principle of

operation of VR stepper motor can be explained by referring to fig.

Themotor has the following modes of operation.

(a) Mode I:Onephase ON orfull step operation:

In this mode of operation of stepper motor only

onephaseisenergised atanytime.If

currentisappliedtothecoilsofphasea(or)phasea is

excited,thereluctancetorquecausestherotortoturnuntilitaligns with the

axis of phase a. The axis of rotor poles 1 and3

areinalignmentwiththe axis of stator poles A and A'. Then   .

The magnetic reluctance is minimised and this state provides a rest

or equilibrium positionto therotor and rotor cannotmove untilphase a

is energised.

NextphasebisenergisedbyturningonthesemiconductorswitchS2

andphase'a'isde-energisedbyturningoffS1.Then therotor poles1 and

3and 2and4experiencetorquesinoppositedirection.Whentherotor and

stator teeth are out of alignment in the excited phase the magnetic

reluctance islarge.Thetorqueexperiencedby

1and3areinclockwisedirectionand that of2and4

isincounterclockwise(CCW)direction. The later is more than the

former. As a resu1t the rotor makes an angular displacement of 30°

in counter clockwisedirectionsothatBandB'and2and4inalignment.

This positionisshown in fig.(c).Thusasthephasesareexcited in

sequencea, band ctherotorturnswithastep of 30° incounter clockwise

direction. The direction of rotation can be reversed by reversing the

switching sequence of thephases (i.e.) a,c and b etc. The direction of

rotationdepends on the sequence in which phasewindings

areenergised andis independent of the direction of

currentsthroughthephase winding.
 The truth table formodeIoperationincounterclockwiseand

clockwise directions aregiven in tables and respectively.

Table : Counter ClockwiseRotation (CCW)

S1 S2 S3 
* - - 0

- * - 30
- - * 60
* - - 90
- * - 120
..., - * 1 50

* - - 180

- * - 210
- - * 240

* -. ' - 270
 - * - 300

- - * 330
* - - 360

Table : Clockwise Rotation (CW)

S1 S2 S3 
- " - 0
*
- - * 30
- * - 60

* - - 90 '

- - * 120
- * - 150
* - - 180
- - * 210
- * - 240
* - - 270
- - * 300
- * - 330
* - - 360

(b) Mode II:Two phase on mode:

In thismodetwo statorphasesareexcitedsimultaneously. When

phases a and b are energised together, the rotor experiences torque

from both phases and comes to rest in a point midway between the

two adjacent full step position. If the phasesbandc

areexcited,therotoroccupiesaposition such thatanglebetweenAA'

axisof statorand1-3 axisofrotorisequalto 45°.To

reversethedirectionof rotation switching sequenceischanged(i.e.) a

and b, a and c etc.Themain advantage ofthistypeofoperationis

thattorque developed by the steppermotoris more than

thatduetosingle phase ON mode of operation.

 Truth table for mode II operation in counter clockwise and

clockwise directionaregiven in table and respectively

Table : Counter ClockwiseRotation (CCW)

S1 S2 S3 

• • - 15° AB
- • • 45° BC

* - * 75° CA

• • - 105° AB

- * * 135° BC

* - * 165° CA

* * - 195° AB

- * * 225° BC

* - * 255° CA

* * - 285° AB

Table : Clockwise Rotation (CW)

S1 S2 S3 .

AC * - * 15°

•.
CB - 45.°

BA * * - 75°

AC * - * 105°

CB - • * 135°

BA * * - 165°

AC * - * 195°

CB - * * 22 0

BA • • 255°
-'
AC • - • 285°

(c) Mode III: Half step mode:

InthistypeofmodeofoperationonephaseisONforsome duration
 and two phasesareON during some other duration.The stepangle

canbe reduced from 30° to 15° by exciting phase in sequence a, a+

b,b, b + c, c etc.The technique of shifting excitationfromone phaseto

another(i.e.) fromato b with an intermediate step of a+ b

isknownashalf step and is used to realisesmallersteps.

Continuoushalfsteppingproduces smoother· shaft rotation.

The truth table for mode IIIoperation incounter clock and

clockwise directionaregivenintables and respectively.

Table : Counter ClockwiseRotation (CCW)

S1 S2 S3 

* - - 0° A
* * - 15° AB

- * - 30° B

- * * 45° BC

- - * 60° C

* - * 75° CA

* - - 90° A

* * - 105° AB

- * - 120° B

- - * 135° BC

- - * 150° C

* - * 165 CA

Table : Clockwise Rotation (CW)

S1 S2 S3 .

A * - - 0

AC * - 15.°
*
C - - * 30°

CB - * * 45°
 B - * * 60°

BA * * - 75°

A * - - 90°

AC * - * 105

C - * 120°
-
CB - * * 135°

B - * - 150

BA * * - 165

Micro stepping control of stepper motor:

Stepper motor is a digital actuator which moves in steps of S in

response to inputpulses.Such incremental motion results inthe

followinglimitations of the steppermotor.

1. Limited resolution:

As S isthe smallestanglethroughwhichthesteppermotorcanmove,

this has an effect on positioning accuracy of incremental servo system

employing stepper motors because the stepper motor

cannotpositiontheload toanaccuracyfinerthan S.

2. Mid-frequency resonance:

APhenomenoninwhichthemotortorquesuddenly dropsto

alowvalueatcertaininputpulsefrequenciesasshowninfig.Torque

Fig.Mid Frequency Resonance

 Anewprinciple known asmicrostepping control hasbeen developed

with aviewofovercomingtheabovelimitations.Itenablesthesteppermotor

to move throughatiny microstep of size S  S full step angle is

response toinput pulses.

Principleof microstepping:

Assume a two phase stepper motor operating in "One phase ON"

sequence.Assume also thatonlyB2windingis ONandcarryingcurrent IB2 =

IR, theratedphasecurrent.All theotherwindingsareOFF.In this state

thestator magnetic field is along the positive real axis as shown infig.

(a). Naturallythe rotor will also bein = 0° position.

When the next input pulse comes, B2 is switched OFF while A1 is

switched ON. In this condition IAl = IR while all the phase currents

arezero. As a result the stator magnetic field rotates through 90° in

counter clockwise directionasshown infig.(a).

The rotor follows suit by rotating through 90° in the process of

aligning itself with stator magnetic field. Thus with a conventional

controller the stator magnetic field rotates through 90° when a new input

pulse is received causing therotorto rotate throughfull step.

However in microstepping we want the statormagneticfieldtorotate

throughasmallangles << 90°inrespect to inputpulse.Thisisachieved by

modulatingthecurrentthrough B2and A1 windingasshownin fig. (b) such

thatwhile

IB2 = IR cos  … la

IA1 = IR sin  … lb

Then the resulting stator magnetic field will be at an

angle°withrespect to the positiverealaxis.

Consequentlytherotorwillrotatethrough anangle ° << 90°.

This method of modulating currents through stator windings so as to

obtain rotation of stator magnetic field through a small angle ° to obtain

microstepping action isknownasthemicrostepping.Althoughcurrents IR

cos  andIR sin isflowing throughindividual stator windings, there

resultantis IR. The resulting stator magneticfieldhasthesame

magnitude.Consequently the

steppermotordevelopsthesametorqueasdevelopedunder one phase ON

sequence.

There isno reduction inmotortorque on account of microstepping.

Fig. Principle of microstepping

1.Improvement inresolutionby afactorMSRMicro Stepping Ratio

MSR= 0s/ s …2

The valuesofMSRare5,10,25andinpowersof 2upto128.

The smallest angle through which the motor rotates per input pulse is

 1 
    S ... 3
 MSR 

2. Rapid motion at a microstepping rate (MFz) which is MSR times the

full stepping rate (Fs).

3. DC motor like performance: Under microstepping control, the stepper

motor moves rapidly at microstepping rate in tiny micro steps of size 

. The resulting motion is so smooth that it is practically in

distinguishable from continuous motion of the DC motor.

4. Elimination of mid frequency resonance: On account of smooth and

rapid motion under microstepping control, mid-frequency resonance are

not excited.
 INTRODUCTION
• SWITCHED RELUCTANCE MOTOR --
Switched reluctance motor (SRM) is electromagnetic and
electrodynamics equipment which converts the electrical energy
into mechanical energy. The electromagnetic torque is produced on
variable reluctance principle.

• construction is simple and robust

• It requires less maintenance
• Its overall efficiency is better
• It is flexible control driving motor as motoring mode generating
mode of operations of the machine can be easily achieved
CONSTRUCTION OF SWITCHED
RELUCTANCE MOTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF SYNCHRONOUS
RELUCTANCE MOTOR
BLOCK DIAGRAMOF SWITCHED
RELUCTANCE MOTOR
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
POWER SEMICONDUCTOR SWITCHING
CIRCUITS FOR SRM (POWER
CONTROLLERS)
• Two power semiconductor switching devices per phase and
two diodes.

• (n+1) power semiconductor switching devices (n+1) diodes.

• Phase winding using bifilar wires.

• Split-link circuit used with even-phase number.

• C-dump circuit.
 TWO POWER SEMICONDUCTOR
SWITCHING DEVICES PER PHASE AND
TWO DIODES
 (N+1) POWER SEMICONDUCTOR
SWITCHING DEVICES (N+1) DIODES
PHASE WINDING USING BIFILAR WIRES
SPLIT-LINK CIRCUIT USED WITH
EVEN-PHASE NUMBER
C-DUMP CIRCUIT
TORQUE EQUATION
TORQUE EQUATION (CONTD…)
TORQUE EQUATION (CONTD…)
TORQUE EQUATION (CONTD…)
TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
TORQUE SPEED CAPABILITY
CURVE
ROTOR POSITION SENSING
PHOTO TRANSISTOR SENSOR
HAL EFFECT SENSOR
SENSORLESS CONTROL
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL
MICROPROCESSOR CONTROL
 MERITS OF SRM
• Construction is simple and robust, as there is no brush.

• Rotor carries no windings, no slip rings and brush-less maintenance.

• No permanent magnet, neither in the stator nor in the rotor.

• Ventilating system is simpler as losses takes place mostly in stator.

• Power semiconductor switching circuitry is simpler.

• No shoot-through fault is likely to happen in power semiconductor

circuits.

• Torque developed does not depend upon the polarity of the current
 DE-MERITS OF SRM
• Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying the magnetizing current also, for
setting up the flux in the air gap.
• For high speed operations, the developed torque has undesirable ripples. As a result
it develops undesirable acoustic losses (noise).

• For high speeds, current waveform also has undesirable harmonics. To suppress this
effect

• large size capacitor is to be connected.

• The air gap at the aligned axis should be very small while the air gap at the
inter-polar axis should be very large. It is difficult to achieve. No standardized
practice is available.

• The size of the motor is comparable with the size of variable speed induction motor
drive.
 APPLICATIONS OF SRM
• Washing machines

• Vacuum cleaners

• Fans

• Future automobile applications

• Robotic control applications

 UNIT III
1. List out the advantages of switched reluctance
motor.[Nov/Dec 2013 May/June 2007 April/May 2011]
1) Construction is very simple
2) Rotor carries no winding
3) No brushes and requires less maintenance
4) It is a self starting machine.
2. What is the significance of closed loop control in switched
reluctance motor? [May/June 2007, Nov/Dec 2013]
1) To improve dynamic performance
2) To provide feedback linearizing control
3) To provide stability
3. List out any four applications of switched reluctance
motors? [Nov /Dec 2007, April/May 2010, Nov/Dec 2011
April 2017]

1) Washing machines
2) Fans
3) Robotic control application
4) Vacuum cleaner
5) Future automobile Applications.
4. What are the types of power controllers used for switched
reluctance motors? [Nov/Dec 2007]
1) Using two power semiconductors and two diodes per phase
2) Phase windings and bifilar wires
3) Dump-C converter
4) Split power supply converter
5. What is the working principle of switched reluctance
motor? [April/May 2008]
The SRM develops an electromagnetic torque due to variable
reluctance principle. When air gap is minimum, the reluctance
will be minimum. Hence inductance will be maximum, so the
rate of change of inductance is zero. When the reluctance varies,
there will be a change in inductance. So when a particular stator
winding of SRM is excited, the rotor pole comes in alignment
with stator pole and thus the rotor rotates.

