MODULE 8

Sustainable Crop Production

Overview
This module covers the reasons why we have to improve crop traits
and the step by step process involved until new variety is released and
relevant activities involved in crop improvement. The concepts, features,
dimensions and practices of sustainable agriculture will be thoroughly
discussed.

Time Allotment (1 Week)

Objectives
Upon the successful completion of this module, you are expected to:

1. Understand the features and law for sustaining crop productivity;

2. Applied sustainable crop production practices; and
3. Developed appreciation of nature, critical thinking, perseverance and
teamwork.

Pre-Assessment
Before you proceed to the discussion section of this module, I want you to first give your
initial thoughts on the following queries below:

1. What are the activities that is considered sustainable in crop production?

2. Do you have any known farm that is practicing sustainable crop production?

Discussion

This section begins with the definition and characteristics of sustainable agriculture,
farming and natural resources, plant and animal practices. It then moves on the
presentation of the economic, social and political issues of sustainable agriculture. The
last part of this section provides the scope of the production system and crop
management.
 Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

The word “sustain” is derived from the Latin word sustenere (sus - from below and
tenere, to hold), to keep in existence or maintain, implies long term support or
permanence. As it pertains to agriculture, sustainable describes farming systems that
are “capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society, indefinitely. Such
systems must be resource-conserving, socially supportive, commercially competitive and
environmentally sound (John Ikerd).
Definitions of Sustainable Agriculture

1. It is one that produces abundant food without depleting the earth’s resources or
polluting the environment. It is an agriculture that adheres to the principles of nature to
develop systems for raising crops and livestock that are, like nature, self-sustaining.

2. It includes a system of agricultural production that is resource conserving,

environmentally safe, and economically viable. It must recognize human values,
provide high-quality food and support the family farm and rural communities as part of a
healthy larger system

3. It is an agriculture that follows the principles of ecological, social and economic

sustainability.

4. It is any practice, method, technique, technology, philosophy or system of production

that makes agriculture economically feasible, ecologically sound, socially just and
humane (equitable), culturally appropriate and grounded on holistic science.

5. It is a system that utilizes an understanding of natural processes along with the latest
scientific advances to create integrated, resource-conserving farming systems. These
systems will reduce environmental degradation, are economically viable, maintain a
stable rural community and provide a productive agriculture in both the short and long
term

6. It refers to the ability of a farm to produce food indefinitely, without causing irreversible
damage to ecosystem health. The two key issues are biophysical (long term effects of
various practices on soil properties and processes essential for crop productivity) and
socio-economic (the long term ability of farmers to obtain inputs and manage resources
such as labor)

Environmental sustainability is “farming with nature” (agroecology), “plant your

fertility”, “feed the soil” and “cradle to cradle” stewardship.

Social sustainability means:

 Farm products acceptable to the community
 Farm products and processes do not harm the owners, workers, the community
and consumers
  Farm supports businesses/workers in the community
 Young people go into farming

Economic sustainability means:

 Fair returns to owner
 Fair wages to workers
 Farm/family net worth constantly improving
 Decrease in off farm input

Sustainable agricultural systems must maintain or enhance:

1) biological and economic productivity of crops

2) enhance the efficiency of use of inputs
3) lesser adverse environmental impacts both on and off the farm
4) minimize adverse environmental impacts on adjacent and downstream
environments
5) minimize the magnitude and rate of soil degradation and enhance soil quality and
resilience so that crop productivity can be sustained with minimum adverse impacts on
soils and environment
6) enhance compatibility with social and political conditions

Therefore, agriculture is judges as sustainable IF it is –

• Ecologically sound – from Greek word for house “eco” that implies the wisdom and
authority to manage in the best interests of the household. Biological diversity is essential
to achieve self-regulation and stability. An ecologically sound agriculture must focus on
the maintenance and enhancement of the natural resource base. It should be resource
efficient to conserve precious resources and avoid systems toxicity.