6. Why SR Machine Popular in adjustable speed drives?

[Nov/Dec 2012]
1) Construction is simple and robust
2) There is no permanent magnet
3) Rotor carries no windings, no slip rings, no brushes, less
maintenance
4) Power semi-conductor switching circuitry is simpler.
7. What is the significance of rotor position sensor and why it
is essential for the operation of SR motors? [Nov/Dec 2012
Nov 2016]
It is necessary to use a rotor position sensor for commutation
and speed feedback. The turning on and off operation of the
various devices of power semiconductor switching circuits are
influenced by signals obtained from rotor position sensor.
8. Mention some position sensors used in switched reluctance
motor? [May/June 2013]
1) Shaft position sensor
2) Electronic position sensor.
9. Mention the applications of micro stepping VR stepper
motor. [Nov/ Dec 2014]
1) Printing
2) Prototype setting.
10. List out the advantages and disadvantages of the converter
circuit with two power semi- conductor devices and two diodes per
phase. [Nov/Dec 2014]
Advantages:
1) Reduces switching losses of converter circuit
2) Control of each phase is completely independent of the
other phases.
Disadvantages:
1) Converter circuit is expensive.
11. State the reluctance principle. [April/May 2015]
The switched reluctance principle is based on various reluctance
positions of rotor with respect to 't'. When any one phase of the
stator is excited, it produces its magnetic field whose axis is
along the poles,the phase around which is excited. Then rotor
moves in such a direction as to achieve minimum reluctance
position.
12. List the characteristics of switched reluctance motor.
[April/May 2015]

The switched reluctance (SR) motor is very different from the

other poly phase machines because the stator and the rotor have
salient poles. The motor can only be used with its specific
power converter and control and consequently only overall
characteristics are relevant.
13. List the disadvantages of a switched reluctance motor?
[April/May 2010]
1. Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying
magnetizing current.
 2. For high speed operation developed torque has
undesirable ripples which results in undesirable
noises or acoustic noises.
3. It requires position sensors.
14. What are the two types of current control techniques?
1. Hysteresis type model
2. PWM type control.
15. Differentiate between VR stepper motor with SR motor.
[Nov/Dec 2010]
(i) SR motor acts like brushless dc motor with rotor position
feedback, but the stepper motor is usually fed with a square
wave without rotor position feedback.
(ii) SR motor is designed for efficient power conversion of high
speed comparable with those of the PM brushless dc motor.
The stepper motor is usually designed as a torque motor
with a limited speed range.
16. List the methods of rotor position sensing in switched
reluctance motor. [May/June 2012]
1. Encoder position sensors
2. Hall effect sensors
17. What are the types of power controllers used for switched
reluctance motor? (Apr/May-15,Apr/May-11,Nov/Dec-2007)
i) Using two power semiconductors and two diodes per phase
ii) (n ± 1) power switching devices and (n + 1) diodes per
phase
iii) Phase windings using Bifilar wires
iv) Dump C- converter
v) Split power supply converter
18. Why rotor position sensor is essential for the operation of
switched reluctance motor? (Nov/Dec-12,May/June-2006)
It is normally necessary to use a rotor position sensor for
commutation and speed feedback. The turning ON and OFF
operation of the various devices of power semiconductor
switching circuit are influenced by signals obtained from rotor
position sensor.

19. List are the disadvantages of a switched reluctance motor?

1. Stator phase winding should be capable of carrying
magnetizing current.
2. For high speed operation developed torque has undesirable
ripples is a est1t develops undesirable noises (or) acoustic
noises.
3. For high speed current wave form has undesirable
harmonics to suppress this effect large size capacitor is to
be connected.
4. It requires position sensors.
20. What are the advantages of switched reluctance
motor?(Nov/Dec-13,Apr/May-2009 April 2017)
1. Construction is simple and robust.
2. Rotor carries no windings, no slip rings, no brushes, less
maintenance.
3. There is no permanent magnet.
4. Ventilating system is simpler as losses takes place mostly in the
stator.
5. Power semi conductor switching circuitry is simpler
6. No shoot through fault likely to happen power short circuits,
7. Developed torque doesn’t depends upon the polarity of current
in the phaseWinding.
8. The operation of the machine can be easily change from
motoring mode to generating mode by varying the region of
conduction.
9. It is possible to get very high speed.
10. Depending upon the requirement T- characteristics can be
achieved.
21. List out the advantages and disadvantages of the converter
circuit with two power semiconductor devices and two diodes per
phase. (Nov/Dec-14)
Merits:
i. Control of each phase is independent of the other phases.
ii. switching losses of the converter is low due to FD.
iii. Useful utilization of the energy.
Demerits:
i. No of switches required is high

22. Draw the general torque - speed characteristics of switched

reluctance motor.[April 2017]

23. What are the applications of SRM. [Nov/Dec 2007 Nov2008

Nov 2016]
1. Washing machines
2. Vacuum cleaners
 3. Fans
4. Future auto mobile applications
5. Robotics control applications

24. Draw the “ -I” curve for SRM

24. What are the two types of control techniques? Apr/May-2011

1. Hysteresis type control
2. PWM type control
25. What is Switched Reluctance Motor?
The switched reluctance motor is a double salient, singly-excited motor.
This means that it has salient pole on both the rotor and the stator, but
only one member carrieswindings. The rotor has no windings, magnets
(or) cage winding. It works on vai1é reluctance principle.
26. What is meant by energy ratio?[April 2017]

wm
Energy ratio = = 0.45
wm + R

wm = mechanical energy transformed.

This energy ratio cannot be called as efficiency. As the stored energy R
is not wasted as a loss but it is feedback to the source through feed back
diodes.
27. Draw the simple block diagram of SRM.

28. Draw the circuit of PWM type current control.

29. What is phase windings?
Stator poles carrying field coils. The field coils of opposite poles are
connected in series such that mmf’s are additive and they are called
“Phase windings” of SRM.
30. What are the essential difference between SRM and Stepper
Motor?

SRM Stepper Motor

1. SRM is designed for Stepper motor is designed to
continuous rotation. rotate in step by step rotation,

2. SRM requires a rotor- It does not require rotor-position

position sensor. sensor.

31. Write down the torque equation for a switched reluctance

motor drive. Apr/May-2010

1 2 L
T= i
2 

Where
T = motor torque
I = current

L
= change of inductance with respect to rotor angle


32. Sketch the C-dump converter circuit for switched

reluctance motor.
33. What is hysteresis current control?
This type of current controller maintains a more or less constant
current throughout the conduction period in each phase. This
controller is called hysteresis type controller.
34. Define Chopping and single pulse mode of operation of
SRM.
Chopping Mode

In this mode, also called low-speed mode, each phase winding

gets excited for a Period which is sufficiently long.

Single-pulse mode
In single-pulse mode, also called high-speed mode, the current
rise is within limits during the small time interval of each phase
excitation.
 PART – B
1. Explain the construction and working of rotary and linear
switched reluctance motor. [May 2013 April 2017]
Explain the constructional features of SRM in detail. [Nov 2007] (8)
Construction and operation of SRM:
Construction of SRM:
Constructional details of switched reluctance motor with six stator poles
and four rotor poles can be explained by referring to figure
The stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward projected
poles. The number of poles of the stator can be either an even number or
an odd number. Most of the motors available have even number of stator
poles (6 or 8) All these poles carry field coils. The field coils of opposite
poles are connected in series such that their mmf’s are additive and they
are called phase windings. Individual coil or a group of coils constitute
phase windings. Each of the phase windings are connected to the
terminals of the motor. These terminals are suitably connected to the
output terminals of a power semiconductor switching circuitry, whose
input is a d.c. supply.

Fig. : Cross sectional view of SRM.

The rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with
outward projected poles. Number of polesof rotor is different from the
number of poles of the stator. In most of the available motors the
number of poles of the rotor is 4 or 6 depending upon the number of
stator poles 6 or 8.
The rotor shaft carries a position sensor. The turning ON and tuning
OFF operation of the various devices of the power semiconductor
circuitry are influenced by the signals obtained from the rotor position
sensor.
Block Diagram of SRM:
Fig. shows the block diagram of SRM. DC supply is given to
the power semiconductor switching circuitry which is connected to
various phase windings of SRM. Rotor position sensor which is mounted
on the shaft of SRM, provides signals to the controller about the position
of. the rotor with reference to reference axis. Controller collects this
information and also the reference speed signal and suitably turns ON
and OFF the concerned power semiconductor device of the switching
circuit such that the desired phase winding is connected to the dc supply.
The current signal is also fed back to the controller to limit the current
within permissible limits.
Principle of operation:
Fig. represents the physical location of the axis of stator poles and rotor
poles of a 6/4 SRM.
To start with stator pole axis AA' and rotor pole axis aa' are in alignment
as shown in fig. · They are in the minimum reluctance position so far as
phase winding is concerned. Then dLa/d = 0. At this position
inductance of B winding is neither maximum nor minimum. There exists
dLb/d and dLc/d.

Fig. : Physical location of the axis of stator and rotor poles of 6/4
SRM.
Now if B phase is energised then the rotor develops a torque because of
variable reluctance and existence of variation in inductance. The torque
1 dL
developed is equal i B 2 B . The direction of this torque is such that
2 d
BB’ and bb’ try to get aligned. If this torque is more than the opposing
load torque and frictional torque the rotor starts rotating. When the shaft
occupies the position such that BB’ and bb’ are in alignment (i.e.,)
 = 30, no torque is developed as in this position dLB/ d = 0 [vide fig.
(b)]
Now phase winding B is switched off and phase winding C is turned on
dL C
to DC supply. Then the rotor experiences a torque as exists. The
d
motor continues to rotate. When the rotor rotates further 30°, the torque
developed due to winding C is zero [vide fig. (c)] Then the phase
winding C is switched off and phase winding A is energised. Then rotor
experiences a torque and rotates further step of 30°. This is a continuous
and cyclic process. Thus the rotor starts. It is a self starting motor.
As the speed increases, the load torque requirement also changes. When
the average developed torque is more than the load torque the rotor
accelerates. When the torques balance the rotor attains dynamic
equilibriumposition. Thus the motor attains a steady speed. At this
steady state condition power drawn from the mains is equal to the time
rate of change of stored energy in magnetic circuit and the mechanical
power developed.
Linear Switched Reluctance Machines
Linear motor drives are being increasingly considered for machine tool
drives because they reduce the need for mechanical subsystems of gears
and rotary to linear motion converters, such as lead screws. Positioning
accuracy is improved by the absence of gears that contribute to the
backlashes in the linear motor drives, linear machine drives combined
with electromagnetic levitation are strong candidates for conveyer
application in semi-conductor fabrication plants and possibly in low and
high speed transit applications because of their ability to produce
propulsion force on the rotating part, known as the translator. without
mechanical contact and friction. Linear switched reluctance machines
are the counter parts of the rotating switched reluctance machines. ln fact
the linear switched reluctance machine is obtained from its rotary
counter part by cutting along the shat over its radius, both the stator and
rotor and then rolling them out. In this section.various linear switched
reluctance machine configurations are introduced. Further the ideal
inductance profile is related to the stator and translator lamination
dimensions. A similar relationship for the rotary switched reluctance
machine that has been derived earlier is worth nothing.

Machine Topology and Elementary Operation of LSRMs

A linear SRM may have windings either on the stator or translator (the
moving part). Where as in the rotary switched reluctance machine the
windings are always on the stator and the rotor contains no windings.
Regardless of the location of phase windings, the fixed part is called
either a stator or track and the moving part is called a translator. There
are two distinct configurations of linear SRM in the literature:
longitudinal flux and transverse flux. These two configurations can be
obtained by unrolling both the stator and rotor of a rotary SRM with a
radial Magnetic flux path and axial Magnetic flux path, respectively.
 Fig. 3.22: Three-phase linear SRMs with longitudinal and
transverse flux paths,
(a) Three-phase longitudinal linear SRM,(b) Three-phase
transverse liner SRM
Fig. 3.22 shows the longitudinal flux and transverse flux
configurations for three phase LSRM with an active (containing
windings) stator and passive (with no windings) translator topology. The
longitudinal magnetic flux path configuration (Fig. 3.22(a))is a linear
counter part of three phase radial flux rotary SRM. The flux path in this
machine is in the directionof the Vehicle Motion. This machine is
simpler to manufacture, is mechanically robustand lower eddy-current
losses as the flux is in the same direction as the translator motion.A
transverse flux design (Fig. 3.22(b))has the flux path perpendicular to
the direction of vehicle motion. If allows asimple track consisting of
individually mounted transverse bars. As the flux is perpendicular to the
direction of motion, an emf is induced in the core, resulting in higheddy
current losses.
Longitudinal flux and transverse flux configuration for four phase
LSRM with an active translator and passive stator structure are shown in
Fig.
 Fig. (a) Four-phase longitudinal linear SRM with active translator
and passive stator, (b) Four-phase transverse linear SRM with
active translator and passive stator
The active stator and passive translator SRM configuration has
theadvantages of having the power supply and power converters being
stationary, resulting in reduced weight of the vehicle. This design,
however, requires a large number of power converter sections along the
track, resulting in high costs. On the other hand, a structure with an
active translator and passive stator structure requires only one section of
the power converter, but the power to the converter in the translator
requiring transfer by means ofcontact brushes which is not desirable for
high speed applications or by inductive transfer with additional power
converter circuits with consequent complexity and higher costs.
Also, the LSRM may have either two stators or two alternators or vice
versa to make a double sided LSRM, as shown in. The double sided
linear SRM does not have as much freedom in the air-gap tolerance as
the single sided linear SRM. The single sided linear SRM provides a net
levitation force that can be exploited in maglev system, but the double
sided LSRM does not produce a net levitation force; it is unsuitable for
such applications. Its advantages are high force density and lower
inductance, as it has four air gaps in its flux path. In contrast, the single
sided LSRM has two air gaps, higher inductance and lower force density
compared to the double sided LSRM.

Fig. Double-sided longitudinal linear SRM

When a pair of stator windings connected in series is excited,
the translator tends to move so as to align itself with the magnetic flux
axis of the excited stator phase windings. This position is referred to as
the fully aligned position and has the maximum phase inductance. The
position corresponding to maximum reluctance value and hence
minimum phase inductance is called the unaligned position and occurs
when a corresponding pair of translator poles that eventually will be
aligned is half a translator pole pitch away from the axis of the excited
stator poles. The translator goes forward smoothly when the stator
windings are switched in sequence. Depending on the converter
topology and the mode of operation, the previously excited phase may
be turned off before after the succeeding phase is excited. Reverse
motion of the translator can be achieved by reversing the excitation
sequence of the stator phases.
2. Describe the various power controller circuits applicable to
switched reluctance motor and explain the operation of any one
scheme with suitable circuit diagram. [May 2008Nov 2016 April
2017]
Power Semiconductor Switching Circuits for SRM: (Power
Controllers)
The selection of controller (converter) depends upon the
application. One of the main aspects of the research in SRM drives has
been the converter design. The main objectives of the design of the
converter are performance of the drive and cost of the drive.
Basic Requirements:
1. Each phase of SRM should be able to conduct independent of
the other phases.
2. Converter should be able to demagnetize the phase before it
steps into the generating region if the machine is operating as a motor
and should be able to excite the phase before it steps into the generating
region if operated as a generator.
3. The converter should be able to freewheel during the chopping
period to reduce the switching frequency.
4. The converter should be able to utilize the demagnetization
energy from the off going phase in a useful way by either feeding it back
to the source or using it in the next conducting phase.
The different power semiconductor switching circuits used are
1. Two power semiconductor switching devices per phase and two
diodes.
2. (n+ 1) power switching devices and (n + 1) diodes.
3. Phase winding using Bifilar wires.
4. Split-link circuit used with even-phase number.
5. C-dump circuit.
Two power semiconductor switching devices per phase and two
diodes.

Fig. Two power semiconductor switching device and two diodes.

As shown in fig. phase winding A is connected to the dc supply
through power semiconductor devices T1 and T2. Depending upon the
rotor position, when the phase winding A is to be energized the devices
T1 and T2 are turned ON. When the phase winding is to be disconnected
from the supply (this instant is also dependent on the position of the
shaft) the devices T1 and T2 are turned off. The stored energy in the
phase winding A tends to maintain the current in the same direction.
This current passes from the winding through D1 and D2 to the supply.
Thus the stored energy is fedback to the mains.
Similarly phase winding B & C are also switched on to the
supply and switched off from the supply in a cyclic manner. This circuit
requires 2 power switching devices and 2 diodes for each phase winding.
For high speed operation it is required to see that the stored energy can
be fed back to their mains within the available period. ·
 Usually the upper devices T1, T3 and T5 are turned on and off
from the signals obtained from the rotor position sensor. The duration of
conduction or angle of conduction  can be controlled by using suitable
control circuitry The lower devices T2,T4 and T6 are controlled from
signals obtained by chopping frequency signal. The current in the phase
winding is the result of logical ANDing of the rotor position sensor and
chopping frequency. As a result it is possible to vary the effective phase
current from a very low value to a high value. For varying the current
the following methods are available.
1. By varying the duty cycle of the chopper.
2. By varying the conduction angle of the devices.
Merits:

(i) Control of each phase is completely independent of the other phases.

(ii) The converter is able to free wheel during the chopping period at low
speeds which helps to reduce the switching frequency and thus the
switching losses of the converter.
(iii) The energy from the off going phase is feedback to the source,
which results in useful utilization of the energy.
Demerits:
Higher number of s witches required in each phase which makes
the converter expensive and also used for low voltage applications.
(n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes.

Fig. (n+1) power switching devices and (n+1) diodes.

This circuit makes use of less number of power switching
devices and diodes as shown in fig. when the (SCRs) switching devices
T and T1 are turned on phase winding A is energised from the dc supply.
When these devices are turned off the stored energy in the phase
winding is fed back to the mains through diodes D and D1. When
devices T and T2 are turned on the phase winding B is energised. When
they are turned off, the stored energy in B phase winding is fed to mains
thro’ D and D2. Similarly phase winding C is switched on and off from
the mains. The cycle gets repeated.
 This circuit makes use of (n+1) power switching devices and
(n+1) diodes where n is equal to the number of phases.
Merits:
(i) The converter uses low number of switching devices, which
reduces the cost of the converter.
(ii) The converter is able to freewheel during the chopping, thus
reducing the switching frequency and losses. · ,

(iii) Voltage rating of all the switching devices and the diodes are
Vdc,which is relatively low.

(iv) The energy for the off going phase is transferred back into the
source, which results in useful utilization of the energy and also
improves the efficiency.
Demerits:
(i) Disability to magnetize a phase while the off going phase is still
demagnetising which results in higher torque ripple during commutation.
(ii) At higher speeds, of the off going phase cannot be de-energized
fast enough because the common switch 'T' keeps turning on
intermediately, disabling forced demagnetization.
(iii) The common switch conducts for all the phases and thus has
highest switching stress .
Phase winding using bifilar wires:

. Each phase winding has two exactly similar phase windings as

shown in fig. For this bifilar wires are used. Eachphase consists of two
identical windings and are magnetically coupled when one of them are
excited.
. In stepper motor, the purpose of bifilar winding is for bipolar
excitation with a reduced number of switching elements.

Fig. : Phase winding using bifilar wires.

When T1 is turned on the de current passes through the phase
winding A. When the device T1 is turned off the stored energy in the
magnetic field is fed back to the de source through the winding A' and
D1 to the supply.
The three devices operate in a sequential way depending upon
the signals obtained from the rotor position sensor and the chopping
signals for PWM technique obtained from the controller.
Merits:
(i) The converter uses lower number of switching devices thus
reducing the cost on the converter.
(ii) The converter allows fast demagnetization of phases during
commutation.
Demerits:
(i) Bifilar winding suffers from double number of connections.
(ii) A poor utilization of copper.
(iii) Free wheeling is not possible during chopping as the phases
have -Vdc.This causes of higher ripples in current and torque during
chopping.
(iv) The imperfection in the coupling between the two winding
causes voltage spikes during turn-off. .
(v) The copper loss associated with the auxiliary winding are
unacceptable high for many applications.
Split - link circuit used with even phase number:

Fig. : Split link circuit used with even phase number.

The circuit shown in fig. is used in a range of highly efficient

drives (from 4-80 kw).
The main power supply is split into two halves using split
capacitors. During conduction, energy is supplied to the phases by one
half the power supply. During commutation period, the phases
demagnetize into other half of the power supply.
 When switch T1 is turned on, phase winding 1 is energized by
capacitor C1. When switch T1 is turned off, the stored energy in the
phase winding 1 is fed back to the capacitor C2 through diode D4.
When T4 is turned on by capacitor C2 and phase winding 4 is
energised. When switch T4 is turned off, stored energy in the winding 4
is feedback to the capacitor C1 through diode D1. The similar operation
takes place in the remaining winding also.
Merits:
(i) It requires lower number of switching devices.
(ii) Faster demagnetization of phases during commutation.
Demerits:
(i) During chopping, free wheeling is not possible as the phaser
have the voltage Vdc/2. This causes higher switching frequency and
more losses.
(ii) This is not feasible for low voltage application.
(iii) The converter is less fault tolerant as fault in any phase will
unbalance the other phase that is connected to it.
3. Draw a schematic diagram and explain the operation of a
‘C’ dump converter used for the control of SRM. [May 2017]

Fig. Basic ‘c’ dump converter circuit

The C-dump circuit shown in Fig.3. 19 makes use of (n+1)
diodes to feedback the energy from the dump capacitor to the supply via
the step-down chopper circuit.
The power semiconductor device Tl is turned on to initiate the
conduction process. Note that the phase winding A is in series with the
device Tl. Thus the phase winding A. is energized. During the
commutation [turn-off] period, the diode ‘D1’ is forward, biased and the
energy from the machine phase [(i.e.,) phase winding] is transferred to
the dump capacitor ‘Cd’. Note that phases are demagnetized by turning
off the respective phase switches.
The excess energy from the dump capacitor ‘Cd’ is transferred
into the source through the diode ‘D’ by turning on the power switch
‘T’. The mean capacitor voltage is maintained well above the supply
voltage to have rapid defluxing after commutation.
If any failure occurs in control circuit, that will lead to rapid
raise of charge across the capacitor ‘Cd’ and if protective measures were
not taken, the controller circuit could fail due to over voltage.
Advantages .
(i) The circuit uses lower number of switching devices.
(ii) The presence of diodes ensures faster demagnetization of phases.
Disadvantages
(i) The requirement of maintaining voltage across the dump capacitor
well above the supply voltage and the control of the switch ‘T’ makes
this converter a complicated circuit.
(ii) The use of capacitor and inductor in the dump circuit.
4. Derive the torque equation of SRM.[Nov 2012 Nov 2014 Nov
2016]
Theory of Torque Prediction:

(i) Flux linkages,

d
e=N
 = N dt
 = Li di
e=L
dt

MMF Ni
(ii) Flux,  = =
Reluctance s

N2i
Flux linkage,  = N =
s

Flux linkage 
Inductance, L = =
current i

N 2i
=
si

N2
L=
s

Flux linkages can be varied by,

(i) Varying flux (ϕ)

(ii) Varying the current “I”

(iii) Varying reluctance “s”

Consider a magnetic circuit as shown,

 Stator 45 90
 

Rotor

(a) (b) (c)

The stator consists of magnetic core with two pole arrangement

stator core carries a coil rotor is also made up of ferrous material. The

rotor core is similar to a two salient pole machine.

Let the angle between the axis of stator pole and rotor pole be 0.

Case I: Angular displacement  = 0

The airgap between stator and rotor is very small. Therefore, the

reluctance of the magnetic path is least.

l
s= if l is  s is  L is 
A

Due to minimum reluctance, the inductance is maximum (Lmax)

Case II:  = 45

In figure (b), in this only a portion of rotor poles cover the stator

poles.  Reluctance of the magnetic path is more than case I. Due to

which the inductance becomes less than Lmax

Case II:  = 90

Theairgap between the stator and rotor has maximum values. 

Reluctance has maximum value yielding minimum inductance (Lmin)

Variation in inductance with respect to the angle between the stator

and rotor poles is

 L

Lmax

Lmin

Variation in inductance w.r.t to 0

Derivation of reluctance torque:

As per faradays’s law of electromagnetic induction an emf is

induced in an electric circuit when there exists a change in flux linkage.