Economically viable – It is essential to have a positive net return or at least a balance in

terms of resource expended and returned. At the very minimum, the system should
provide the food and other basic needs of the farming household.

• Socially just and equitable – A socially just agricultural system must address inequities.
The system must assure that resources and power are distributed equally so
that basic needs are met and human rights are assured. Equitable access to
information, market or other farm related resources especially land, should be
provided to all irrespective of sex, social standing, religion or ethnicity.

• Culturally appropriate – Culturally appropriate agricultural systems must give due

consideration to cultural values, including religious beliefs and traditions in developing
agricultural systems, plans and programs. Cultural roots are as important to agriculture
as plant roots. It is equally important that the highest values apply to human interactions,
since without strong communities and vibrant cultures, agriculture will not flourish.
• Adaptable – Rural communities are capable of adjusting to the constant changing
conditions for farming: population growth, policies, market demand, etc. This involves not
only the development of new, appropriate technologies but also innovations in social and
cultural terms.
 Grounded on holistic science – Agriculture based on holistic science, as against
reductionist (conventional western science), gives importance to the
interrelatedness of the social, economic, environmental, cultural and political
aspects as much as to the biophysical aspects of agriculture. It also considers the
dynamic interactions among on-farm, off-farm, non-farm and farm related
activities, recognizing that these activities complement each other.

Characteristics of Sustainable Agriculture (SA)

1. SA is flexible
 No defined set of practices, methods, techniques/technologies or policies
 recognizes local specificity
2. SA is experiential
 does not impose a simple model or package
 farmers and local communities must be able to adapt and allowed to change
3. SA is participatory
 farmers are active participants
 incorporates recent innovations originating from scientists, farmers or both
 relies on continuous innovation by farmers and local communities
4. SA is proactive
 forward-looking
 concern of short and long-term sustainability
 dynamic and innovative

The different strategies to realize the broad themes or goals of sustainable agriculture are
grouped according to three separate but related areas of concern such as: 1) Farming
and Natural Resources; 2) Plant and Animal Production Practices; and 3)
Economic, Social and Political Issues. In each area, the features of sustainable
crop/animal production are integrated such as for instance, diversification, conservation
and regeneration, production and stability of production systems.

Farming and Natural Resources

The following are important resources that greatly contribute to a successful and
sustainable farming activities:

Water. Water is one vital resource that has helped in the development of
agriculture and society. Although it seem to be an inexhaustible resource, inadequate
supply of quality water is being felt with increasing frequency both for agricultural uses as
well as for industry and household requirements. To ensure a sustained supply for future
generations, the following steps should be considered:
 1. improving drought-resistant farming systems;
2. improving water conservation and storage measures;
3. providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species;
4. using reduced-volume irrigation systems;
5. managing crops to reduce water loss; and
6. no planting at all.

Water quality must be maintained by minimizing salinization and contamination of

ground and surface water by pesticides, nitrates and heavy metals.

Energy. Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy

sources, especially petroleum. This cannot be sustained indefinitely nor is it possible to
abruptly abandon our reliance on it. Thus, a gradual substitution of petroleum-based
energy sources should be worked at, e.g. hydroelectric and geothermal electric power
generation, use of wind and solar power to store electric energy, etc.

Air. Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from
combustion, dust from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from spraying; and nitrous
oxide emissions from the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Options to improve air quality
include incorporating crop residues into soil instead of burning, using appropriate level of
tillage and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial grasses to
reduce dust.

Soil. Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to

produce adequate food. This is especially critical in upland agriculture and in agricultural
production areas with steep slopes. Among the practices develop to keep the soil in place
include, 1) reducing or eliminating tillage; 2) managing irrigation run-off, and 3) keeping
the soil covered with plants or mulch.