− d
e= where  = N ( or ) Li
dt

d
 e=−  Li 
dt

i L 
= −L −i 
t  t

i L
= −L − i
t 

i L
Magnitude of e = L + i → (1)
t 

Stored magnetic field energy,

1 2
e = Li
2

The rate of change of energy transfer due to variation is stored

energy (or) power.

de 1 i 1 L
= L  2i + i 2 → ( 2)
dt 2 t 2 t

Mechanical power developed/consumed = power received from the

electrical source – power due to change in stored energy in the inductor

→ (a)
Power received from the electrical source = ei from (1)

i L
 ei = iL + i 2 → ( 3)
t 

Substitute (2) & (3) in (a)

Mechanical power developed

 i L   i 1 L 
= iL + i 2  −  Li + i 2 
 t    t 2  

1 2 L
Pm = i → ( 4)
2 

2NT
Pm = = T
60

Pm
 T= → ( 5)


Sub (4) in (5),

1 2 L
Reluctance Torque T = i
2 

Note:

L
(i) Torque  Motoring when is +ve


L
(ii) Torque  Generating when is -ve


(iii) Torque is i2.

5. Draw and explain the general torque-speed characteristics

of SRM. [Nov 2007 Nov 2012 Nov 2016]
Torque - Speed Characteristics:
Torque developed (i.e.) average torque developed by SRM
depends upon the current waveform of SRM phase winding. Current
waveform depends upon the conduction period and chopping details. It
also depends upon the speed.

Consider a case that conduction angle  is constant and the

chopper duty cycle is 1. (i.e.) it conducts continuously. For low speed
operating condition, the current is assumed to be almost flat shaped.
Therefore the developed torque is constant. For high speed operating
condition, the current waveform gets changed and the average torque
developed gets reduced.
 Fig. (a) represents the speed torque characteristics ' of SRM
forconstant e and duty cycle. It is constant at low speeds and slightly
droops as speed increases For various other constant value of , the
family of curves to the same duty cycle is shown in fig. (b).

Fig. Torque speed characteristics at constant conduction angle e

and duty cycle:

Torque speed characteristics for fixed  and for various duty cycles are
shown in fig. and duty cycle are varied by suitably operating the
semiconductor devices.
Torque speed capability curve:
Maximum torque developed in a motor and the maximum
power that can be transferred are usually restricted by the mechanical
subsystem design parameters.
For given conduction angle the torque can be varied by varying
the duty cycle of the chopper. However the maximum torque developed
is restricted to a definite value based on mechanical consideration.

Fig. General torque speed characteristics of switched reluctance

motor.
AB in the fig.represents constant maximum torque region of
operation.
At very low speeds, the torque/speed capability curve may
deviate from the flat-torque characteristics. If the chopping frequency is
limited or if the band width of the current regulator is limited, it is
difficult to limit the currentwithout the help of self emf of the motor and
the current reference may have to be reduced. This is shown by curve (i).
in fig.
If very low windage and core loss permit the copper losses to be
increased, so that with higher current a higher torque is obtained as
shown in curve (ii) in fig.
Under intermittent conditions, of course very much higher
torque can be obtained in any part of the speed range uptob.

The motor current limits the torque below base speed. The
‘corner point’ or base speed ‘b’ is the highest speed at which maximum
current can be supplied at rated voltage with fixed firing angles. If these
angles are still kept fixed, the maximum torque at rated voltage
decreases with speed squared. But if the conduction angle is increased,
(i.e.) on is decreased, there is a considerable speed range over which
maximum current can still be forced into the motor. This maintains the
torque at a higher level to maintain constant-power characteristics. But
the core losses and windage losses increases with the speed. Thus the
curve BC represents the maximum permissible torque at each speed
without exceeding the maximum permissible power transferred. This
region is obtained by varying D to its maximum value Dmax. D is dwell
angle of the main switching devices in each phase. Point C corresponds
to maximum permissible power, maximum permissible conduction angle
Dmaxand duty cycle of the chopper is unity.

Curve CD represents T2 constant. The conduction angle is

kept maximum and duty cycle is maximum by maintaining T2
constant. D corresponds to maximum  permissible. The region between
the curve ABCD and x axis is the “permissible region of operation of
SRM."
6. Describe the hysteresis type and PWM type current
regulator for one phase of a SRM [May 2010 Nov 2014]
Control Circuits For SRM
For motoring mode operation of switched reluctance machine,
the pulses of the phase current should accurately coincide with
increasing inductance. The timing and dwell (i.e.,) period of
conductance of the current pulse determine the torque, efficiency and
other parameters.

For high currents, the torque-current relationship is more or less

linear. For higher power levels, more complex controls are employed.
Where wide range of speed is required at constant power,
microprocessor based controllers are employed. At high speeds, the peak
current is limited by self emf.
The control methods available for SRM are two types, namely,
1. Hysteresis type current regulator
2. Voltage - PWM control or duty cycle control
Hysteresis type current regulator
The schematic arrangement for this type of control circuit is
shown in followingfigure.

Fig. Hysteresis type current regulator

OA→ Operational amplifier

RCL→ Current limiting resistor

RF→ Rotor feed back

T1,T2→ Switching transistors

D1, D2→Diodes

The fig. shows the current waveform controlled by the

hysteresis type currentregulator

Fig. Rotor angle (in degree)

The above current waveform is controlled by a hysteresis type
current regulator and it maintains almost constant current over the entire
speed range.
Operating Principle

In the circuit of Fig., a transducer [Usually a tacho generator for

this circuit] is connected from the rotor and then the output signal from
the transducer is given as a feedback signal to the transistor T2. This
signal in tum is fed at the input of the operational amplifier.
The operational amplifier compares this signal with the
reference current and then the amplified signal is given to the transistor
T1. This signal in combination with collector current will flow from the
emitter of the transistor T1 through the Phase winding A of the machine.
Thus the current through the phase winding A can be controlled
depending on the requirement. The current limiting resistor (RCL) limits
the current according to the design requirement.
When the reference current increases, the torque developed also
increases. At low currents, torque is proportional to the square of the
current and its relationship becomes more linear at higher values of
current. But very high values of current reduces the torque/amperedue to
saturation.
With loads whose torque varies monotonically with speed
[From example fans and blowers], the speed adjustment is possible even
without feedback. But to have accurate speed control, speed feedback is
needed. To obtain the speed feedback signals shaft position sensor,
optical encoders are used.

The ‘hysteresis type’ current regulator requires current

transducer of widebandwidth, but the switched reluctance drive has the
advantage that they can be grounded at one end with the other end is
connected to the negative terminal of the lower phase leg switch. The
sensors used are shunts or hall-effect sensors with built in current
sensing.
This type of control produces a constant – torque type of
characteristics.
Voltage PWM type current regulation
The following Fig. shows the regulator using fixed-
frequency PWM of the voltage with variable duty-cycle.

Fig. Voltage PWM type current regulator

OA → Operational amplifier

RCL→ Current limiting resistor

 RF → Rotor feed back

T1,T2→ Switching transistors

D1, D2→ Diodes

The mechanical signal (speed of the motor) is converted into electrical

signal (current), through the transducer (tachogenerator), which is fed to
the transistor T2. The resultant current from the emitter of the transistor
T2 flow through the current limiting resistor ((CLR) to the negative of
the supply.
The voltage at phase A changes, because of the feedback signal. This
feedback voltage is given as an input to the operational amplifier, which
compares this input signal with reference voltage. The difference of
these two signals is amplified and fed to the monostable circuit.

This circuit modulates the pulsewidth of the incoming signal based on

the requirement and the modulated signal is given at the base of T1. This
signal combines with collector current of T1 and flows through Phase A
as modulated current based on the requirement. Thus the current is
regulated or controlled using pulse width modulation and rotor feedback.
7. Discuss the microprocessor based control of SRM. [May 2008
May 2010 Nov 2012 Nov 2014 Nov 2016]
Explain the role of computers in the control of SRM. [Nov 2007
April 2017]
Microprocessor or Computer based Control ofSRM drive:
Today in industrial places there is high demands on control
accuracies, flexibility, ease of operation, repeatability of parameters for
many drive applications. Nowadays switched reluctance motor are
increasingly used in industries. To meet the above requirements, use of
microprocessor havebecame important.

Fig. : Microprocessor or computer based control of SRM

Fig. shows the block diagram of microprocessor based control system
of SRM drive. This control system consists of power semiconductor
switching circuit, SRM with rotor position sensor and microprocessor
system. In this system microprocessor acts as a controller for the
switched reluctance motor and generate control pulses to the power
semiconductor switching circuits.
The input DC supply is fed to the power semiconductor
switching circuits. Different type of power semiconductor switching
circuits are used for different application. Normally the circuits are
invertor circuit configuration.
The power semiconductor devices are turned on and off by
controller circuit. Here the controller circuit is microprocessor or
computer based control system.
In the SRM drive shown in fig. 3.34, the rotor position sensor
gives the information about the rotor with respect to the reference axis to
the microprocessor or computer control. The controller also receive the
status of current, flow through the phase winding and reference signal.
The microprocessor or computer compare the signals obtained
from the RPS and reference and generate square pulses to the power
semiconductor devices. This signal is fed to the inverter circuit. The
phase winding of the SRM is energized depending upon the turning on
and off of the power semiconductor switching circuit.
The microprocessor or computer controller can perform the
following functions.
(a) Control the feedback loops
(b) PWM or square wave signal generation to inverters.
(c) Optimal and adaptive control.
(d) Signal monitoring and warning.
(e) Estimation of feedback signals.
(f) General sequencing control.
(g) Protection and fault overriding control.
(h) Data acquisition.
The superiority of microprocessor or computer controlover the
conventional hardware based control can be easily recognized for
complex drive control system. The simplification of hardware saves
control electronics cost and improves the system reliability. Thedigital
control has inherently improves the noise immunity which is particularly
important because of large power switching transients in the converters.
The software control algorithm can easily be altered or
improved without changing the hardware. Another important feature is
that the structure and parameters of the control system can be altered in
real time making the controller adaptive to the plant characteristics.
8. Explain the closed loop control analysis of SRM.[May 2007
Nov 2013]
Closed Loop Control of SRM Drive
Switched reluctance motor for variable speed applications is a
robust, reliable and almost maintenance free electric drive suitable for
industrial, transport and domestic sector. The SRM is always operated
with closed loop control. Figure shows the general closed loop block
diagram of SRM.
 General block diagram of the SRM drive

This block diagram consists of power converter, SRM. controller,

current sensor and encoder. Here, the encoder senses the rotor position
and sends it to the controller block. The current sensor also senses the
motor current and sends it to controller. Here, we can set reference
signal by using potentiometer. This signal is also fed to the controller
block.
This controller block processes the all the signals and generates
the control PWMsignals. These signals are fed to the power
semiconductor switching circuit. Depending upon theenergization of
phase winding, the SRM rotates according to desired speed.
In the controller block, we can incorporate different control
techniques.

• Voltage SRM control with speed closed loop.

• Motor starts from any position with rotoralignment.
• Two directions ofrotation.
• Motoringmode.
• Minimum speed (set by user).
• Maximum speed (set by user).
• Encoder position referenee for commutation.
Detailed closed loop control of SRM drive
Figure shows the system configurations and the peripherals of
the microcontroller device used for the SR motor control.
The microcontroller runs the main control algorithm. Itgenerates
4-phase PWM output signals for the SR motor power stage according to
the user interface input and feedback signals. The required speed is set
by a potentiometer, furthermore a start/stop and right/left switch is
provided. When the start command is given the start-up sequence with
the rotoralignment is performed and the motor is started in the desired
direction.
The rotor position is evaluated using the external encoder and the
commutation angle is calculated. When the actual position of the motor
isequal to the reference position, the commutation ofthe phases in the
desired direction of rotation is done; the actual phase is turned off and
the following phase is turned on. For the speed calculation no
additionalvelocity sensor is needed. motor speed is derived from the
position information.

The reference speed is calculated from user defined

potentiometer value. The speed error between reference speed and actual
speed is used in the speed controller to manipulate the voltage applied to
each phase winding and the firing angles. As mentioned earlier PWM
voltage regulation is used in low and mid-speed regions, whereas
advancing the turn-on angle in the single-pulse control comes active in
the high speed area.
The control algorithm is build up in such a matter, when the
PWM regulation reaches its limits the single-pulse regulation takes over.
Then during the PWM cycle, the actual phase current is compared with
the absolute maximum value for the rated current. As soon as the actual
current exceeds this value the PWM duty cycle is restricted. The
procedure is repeated for each commutation cycle of the motor.

9. Explain the steady state performance analysis of SRM.

Variation of inductance of a coil / phase with respect to :

As shown in fig. (a) and (b)

Let S be the pole arc in radians of stator poles.

Let r, be the pole arc in radians of rotor poles.

Let r>S

Case I: When =0.

The axis of the rotor pole is in alignment with that of stator pole
as shown in fig. Then the inductance of the coil is La, because the stator
reference axis and rotor reference axis are in alignment. At this position
flux linkage of phase winding of stator has maximum value and hence
inductance of the phase winding has maximum value for given current.
 Fig Pole arc of stator and rotor poles.
So L = La.

Fig.Axis of rotor pole in alignment with stator pole.

 r − S
Case II: When  = ,
2

r − S
The rotor reference axis makes angular displacement of
2
with stator reference axis as shown in fig. One edge of the rotor pole is
along the edge of stator pole. At this position reluctance is minimum.
Then inductance of the coil continues to be La. When varies from 0 to
r − S
, L = La.
2

Fig. Axis of rotor displaced through /2 from stator reference axis.

r + S
Case III: When  = ,
2

2
Pole pitch of the rotor =
Nr
 
half the pole pitch of the rotor =
Nr

r + S 
Assume  = 
2 Nr

In this position shown in fig. flux pattern is such that flux

linkages per unit current of the stator is less than the previous case but
not minimum

r + S
Fig. Rotor reference axis displaced through from stator
2
reference axis.
 L  La; L = Lu; Lu  L  La
r − S  + S
at  r
2 2


Case IV: When  =
Nr

r + S 
For 
2 Nr

Inductance L = Lu.

Fig.: Rotor reference axis displaced through :/Nr from stator

reference axis
 r + S 
Case V:  = after (or)
2 Nr

2  r + S 
= −
Nr  2 
as far as rotor pole 2 is considered.

2  r + S 
−
Nr  2 
Fig. Rotor reference axis displaced through from

stator reference axis.

After which the stator pole comes under the influence of rotor
pole 2. Now the inductance variation is from Lu to La as the rotor pole
moves towards so as to cover the stator pole.

Variation of inductance of a phase winding with respect to  in

an shown in fig.

Fig. Variation of inductance of phase winding with respect to .

The interpolar arc is greater than stator polar arc in which the
pole arcs are determined by the essential torque production mechanics. It
is the tendency of the poles to align to largest variation in the phase
inductance ofthe stator with respect to rotor position as shown in fig.
3.16.

2
 −  r  S
Nr
 Fig, unaligned position oi stator and rotor pole axis.
This ensures that there will be no overlap between the stator
pole andthe rotor pole is unaligned relative to the stator pole axis, thus
very low inductance is achieved.
From the fig. the following observations are made.
From point A to B

r − S
varies from 0 to ; L = La
2

L
when =0


From point B to C

r + S  r − S 
BC = −
2  2 

BC = S

r − S r + S
As  varies from to ,
2 2

L
exist and is negative


From point C to D

   + S 
CD = − r 
Nr  2 

 r + S 
At this point  varies from to
2 Nr

L
L = Lu; =0


From D to E
 2    r + S  
DE = − +
Nr  Nr  2  

  r + S
varies from to
Nr 2

L
L = Lu; =0


From E to F

r − S r + S
EF = − = −S
2 2

r + S r − S
varies from to
2 2

L
exist, it is positive


From F to G

2 r − S
FG = −
Nr 2

L
L = La; =0


10. Explain the construction and working principle of switched

reluctance motor.[May 2007 May 2008 Dec 2013 May 2015]
Construction and operation of SRM:
Construction of SRM:

Constructional details of switched reluctance motor with six stator poles

and four rotor poles can be explained by referring to figure
The stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward projected
poles. The number of poles of the stator can be either an even number or
an odd number. Most of the motors available have even number of stator
poles (6 or 8) All these poles carry field coils. The field coils of opposite
poles are connected in series such that their mmf’s are additive and they
are called phase windings. Individual coil or a group of coils constitute
phase windings. Each of the phase windings are connected to the
terminals of the motor. These terminals are suitably connected to the
output terminals of a power semiconductor switching circuitry, whose
input is a d.c. supply.
 Fig. : Cross sectional view of SRM.
The rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with
outward projected poles. Number of poles of rotor is different from the
number of poles of the stator. In most of the available motors the
number of poles of the rotor is 4 or 6 depending upon the number of
stator poles 6 or 8.
The rotor shaft carries a position sensor. The turning ON and tuning
OFF operation of the various devices of the power semiconductor
circuitry are influenced by the signals obtained from the rotor position
sensor.

Block Diagram of SRM:

Fig. shows the block diagram of SRM. DC supply is given to
the power semiconductor switching circuitry which is connected to
various phase windings of SRM. Rotor position sensor which is mounted
on the shaft of SRM, provides signals to the controller about the position
of. the rotor with reference to reference axis. Controller collects this
information and also the reference speed signal and suitably turns ON
and OFF the concerned power semiconductor device of the switching
circuit such that the desired phase winding is connected to the dc supply.
The current signal is also fed back to the controller to limit the current
within permissible limits.
Principle of operation:
Fig. represents the physical location of the axis of stator poles and rotor
poles of a 6/4 SRM.
To start with stator pole axis AA' and rotor pole axis aa' are in alignment
as shown in fig. · They are in the minimum reluctance position so far as
phase winding is concerned. Then dLa/d = 0. At this position
inductance of B winding is neither maximum nor minimum. There exists
dLb/d and dLc/d.

Fig. : Physical location of the axis of stator and rotor poles of 6/4
SRM.
Now if B phase is energised then the rotor develops a torque because of
variable reluctance and existence of variation in inductance. The torque
1 dL
developed is equal i B 2 B . The direction of this torque is such that
2 d
BB’ and bb’ try to get aligned. If this torque is more than the opposing
load torque and frictional torque the rotor starts rotating. When the shaft
occupies the position such that BB’ and bb’ are in alignment (i.e.,)
 = 30, no torque is developed as in this position dLB/ d = 0 [vide fig.
(b)]
Now phase winding B is switched off and phase winding C is turned on
dL C
to DC supply. Then the rotor experiences a torque as exists. The
d
motor continues to rotate. When the rotor rotates further 30°, the torque
developed due to winding C is zero [vide fig. (c)] Then the phase
winding C is switched off and phase winding A is energised. Then rotor
experiences a torque and rotates further step of 30°. This is a continuous
and cyclic process. Thus the rotor starts. It is a self starting motor.
As the speed increases, the load torque requirement also changes. When
the average developed torque is more than the load torque the rotor
accelerates. When the torques balance the rotor attains dynamic
equilibrium position. Thus the motor attains a steady speed. At this
steady state condition power drawn from the mains is equal to the time
rate of change of stored energy in magnetic circuit and the mechanical
power developed.
11 .Discuss the need of rotor position sensor in SRM and Voltage,
torque equations of SRM. [Nov 2012May 2015]
Explain the shaft positioning sensing of SR motor. [Nov 2007](8)
Discuss the method of Rotor position sensing of switched reluctance
motor. [May 2013]
Shaft Position Sensing:
 • Commutation requirement of the SR motor is very similar to
that of a PM brushless motor.
• The shaft position sensor and decoding logic are very similar
and in some cases it is theoretically possible to use the same
shaft position sensor and the same integrated circuit to decode
the position signals and control PWM as well.
• The shaft position sensors have the disadvantage of the
associated cost, space requirement and possible extra source of
failure. Reliable methods are well established. In position
sensors or speed sensors, resolvers or optical encoders may be
used to perform all the functions of providing commutation
signals, speed feedback and positionfeedback.
• Operation without position sensor is possible. But to have good
starting and running performance with a wide range of load
torque and inertias, sensor is necessary.
• When the SR motor is operated in the ‘open-loop’ mode like a
stepper motor in the slewing range, the speed is fixed by the
reference frequency in the controller as long as the motor
maintains ‘step integrity’. (i.e.) stay in synchronism. Therefore
like an ac synchronous motor, the switched reluctance motor
has a truly constant speed characteristics.
This open-loop control suffers from two disadvantages.
(a) To ensure that synchronism is maintained even though the load
torque may vary.
(b) To ensure reliable starting.

• Because of the large step angle and a lower torque / inertia ratio,
the SR motor usually does not have reliable ‘starting rate’ of the
stepper motor.
• Also some form of inductance sensing or controlled current
modulation(i.e.) such as sinewave modulation may be necessary
in the control at low speeds.
Voltage and Torque Equations of SRM
Basic voltage equation of SRM
Consider the RL circuit of switched reluctance motor shown in
following Fig
 Fig, Basic R—L circuit of SRM
From the above Fig.

d
V = iR + ...1
dt

Where, → is a function of  and L

iR→ is the ohmic drop

d d di
= (i ) +  ...2
dt dt dt

d ( Li )
V = ( i )( R ) + ...3
dt

di dL
= iR + L +i ...4
dt dt

di dL
V = iR + L + ( i )( ) ...5
dt d

di
L →Emf due to incremental inductance
dt

dL
( i )( ) →self inducedemf that can be denoted as “e”.
d

So the equation 5 can be written as,

di
V = iR + L +e ...6
dt

In the above equation,

iR is the ohmic drop
dr . . .

di
L isemf due to incremental inductance
dt

dL
e = ( i )( ) is the self inducedemf or self emf which depends on
dt
current, speed and the rate of change of inductance with rotor angle.
Thus equivalent circuit of SRM consists of a phase winding, a
di
resistance and incremental inductance and self-emf L emf due to
dt
incremental inductance is zero.
During the flat-top period, emf ‘e’ is constant. At some instant,
di
the inductance is constant, ‘e’ will be zero and L will be a constant.
dt
di
Thus the term L absorbs all the applied voltage.
dt
Equation for mechanical energy transferred in SRM
Multiply the equation 5 by “i” on both sides,

di 2 dL
Vi = i 2 R + Li + i ( ) ...7
dt d

We know that the energy stored in the magnetic field

1 2
Wmag = Li
2

Rate of change of energy stored in the magnetic circuit,

dWmag 1 
= dt  Li 2  ...8
dt 2 

1  di  1 2  dL 
= L 2i + i
2  dt  2  dt 

di 1 2 dL
= Li + i
dt 2 dt

dWmag di 1 2 dL d
= Li + i 
dt dt 2 d dt

dWmag di 1 2 dL
 = Li + i ( ) ...9
dt dt 2 d

Electrical   Rate of change of 

Mechanical energy   
=
  energy  (
− i 2
R ) energy stored in 
−
transferred  input   the magnetic circuit 
   

dWmag
= ( Vi ) − ( i 2 R ) −
dt

= ( i 2 R ) + Li − ( i 2 R ) − Li + − i 2 (  )
di 2 dL di 1 dL
+ i ( )
dt d dt 2 d

Thus, the mechanical energy transferred.