Plant Production Practices

Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. Specific

strategies must take into account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local
availability of inputs and the individual grower’s goal. Despite the site-specific and
individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general principles can be applied to
help growers select appropriate management practices:

 selection of species varieties that are well suited to the site and conditions in the
farm.
 Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the
biological and economic stability of the farm.
 Management of soil to enhance and protect soil quality.
 Efficient and humane use of inputs.
 Consideration of farmer’s goals and lifestyle choices.
 Selection of site, species and variety. Preventive strategies, adopted early can
reduce inputs and help establish a sustainable production system. When possible, pest-
resistant crops should be selected which tolerant to existing soil or site conditions. When
site selection is an option, factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and
location (e.g. climate and topography) should be taken into consideration before planting.

Diversity. Diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically

resilient. While monoculture has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of
management, the loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and
/or seriously disrupt the stability of the community dependent on the crop. By growing a
variety of crops, farmers spread economic risk and are less susceptible to radical price
fluctuations associated with supply and demand.

If properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For
instance, in annual cropping systems, crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds
pathogens and insect pests. Also, cover crops can have a stabilizing effects on the
agroecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with
mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water infiltration capacity and
soil water holding capacity. Cover crops in orchards and vineyards can buffer the system
against pest infestations by increasing the beneficial arthropod populations and can
therefore, reduce the need for chemical inputs. Using a variety of cover crops is also
important to protect against failure of a particular species to grow and to attract and
sustain a wide range of beneficial arthropods.

Optimum diversity may be attained by integrating both crops and livestock in the
same farming operation. Mixed crops and livestock operations have several advantages.
First, growing row crops only on more level land and pasture and forages on steeper
slopes will reduce soil erosion. Second, pasture and forage crops in rotation enhance soil
quality and reduce soil erosion, livestock manure in turn, contribute to soil fertility. Third,
livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop
residues that in “plant only” systems would have been considered crop failures. Finally,
feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. This can help cushion
farmers against trade and price fluctuations and, in conjunction with cropping operations,
make more efficient use of farm labor.

Soil management. A healthy soil is key component to sustainability, i.e. a healthy

soil will produce healthy crop plants that have optimum vigor and less susceptible to pests
as well as recovering more rapidly from slight pest infestations. While many crops have
key pests that attack even the healthiest plants, proper soil, water and nutrient
management can help prevent some pest problems brought on by crop stress or nutrient
imbalance. Furthermore, crop management systems that impair soil quality often result
in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields.

In sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that must
be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability. Methods to
protect and enhance the productivity of soils include: 1) using cover crops; 2) addition of
compost and/or manure; 3) avoiding traffic on wet soils; and 4) maintaining soil cover with
plants and/or mulches. Addition of organic matter to the soil increases soil aggregates
stability, soil tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life.

Efficient use of inputs. Many inputs used by conventional farmers are also used
in sustainable agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural,
renewable, and on-farm inputs. Equally important are the environmental, social, and
economic impacts of a particular strategy. Converting to sustainable practices does not
mean simple substitution. Frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and scientific
knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the environment
on farm and rural communities. The goal is to develop efficient, biological systems which
do not need high levels of material inputs.

Sustainable crop production does not strictly ban the use of synthetic chemicals.
Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least intensive, and yet
maintain productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and other alternatives should
be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. However, there may be
situations where the use of synthetic chemicals would be more “sustainable” than strictly
non-chemical approach using toxic “organic” chemicals. For instance, using a broad
spectrum contact herbicide to control weeds between plant rows may use less energy
and may compact the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower.

Consideration of farmer goals and lifestyle choices. Management decisions

should reflect not only environmental and broad social considerations, but also individual
goals and lifestyle choices. For example, adoption of some technologies or practices that
promise profitability may also require such intensive management that one’s lifestyle
actually deteriorates. Management decisions that promote sustainability, should nourish
the environment, the community and the individual.

Animal Production Practices

There is a growing trend toward the separation and specialization of crop and
animal production systems. While before, crop and animal production system integration
is within the farm, in many instances, integration takes place at a higher level – between
farmers, through intermediaries.