− ( i ) ( )
dL 1 2 dL
Pm = i 2 ( )
d 2 d

 Pm =
2
(i ) ( ) dL
1 2
d
...10

Deviation of reluctance torque:

As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf is
induced in an electric circuit when there exists a change in flux linkage.

d
e=− where = Nϕ (or) Li
dt
 d
e = −  Li 
dt

i L
= −L −i
t t

i L 
= −L −i 
t  t

i L
= −L − i
t 

i L
Magnitude of e = L + i → (1)
t 

Stored Magnetic field energy,

1 2
We = Li
2

The rate of change of energy transfer due to variation in stored

energy (or) power

de 1 i 1 L
= L  2i + → ( 2)
dt 2 t 2 t

Mechanical power developed/ consumed = power received from

the electrical source – power due to change in stored energy in the
inductor. →(a)

Power received from the electrical source = ei

From (1),

i L
 ei = iL + i 2 → ( 3)
t 

Substitute (2) & (3) in (a),

Mechanical power developed

 i L   i 1 L 
= iL + i 2  −  Li + i 2 
 t    t 2  

1 2 L
Pm = i → ( 4)
2 

2NT
Pm = = T
60

Pm
 T= → ( 5)


Sub (4) in (5),

Reluctance  1 2 L
T = i
Torque  2 
Note:
(i) Torque  Monitoring when
(ii) Torque  Generating when
(iii) Torque is i2.
10. Compare SR motor with VR stepper motor [May 2007 Nov
2013] (6m)
SI. Switched reluctance motor
No. (SRM)
1 The SRM is normally
operated with shaft position
feedback to
synchronize with the rotor
position thereby controlling
conduction angle and
commutation of the phase
currents.
2 The SRM motor is designed
forefficient power conversion
uptoatleast 300KW.
3 The SRM usually operates at
high speeds
4 It is meant for continuous
rotation.
5 Closed loop control is
essential for its optimal
working.
6 No half step operation and
microstepping are possible.
7 It has power ratings upto 75
KW(100 HP)
8 It has higher overall
efficiency. The SRM is
naturally designed to operate
efficiently for wide range of
speed.
9 SRM requires a rotor position
sensor.
10 Mainly used in domestic
applications like vacuum
cleaners, washing machines
and general purpose industrial
drives.
L
is “+ve”

L
is “-ve”

Variable reluctance
stepper motor
The stepper motor is usually
fed by a square wave of phase
current without rotor position
feedback.
Normally designed to
maintain step integrity rather
than to achieve efficient
power conversion.
The stepper motor is usually
designed as a torque motor
with a limited speed range.
It rotates in steps.
It works in open loop
operation.
It is capable of half step
operation and micro stepping.
It has comparatively lower
power rating.
It has lower efficiency.
Efficiency is not an important
factor for stepper motor.
It does not require rotor
positionsensor.
Mainly applied in computer
controlled systems and
robotics.
13. Discuss the sensorless operation of Switched Reluctance
Motor. [ May 2013]
Sensorless Control of Switched Reluctance Motor Drive
Switched Reluctance Motors have gained momentum in the
highly competitive marker of adjustable speed motor drives. Simple
structure and low cost are the most important reasons for this popularity.
SRM drives have made a successful entrance into various sectors of
industry such as aerospace, automotive, and home appliances. Its Simple
construction, due to the absence of magnets, rotor conductors.brushes
improve system efficiency over a wide speed range and makes the SRM
drive an interesting alternative to other commercially available drives.
The accurate knowledge of the rotor position is required for
good performance of the switched reluctance motor drive. The entrance
of SRMs in the sensitive applications industries has proved the need for
highly reliable and fault tolerant rotor position sensing methods. The
need for the rotor angle information in SRM has been traditionally
satisfied by the use of some form of rotor position sensor.
Rotor position sensing is an integral part of SRM control
because of the nature of reluctance torque production. In fact, excitations
of the SRM phases need to be properly synchronized with the rotor
position for effective control of speed, torque and torque pulsation. But
it needs a mechanism to detect rotor position for correct operation. An
encoder, resolver, or Hall shaft position sensors are usually employed to
determine the rotor position. However, these discrete position sensors
not only add complexity and to the system but also tend to reduce the
reliability of the drive system.
However, in recent years, there have been extensive research
activities to eliminate direct rotor position sensors, simply by indirectly
determining the rotor position. To avoid additional cost size and
unreliability associated with external position sensorsdeveloping a
reliable, precise, and low-cost position sensorless control seem
necessary
Principle of Operation of the SRM Sensorless Scheme
The fundamental principle of operation of a SRM is based on
the variation in flux linkage with the change in the angular position of
the rotor. The sensorless scheme relies on the fuzzy based rotor position
estimator model of the SRM drive. The dynamics of the SRM drive can
be represented by a set of non-linear first-order differential equations.
The block diagram of the sensorless scheme is shown in figure 3.48. It
consists of various sub-systems necessary for PID speed controlled SRM
drive with fuzzy logic used as a rotor position estimator. The flux
estimator produces flux linkage by using phase voltage and current as
inputs.
The experimental data of flux linkage and phase current are used as
inputs to fuzzy estimator and map them in fuzzy rule base for estimating
the angle as an output. The suitable type of low pass filter has been used
to produce refined estimated angle for inverter operation and
simultaneously used to obtain estimated speed for comparison.
Sensorless control of SRM
PERMANENT MAGNET BRUSHLESS D.C. MOTORS

INTRODUCTION

Conventional DC motors are highly efficient and their characteristics

make them suitable for use as servomotors. However, their only drawbacks that
they need a commutator and brushes which are subject to wear and require
maintenance.

When the functions of commutator and brushes were implemented by

solid state switches, maintenance free motors were realized. These motors are
known as brushless DC motors. The function of magnets is the same in both
brushless motor and the dc commutator motor. The motor obvious advantage of
brushless configuration is the removal of brushes. Brush maintenance is no
longer required, and many problems associated with brushes are removed.

An advantage of the brushless configuration in which the rotor inside the

stator is that more cross sectional area is available for the power or armature
winding. At the same time conduction of heat through the frame is providing
greater specific torque. The efficiency is likely to be higher that of a
commutator motor of equal size and the absence of brush friction help further in
this regard.
CLASSIFICATION OF BLPM DC MOTOR

BLPM dc motors can be classified on the basis of the flux density

distribution in the air gap of the motor. They are

(a). BLPM Square wave dc motor [BLPM SQW DC Motor]

(b).BLPM sinusoidal wave dc motor [BLPM SINE WAVE DC Motor]

(a) BLPM Square wave motor

These are two types: 180Ԏ pole arc. 120Ԏ pole arc.
Air gap flux density distribution in 180Ԏ BLPM SQW motor as shown in fig.

Fig 4.11 Air gap flux density distribution in 180Ԏ BLPM SQW motor.
Air gap density distribution of BLPM DC SQW motor with 120Ԏ pole arc, as
shown in fig.

(b)BLPM Sine wave DC Motor

Air gap density distribution of BLPM dc sine wave motor as shown in fig.
TORQUE EQUATION OF BLPM SQUARE WAVE
MOTOR

Power input = VI
=[ 2 eph + 2 I Rph + 2 Vdd] I …………………….(4.22)
VI=[ 2 eph + 2 I Rph + 2 Vdd] I ……………………..(4.23)
VI= electrical power input
2 eph I = power converted as mechanical
2 I2 Rph = power loss in the armature winding
2 Vdd I = power loss in the device
Mechanical power developed= 2 eph
I …………………..….(4.24)
eph= 2(2BgrlTphωm)I
eph= 4BgrlTphωm ……………….(4.25)
Mechanicalpower = (2πN/60)T ………………..…(4.26)
= ωmT ……………………..(4.27)
Where N=Speed in rpm
T=Torque in N-m
ωm=Speed in rad/sec
Therefore T=4BgrlTphI ……………………….…(4.28)
=KtT ……………………..…..(4.29)
Where Kt =
4BgrlTph=Ke …………………………....(4.30)

(a) Case1: Starting Torque

ωm=0
Istg=(V/2Rph) ……………………….…(4.31)
Tstg=4BgrlTph(V/2Rph) ………………………....(4.32)
Tstg=Kt(V/2Rph) ………………………...(4.33)
Starting torque or stalling torque depends upon V.
To vary the starting torque the supply voltage is to be varied.

TORQUE- SPEED CHARACTERSISTICS OF BLPM

SQM DC MOTOR

Let the supply voltage V be constant. A family of torque speed characteristics

for various constant supply voltages is as shown in figure 4.20
 Fig 4.20 T-ωm curve for various supply voltages

Permissible region of operation in T-ωm plane

Torque speed characteristics of BLPM square wave motor is shown in fig.4.21.
The constraints are
1. The continues current should not exceed the permissible current limit I n (i.e)
Torques should not exceed Kt In.
2. The maximum permissible supply voltage = Vn.
3. The speed should not exceed ωmn.

Line AB
 Parallel to X-axis represents maximum permissible torque line which
corresponds to maximum permissible current In.
Line FG
It represents T-ωm characteristics corresponding to the maximum
permissible Vn. B and C are points in Fg. B is the point of intersection between
AB and FG.
Line DH
It represents constant maximum permissible speed line (i.e) ω mn is
constant. DH intersects FG and x axis at D.
The area OABCDO is the permissible region of operation. To obtain a
particular point P corresponding to given load-torque and speed condition the
only way to operate the motor at P is by suitably adjusting the supply voltage
fed to the motor.


If the phase resistance is small as it should be in an efficient design, then
the characteristics to that of a shunt dc motor. The speed is essentially
controlled by the voltage V and may be changed by changing the supply
voltage. Then the current drawn just to drive the torque at its speed.

As the load torque is increased, the speed drops and the drop is directly
proportional to the phase resistance and the torque.

The voltage is usually controlled by chopping or PWM. This gives rise to a
family of torque speed characteristics as shown in fig. 4.22. The
boundaries of continuous and intermittent limits are shown.
Continuous limit - determined by the heat transfer and temperature rise.
Intermittent limit – determined by the maximum ratings of semiconductor
devices in circuit.
In practice the torque speed characteristics deviates from the ideal form
because of the effects of inductance and other parasitic influences.
Also the speed range can be extended by increasing the dwell of
conduction period relative to the rotor position.

COMMUTATION IN MOTORS WITH 120° AND 180°

MAGNET ARC
BLPM dc motor with 180° magnet arcs and 120° square wave phase
currents arc shown in fig. 4.23 and 4.24.
 In Fig. 4.26 the rotor magnet poles are shaded to distinguish north and
south. The phase belts are shaded us complete 60° sector of the stator bore.
There are two slots in each of these phase belts. The current in these two slots
are identical and conductors in them are in series
Between the rotor ring and the stationary belt ring in fig. 4.26 there is a third
ring called the ‖mmf ring‖. This represents the mmf distribution of the stator
currents at a particular instant.

At the instant shown wt=0, phase A is conducting positive current and
phase C is conducting negative current. The resulting mmf distribution
has the same shading as the N and S rotor poles to indicate the
generation of torque,

Where the mmf distribution has like shasing, positive torque is produced.
Where mmf and flux shading are unlike, negative torque is produced.
Where one is zero, no torque is zero, no torque is produced. The total
torque is the integral of the contributions from around the entire air gap
periphery.

The rotor is rotating in the clockwise direction. After 60º of rotation, the
rotor poles start to ‗uncover‘ the C phase belts and the torque contribution of
phase C starts to decrease linearly.
During this period, the magnet poles, have been 'covering‘ the B phase
belts. Now if the negative current is commutated from C to B exactly at then
point 60º, then the torque will be unaffected and will continue constant for a
further 60º. After 120º, positive current must be commutated from A to C.
Commutation tables for three-phase brushless dc motors.
TABLE 4.1 180º Magnet-Star Winding. 120º Square wave phase Currents
 
The production of smooth, ripple free torque depends on the fact the
magnet pole arc exceeds the mmf arc by 60º.



Here only 2/3 of the magnet and 2/3 of the stator conductors are active at
any instant

In a practical motor the magnet flux-density distribution cannot be perfectly

rectangular as shown in fig.4.27. for a highly coercive magnets and full 180º
magnet arcs there is a transition section of the order of 10-20º in width. This is
due to fringing effect. Likewise on the stator side, the mmf distribution is not
rectangular but have a stepped wave form as shown in fig.4.28 that reflects the
slotting.

To some extent these effects cancel each other so that s that satisfactory
results are obtained with a magnet arc as short as 150º, and two slots per
pole per phase.
 But there is always dip in the torque in the neighborhood of the
commutation angles. This torque dip occurs every 60º elec degrees,
giving rise to a torque ripple component with a fundamental frequency
equal to 6P times the rotation frequency where P is the number of pole
pairs. The magnitude and width of the torque dip depends on the time
taken to commutate the phase current.
Phase current waveforms corresponding to high speed and low speed
operations are as shown in fig. 4.29 (a & b)

(a) High speed, full voltage. Note the dip caused by commutation of other
2 phases,
(b) Low speed with current controlled by chopping.
Fig.4.29 Phase current wave forms.


The back emf is of equal value in the incoming phase and is in such a
direction as to oppose the current build up.

While the flux distribution of the magnet rotates in a continuous fashion,
the mmf distribution of the stator remains stationary for 60º and then
jumps to a position 60º ahead.
Similar analysis is made with a motor having 120 º pole arc magnets with delta
connected armature winding.

Table 4.2 120º Magnet Delta Winding, 180º Square Wave Phase Currents.

C phase belt remains covered by the magnet poles. While the coverage of
A phase belt increases thereby decreasing that of B phase belt.

Since all the conductors are varying same current the increasing torque
contribution of phase A is balancing by the decreasing contribution of
phase B. Therefore, the total torque remains constant.
 
Similarly there is a linear increase in the back emf of A and equal and
oppoaite decrease in the back emf in phase B, Therefore the back emf at
the terminals remains constant.

Line current divides equally between two paths One-phase C Second-
phase A & B series.
This balance is not perfect in practice because of the resistance and inductance
of the windings.But the current balance should be maintained, otherwise
circulating current may produce excessive torque ripple and additional losses.

When compared with 180° pole arc machine.


For the same ampere-conductors per slot and for the same peak flux
density, the 120° pole arc machine has 1.5 times copper losses, but
produces the same torque.

Also the ampere-conductors per slot would have to be reduced because the
duty cycle is 1.0 instead of 2/3.
Merits

For the same magnet flux density the total flux is only 2/3 of that of 180°
pole arc motor, so that only 2/3 of the stator yoke thickness is required. If
the stator outside diameter is kept the same, the slots can be made deeper
so that the loss of ampere conductors can be at least partially covered
.consequently the efficiency of the motor may not be very much less than
that of 180° pole arc machine.

In this machine also, the effects of fringing flux, slotting and
communication overlap combine to produce torque ripple.

Only emf and torque are discussed. The concept of hanging flux-linkage
and energy balance can also be used to analyze the operation.

A controller for BLPM SQW DC Motor

1. Power Circuit
Power Circuit of BLPM de motor is as shown fig consists of six power
semiconductor switching device connected in bridge configuration across a dc
supply. A suitable shunt resistance is connected in series to get the current
feedback. Feedback diodes are connected across the device. The armature
winding is assumed to be star connected. Rotor has a rotor position sensor and a
techo-generator is coupled to the shaft to get feedback signal.

2. Control circuit
The control circuits consist of a commutation logic unit. Which get the
information about the rotor shaft position and decides which switching devices
are to be turned on and which devices are to be turned off. This provides six
output signals out of which three are used as the base drive for the upper leg
devices. The other three output signal are logically AND with the high
frequency pulses and the resultant signals are used to drive the lower leg
devices.
A comparator compares the tachogenerator output with reference speed
and the output signal is considered as the reference current signal for the current
comparator which compare the reference current with the actual current and the
error signal output is fed to the monostable multivibrator which is excited by
high frequency pulses. The duty cycle of the output of monostable is controlled
by error signal. This output signal influences the conduction period and duty
cycle of lower leg devices.
Rotor Position sensors for BLPM motor
It converts the information of rotor shaft position into suitable electrical signal.
This signal is utilized to switch ON and OFF the various semiconductor devices
of electric switching and commutation circuitry of BLPM motor.
Two popular rotor sensors are
Optical Position Sensor.
Hall Effect Position Sensor.
(a) Optical position sensor
This makes use of six photo transistors. This device is turned into ON
state when light rays fall on the devices. Otherwise the device is in OFF
state the schematic representation is shown in fig.

The phototransistors are fixed at the end shield cover such that they are
mutually displaced by 60 degree electrical by a suitable light source. The
shaft carries a circular disc which rotates along the shaft. The disc
prevents the light ray falling on the devices. Suitable slot are punched in
the disc such turned into on state suitably turns the main switching
devices of electronic commutation circuitry into on state.
As the shaft rotates, the devices of electronic commutation which are
turned into ON are successively changed.
(b) Hall effect position sensor
Consider a small pellet of n-type semiconducting material as shown in fig
4.36.
A current ic is allowed to pass from the surface ABCD to the surface EFGH.
Let the surface ABEF be subjected to a North pole magnetic field of flux
density B tesla. As per Fleming left hand rule, the positive charge in the pellet
get concentrated near surface ADHE and negative charges near the surface
BCFG. Since n-type material has free negative charges, there electrons gets
concentrated near the surface BCGF.This charge in distribution makes the
surface ADHE more positive than the surface BCGF. This potential known as
Hall emf or emf due to Hall Effect.
It has been experimentally shown that emf due to hall effect is V H is given by
VH = RH(ic / d) volts
Where ic current through the pellet in amps B- Flux density in tesla
d- Thickness of the pellet in m.
RH – Constant which depends upon the physical dimensions or physical
properties of the pellet. If the polarity of B is changed from North Pole to South
Pole the polarity of the emf due to Hall Effect also get changed.

3. Hall Effect Position Sensor

Hall effect position sensor can be advantageously used in a BLPM motor.
Consider a 2 pole BLPM motor with two winding w1 and w2 as shown in fig.
When w1 carries a current on closing S1 it set up a North Pole flux in the air
gap. Similarly when s2 is closed w2 is energized and sets up a North Pole
flux.w1 and w2 are located in the stator such that their axes are 180 degree
apart. A Hall Effect position sensor is kept in an axis of the winding.

When Hall Effect position sensor is influenced by North Pole flux the hall emf
is made to operate the switch S1. Then w1 sets up North Pole flux. The rotor
experiences a torque and South Pole of the rotor tends to align with the axis of
w1.because of interia.it overshoot the rotor hence rotates in clockwise direction.
Now HEPS is under the influence of S pole flux of the rotor. Then the polarity
of hall emf gets changed. This make the switch S1 in off state and S2 is closed.
Now w2 sets up N pole flux in the air gap, the rotor rotates in clockwise
direction. So that the s pole gets aligned with w2 axis. Then this process
continuous. The rotor rotates continuously.

EMF EQUATION OF BLPM SINE WAVE MOTOR

1. Flux density distribution
Flux density can be expressed as B=||B|| sinθ or B |cospθ or B sin(Pθ+a) or cos
(ρθ+α),2p=p,(i.e)p-no of pole pairs depending upon the position of the reference
axis as shown in fig6.3
Consider a full pitched single turn armature coil as shown in fig 5.4.Let the
rotor be revolving with a uniform angular velocity of ὠm mech.rad/sec.
At time t = 0, let the axis of the single turn coil be along the polar axis.
2. EMF Equation of an ideal BLPM sine wave motor

As per faradays law of electromagnetic induction, emf induction in the single

turn coil.
e = -N d ɸ /dt
let the armature winding be such that all turns of the phase are concentrated full
pitched and located with respect to pole axis in the same manner.
Let Tph be the number of turns connected in series per phase. Then the algebraic
addition of the emfs of the individual turns gives the emf induced per phase as
all the emf are equal and in phase.
3. EMF equation of practical BLPM sine wave motor
In a practical BLPM sine wave motor at the time of design it is taken care to
have the flux density is sinusoidal distributed and rotor rotates with uniform
angular velocity. However armature winding consists of short chorded coils
properly distributed over a set of slot.
These aspect reduce the magnitude of E ph of an ideal winding by a factor
Kw1 which is known as the winding factor the fundamental component of flux.
TORQUE EQUATION OF BLPM SINE WAVE MOTOR

1. Ampere conductor density distribution

2. Torque equation of an ideal BLPM sine wave motor
Let the fig. 5.5 shows the ampere conductor density distribution in the air gap
due to the current carrying armature winding be sinusoidal distributed in the
airgap space.

As the armature conductors are located in stator of the BLPM SNW motor, the
rotor experiences an equal and opposite torque.
Torque experienced by the rotor = Torque developed by the rotor

Β is known as power angle or torque angle. T= π A B rl sin β in an ideal motor.

Consider the case of an armature winding which has three phases. Further the
winding consists of short chorded coils and the coils of a phase group are
distributed. The 3 phase armature winding carries a balanced 3 phase ac current
which are sinusoidally varying. The various phase windings are ph a, ph b and
ph c.
The axis of phase winding are displaced by 2π/3p mechanical radians or 2π/3
elec. Radians.
The current in the winding are also balanced. An armature winding is said to be
balanced if all the three phase winding are exactly identical in all respects but
there axes are mutually displaced by 2π/3p mech radians apart.
A three phase armature current is said to be balanced when the 3 phase
currents are exactly equal but mutually displaced in phase by 120 degree.
When the 3 phase ac current passes through the 3 phase balanced winding it sets
up an armature mmf in the air gap.
Space distribution of the fundamental component of armature ampere
conductors can be written as.

3. Torque developed in a practical BLPM SNW motor:


Ampere turn distribution of a phase winding consisting of full pitched coil is
rectangular of amplitude I T ph. But the fundamental component of this
distribution is the fundamental component of this distribution is 4/πi Tph.



In a practical motor, the armature turns are short chorded and distributed
.Further they may be accomonadated in skewed slots. In such a case for
getting fundamental component of ampere turns distribution the turns per
phase is modified as Kw1 Tph where Kw1 is winding factor which is equal
to Ks1 Kp1 Kd1,
Properties of 'A‘ ( Ampere conductor density);

Ampere conductor density is sinusoidally distributed in space with amplitude
Â. This distribution has 2p poles (i.e) same as the rotor permanent magnetic
field.

The ampere conductor distribution revolves in air gap with uniform angular
velocity ώm rad /sec .or ώelec.rad/sec.(Ns rpm). This is the same speed as
that of rotor magnetic field.

The direction of rotation of armature ampere conductor distribution is same as
that of rotor. This is achieved by suitably triggering the electronic circuit
from the signals obtained from rotor position sensor.

4. The relative angular velocity between sine distributed permanent magnetic
field and sine distributed armature ampere conductor density field is 0.
Under such condition it has been shown an electromagnetic torque is
developed whose magnitude is proportional to sin β. β-torque angle or power
angle.
Angle between the axes of the two fields is π/2-α and β=-α Torque developed by
the motor = 3EphIphsinβ/ώmN-m
Where ώm-angular velocity in rad/sec.
ώm=2πNs/60 where NS is in rpm
T=60/2πNs (3EphIphsinβ)
=3EphIphsinβ syn.watts. 1 syn.watt=60/2πNs N-m
It is a machine dependent conversion factor
VECTOR CONTROL OF BLPM SNW MOTOR

Electromagnetic torque in any electrical machine is developed due to the

interaction of current carrying armature conductors with the air gap flux.
Consider a two machine whose armature conductor currents and air gap flux are
as shown in fig. 5.12. Here the flux is in quadrature with the armature mmf axis.

Each and every armature conductor experiences a force which contributes

the torque. The torque contributed by various armature conductors have the
same direction even through their magnitude may vary. It is observed that the
steady state and dynamic (behaviors) performance of a most of such an
arrangement are better.
Consider a second case wherein the armature conductor current
distribution and air gap flux distribution are as shown in fig. 6.26. In this case
the angle between the axis of the air gap flux and the armature mmf axis is
different from 90° elec.
In this case also each and every armature conductor experiences a force
and contributes to the torque. But in this case the direction of the torque
experienced by the conductors is not the same. Since conduction develops
torque in one direction while the others develop in the opposite direction. As a
result, the resultant torque gets reduced; consequently it is observed that both
the steady state and dynamic performance of such a motor is poorer.
For a BLPM motor to have better steady state and dynamic performance,
it is essential that the armature mmf axis and the axis of PM are to be in
quadrature for all operating condition.

1. Principle of vector control

BLPM SNW motor is usually employed for variable speed applications. For
this we keep V/f constant and vary V and f to get the desired speed and torque.
From the theory of BLPM SNW motor it is known that as the speed is
varied from a very low value upto the corner frequency, the desired operating
point of current is such that Id =0 and I is along the q-axis. Such a condition can
be achieved by suitably controlling the voltage by PWM technique after
adjusting the frequency to a desired value.
When the frequency is more than the corner frequency it is not possible to
make Id =0, due to the voltage constraints. In such a case a better operating point
for current is obtained with minimum Id value after satisfying the voltage
constraints. Controlling BLPM SNW motor taking into consideration the above
mentioned aspects is known as ―vector Control‖ of BLPM SNW motor.

2. Schematic Diagram of Vector Control

The schematic block diagram of vector control is as shown in figure
5.13Knowing the value of the desired torque and speed and also the parameters
and the voltage to which the motor is subjected to, it is possible to complete the
values of id .ref and iq .ref for the desired dynamic and steady state performance.
The reference values of id and iq are transformed into reference values of
currents namely ia ref, ib ref and ic ref. These currents are compared with the
actual currents and the error values actuate the triggering circuitry which is also
influenced by the rotor position sensor and speed. Thus the vector control of
BLPM SNW motor is achieved.
 UNIT V
PERMANENT MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

INTRODUCTION
A permanent magnet synchronous motor is also called as brushless
permanent magnet sine wave motor. A sine wave motor has a
1. Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flux in the air gap.
2. Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal current wave forms.
3. Quasi-sinusoidal distribution of stator conductors (i.e.) short-pitched and
distributed or concentric stator windings.
The quasi sinusoidal distribution of magnetic flux around the air gap is
achieved by tapering the magnet thickness at the pole edges and by using a
shorter magnet pole arc typically 120º.
The quasi sinusoidal current wave forms are achieved through the use of
PWM inverters and this may be current regulated to produce the best possible
approximation to a pure sine wave. The use of short pitched distributed or
concentric winding is exactly the same as in ac motors.
CONSTRUCTION AND PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Permanent magnet synchronous machines generally have same operating
and performance characteristics as synchronous machines. A permanent magnet
machine can have a configuration almost identical to that of the conventional
synchronous machines with absence of slip rings and a field winding.
Construction
Fig. 5.1 shows a cross section of simple permanent magnet synchronous
machines. It consists of the stationary member of the machine called stator.
Stator laminations for axial air gap machines are often formed by winding
continuous strips of soft steel. Various parts of the laminations are the teeth
slots which contain the armature windings. Yoke completes the magnetic path.
Lamination thickness depends upon the frequency of the armature source
voltage and cost.
Armature windings are generally double layer (two coil side per slot) and
lap wound. Individual coils are connected together to form phasor groups.
Phasor groups are connected together in series/parallel combinations to form
star, delta, two phase (or) single windings.
 AC windings are generally short pitched to reduce harmonic voltage
generated in the windings. Coils, phase groups and phases must be insulated
from each other in the end-turn regions and the required dielectric strength of
the insulation will depend upon the voltage ratings of the machines.

In a permanent magnet machines the air gap serves a role in that its length
largely determines the operating point of the permanent magnet in the no-load
operating condition of the machines. Also, longer air gaps reduce machines
windage losses.
The permanent magnets form the poles equivalent to the wound field pole of
conventional synchronous machines. Permanent magnet poles are inherently
―salient‖ and there is no equivalent to the cylindrical rotor pole configurations
used in many convectional synchronous machines.
Many permanent magnet synchronous machines may be cylindrical or
―smooth rotor‖ physically but electrically the magnet is still equivalent to a
salient pole structure. Some of the PMSM rotors have the permanent magnets
directly facing the air gap as in fig. 5.2.
 Rotor yoke is the magnetic portion of the rotor to provide a return path
for the permanent magnets and also provide structural support. The yoke is
often a part of the pole structure.
Damper winding is the typical cage arrangement of conducting bars,
similar to induction motor rotor bars and to damper bars used on many other
types of synchronous machines. It is not essential for all permanent magnet
synchronous machines applications, but is found in most machines used in
power applications.
The main purpose is to dampen the oscillations about synchronous speed,
but the bars are also used to start synchronous motors in many applications. The
design and assembly of damper bars in permanent magnet machines are similar
to the other types of synchronous machines.
Synchronous machines are classified according to their rotor
configuration. There are four general types of rotors in permanent magnet
synchronous machines. They are
1. Peripheral rotor
2. Interior rotor
3. Claw pole or lundell rotor.
4. Transverse rotor.

Peripheral rotor
The permanent magnets are located on the rotor periphery and permanent
magnet flux is radial.

Interior rotor
The permanent magnets are located on the interior of the rotor and flux is
generally radial.

Claw pole or Lund ell
The permanent magnets are generally disc shaped and magnetized
axially. Long soft iron extensions emanate axially from periphery of the discs
like claws or Lund ell poles. There is set of equally spaced claws on each disc
which alternate with each other forming alternate north and south poles.

Transverse rotor
In this type the permanent magnets are generally between soft iron poles
and the permanent magnet flux is circumferential. In this soft iron poles at as
damper bars. Magnetically this configuration is similar to a reluctance machine
rotor, since the permeability of the permanent magnet is very low, almost the
same as that of a non-magnetic material. Therefore, reluctance torque as well as
torque resulting from the permanent magnet flux is developed.
Thus BLPM sine waves (SNW) motor is construction wise the same as
that of BLPM square wave (SQW) motor. The armature winding and the shape
of the permanent magnet are so designed that flux density distribution of the air
gap is sinusoidal(i.e.) .The magnetic field setup by the permanent magnet in the
air gap is sinusoidal
EMF EQUATION OF BLPM SINE WAVE MOTOR
1. Flux density distribution
Flux density can be expressed as B=||B|| sinθ or B |cospθ or B sin(Pθ+a)
or cos (ρθ+α),2p=p,(i.e)p-no of pole pairs depending upon the position of the
reference axis as shown in fig6.3

Consider a full pitched single turn armature coil as shown in fig 5.4.Let the
rotor be revolving with a uniform angular velocity of ὠm mech.rad/sec.
At time t = 0, let the axis of the single turn coil be along the polar axis.
 2. EMF Equation of an ideal BLPM sine wave motor
As per faradays law of electromagnetic induction, emf induction in the
single turn coil.
e = -N d ɸ /dt
 let the armature winding be such that all turns of the phase are
concentrated full pitched and located with respect to pole axis in the same
manner.
Let Tph be the number of turns connected in series per phase. Then the
algebraic addition of the emfs of the individual turns gives the emf induced per
phase as all the emf are equal and in phase.
3. EMF equation of practical BLPM sine wave motor
In a practical BLPM sine wave motor at the time of design it is taken care
to have the flux density is sinusoidal distributed and rotor rotates with uniform
angular velocity. However armature winding consists of short chorded coils
properly distributed over a set of slot.
These aspect reduce the magnitude of E ph of an ideal winding by a factor
Kw1 which is known as the winding factor the fundamental component of flux.
TORQUE EQUATION OF BLPM SINE WAVE MOTOR
1. Ampere conductor density distribution
2. Torque equation of an ideal BLPM sine wave motor
Let the fig. 5.5 shows the ampere conductor density distribution in the air gap
due to the current carrying armature winding be sinusoidal distributed in the
airgap space.

As the armature conductors are located in stator of the BLPM SNW motor, the
rotor experiences an equal and opposite torque.
Torque experienced by the rotor = Torque developed by the rotor

Β is known as power angle or torque angle. T= π A B rl sin β in an ideal motor.

Consider the case of an armature winding which has three phases. Further the
winding consists of short chorded coils and the coils of a phase group are
distributed. The 3 phase armature winding carries a balanced 3 phase ac current
which are sinusoidally varying. The various phase windings are ph a, ph b and
ph c.
The axis of phase winding are displaced by 2π/3p mechanical radians or 2π/3
elec. Radians.
The current in the winding are also balanced. An armature winding is said
to be balanced if all the three phase winding are exactly identical in all respects
but there axes are mutually displaced by 2π/3p mech radians apart.
A three phase armature current is said to be balanced when the 3 phase currents
are exactly equal but mutually displaced in phase by 120 degree.

When the 3 phase ac current passes through the 3 phase balanced winding it sets
up an armature mmf in the air gap.
Space distribution of the fundamental component of armature ampere
conductors can be written as.

3. Torque developed in a practical BLPM SNW motor:


Ampere turn distribution of a phase winding consisting of full pitched coil is
rectangular of amplitude I T ph. But the fundamental component of this
distribution is the fundamental component of this distribution is 4/πi Tph.

In a practical motor, the armature turns are short chorded and distributed
.Further they may be accomonadated in skewed slots. In such a case for
getting fundamental component of ampere turns distribution the turns per
phase is modified as Kw1 Tph where Kw1 is winding factor which is equal
to Ks1 Kp1 Kd1

Ks1 = Skew factor

Properties of 'A ‘(Ampere conductor density);

Ampere conductor density is sinusoidally distributed in space with amplitude
Â. This distribution has 2p poles (i.e) same as the rotor permanent magnetic
field.

The ampere conductor distribution revolves in air gap with uniform angular
velocity ώm rad /sec .or ώelec.rad/sec.(Ns rpm). This is the same speed as that of
rotor magnetic field.

The direction of rotation of armature ampere conductor distribution is same as
that of rotor. This is achieved by suitably triggering the electronic circuit
from the signals obtained from rotor position sensor.

The relative angular velocity between sine distributed permanent magnetic
field and sine distributed armature ampere conductor density field is 0.
Under such condition it has been shown an electromagnetic torque is
developed whose magnitude is proportional to sin β. β-torque angle or power
angle.
Angle between the axes of the two fields is π/2-α and β=-α Torque developed
by the motor = 3EphIphsinβ/ώmN-m
Where ώm-angular velocity in rad/sec.
ώm=2πNs/60 where NS is in rpm
T=60/2πNs (3EphIphsinβ)
=3EphIphsinβ syn.watts. 1 syn.watt=60/2πNs N-m
It is a machine dependent conversion factor
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A BRUSHLESS PM SNW OR
BLPB SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR:
Consider a BLPM SNW motor, the stator carries a balanced 3ϕ winding.
This winding is connected to a dc supply through an electronic commutator
whose switching action is influenced by the signal obtained from the rotor
position sensor.
Under steady state operating condition, the voltage available at the input
terminals of the armature winding is assumed to be sinusoidally varying three
phase balanced voltage. The electronic commutator acts as an ideal inverter
whose frequency is influenced by the rotor speed. Under this condition a
revolving magnetic field is set up in the air gap which is sinusoidally distributed
in space, having a number of poles is equal to the rotor. It rotates in air gap in
the same direction as that of rotor and a speed eq1ual to the aped of the rotor
Rotor carries a permanent magnet. Its flux density is sine distributed. It
also revolved in the air gap with as particular speed. It is assumed that the motor
acts as a balanced 3ϕ system. Therefore, it is sufficient to draw the phasor
diagram for only one phase. The armature winding circuit is influenced by the
following emfs.
1. V - supply voltage per phase across each winding of the armature.
The magnitude of this voltage depends upon dc voltage and switching
techniques adopted.
2. Ef - emf induced in the armature winding per phase due to sinusoidally
varying
permanent magnetic field flux. Magnitude of Ef=4.44ϕmfKw1Tph=Ӏ EfӀ
As per Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, this emf lags behind ϕmf-
permanent magnet flux enclosed by armature phase winding by 90°.
3. Ea - emf induced in the armature phase winding due to the flux ϕa set up by
resultant armature mmf ϕ∞Ia
 Further the current I phasor is resolved into two components Id and Iq
Id set up mmf along the direct axis (or axis of the permanent magnet)
Iq sets up mmf along quadrature axis (i,e) axis perpendicular to the axis of
permanent magnet.
Note:
In case of salient pole rotors the electromagnetic torque developed from
the electrical power. From eqn. (5.43)
TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS
The torque-speed characteristics of BLPM sine wave motor is shown in
fig. 5.10
Effect of over speed
In the torque speed characteristics, if the speed is increased beyond the
point D, there is a risk of over current because the back emf Eb continues to
increase while the terminal voltage remains constant. The current is then almost
a pure reactive current flowing from the motor back to the supply. There is a
small q axis current and a small torque because of losses in the motor and in the
converter. The power flow is thus reversed. This mode of operation is possible
only if the motor ‗over runs‘ the converter or is driven by an external load or
prime mover.
In such a case the reactive current is limited only by the synchronous
reactance. As the speed increase further, it approaches the short circuit current
Pq/Xs which is many times larger than the normal current rating of the motor
winding or the converter. This current may be sufficient to demagnetize the
magnets particularly if their temperature is high. Current is rectified by the
freewheeling diodes in the converter and there is a additional risk due to over
voltage on the dc side of the converter, especially if a filter capacitor and ac line
rectifiers are used to supply the dc. But this condition is unusual, even though in
the system design the possibility should be assessed.
Solution
An effective solution is to use an over speed relay to short circuit the 3υ
winding in a 3υ resistor or a short circuit to produce a braking torque without
actually releasing the converter.
References:
1. https://rmd.ac.in/dept/eee/sp/7/SEM/unit1.pdf
2. http://pnbalamurugan.yolasite.com/resources/EE6703%20SEM%20UNIT%201
%20-%20SYNCHRONOUS%20RELUCTANCE%20MOTORS.pdf
3. https://www.elprocus.com
4. https://en.engineering-solutions.ru/motorcontrol
5. https://www.watelectrical.com
6. http://www.oemerspa.com/download/general_documents/1_QSR_presentation%
20OEMER_web.pdf
7. https://www.monolithicpower.com/en/stepper-motors-basics-types-uses
8. https://www.elprocus.com/stepper-motor-types-advantages-applications/
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10. https://www.electrical4u.net/induction-motor/switched-reluctance-motor-srm-
construction-working-types-advantages/
11. https://www.electrical4u.com/brushless-dc-motors/
12. https://www.slideshare.net/
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15. Google and Wikipedia