Even with growing specialization of livestock and crop production, many of the
principles outlined for crop production still applies. Although actual management
practices are different, some of the specific points that livestock producers need to
address include the following:

Management planning. Including livestock in the farming system increases the

complexity of biological and economic relationships. The mobility of the livestock,
daily feeding, health concerns, breeding operations, seasonal feed and forage
sources, and complex marketing are sources of this complexity. Therefore, a
successful ranch plant should include enterprise calendars of operations, stock
flows, labor needs, herd production records and land use to give the manager
control and means of monitoring progress toward goals.

Animal selection. The animal enterprise must be appropriate for the farm and
ranch resources. Farm capabilities and constraints such as feed and forage
sources, landscape, climate and skill of the manager must be considered in
selecting which animals to produce. For example, ruminant animals can be raised
on a variety of feed sources including range and pasture, cultivated forage, cover
crops, shrubs, weeds and crop residues. There is a wide range of breeds available
in each of the ruminant species, i.e. cattle, sheep and goats. Hardier breeds that,
in general, have lower growth and milk production potential, are better adapted
and less favorable environment with sparse or highly seasonal forage growth.

Animal nutrition. Feed costs are the largest single variable cost in any livestock
operation. While most of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch,
some purchased feed is usually imported from off the farm. Feed cost can be kept
to a minimum by monitoring animal condition and performance and understanding
seasonal variations in feed and forage quality on the farm. Determining the
optimum use of farm-generated by-products is an important challenge of
diversified farming.

Reproduction. Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another

key to sustainability. In combination with good genetic stock, adapting the
reproduction season to fit the climate and sources of feed and forage reduce health
problems and feed cost.

Herd health. Animal health greatly influence reproductive success and weight
gains, two key aspects of successful livestock production. Unhealthy stock waste
feed and require additional labor. A herd health program is critical to sustainable
livestock production.

Grazing management. Most adverse environmental impacts associated with

grazing can be prevented or mitigated with proper grazing management. First, the
number of stock per unit area (stocking rate) must be correct for the landscape
and forage sources. There will need to be compromises between the convenience
of tilling large, unfenced fields and the fencing needs of livestock operations. Use
of modern temporary fencing may provide one practical solution to this dilemma.
Second, long-term carrying capacity and the stocking rate must take into account
short and long-term droughts. Especially in warm climates, properly managed
grazing significantly reduces fire hazards by reducing fuel build-up in grasslands
and brush lands. Finally, the manager must achieve sufficient control to reduce
overuse in some areas while other areas go unused. Prolonged concentration of
stock that results in perennial loss of vegetative cover on uplands or in riparian
zones should be avoided. However, small scale loss of vegetative cover around
water or feed troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is adequate.
 Confined livestock production. Animal health and waste management are key
issues in confined livestock operations. Confined livestock production is
increasingly a source of surface and ground water pollutants, particularly where
there are large number of animals per unit area. Expensive waste management
facilities are now necessary cost of confined production systems. Waste is a
problem of almost all operations and must be managed with respect to both the
environment and the quality of life in nearby communities. Livestock productions
systems that disperse stock in pastures so waste are not concentrated and do not
overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a subject of renewed
interest.

The Economic, Social and Political Issues of Sustainable Agriculture

In addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production

practices, sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies,
economic institutions, and social values. Strategies for change must take into account
the complex, reciprocal and ever-changing relationship between agricultural production
and the broader society.

The “food system” extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of
individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers,
researchers, input suppliers, farm-workers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers,
consumers and policy makers. Relationship among these players shift over time as new
technologies spawn economic, social and political changes.

A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more

sustainable food system. This will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter
specific policies or practices, to the long-term tasks of reforming key institutions,
rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely-held social values. Areas of
concern where change is most needed include the following:

 Food and Agricultural Policy

Existing national laws or local government policies are often inconsistent

with sustainable agricultural goals. New policies are needed to simultaneously
promote environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic
equity. For instance, commodity and price support programs could be restructured
to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the productivity gains made possible
through alternative practices. Tax credit policies could be modified to encourage
diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate
concentration and absentee ownership. University and other government-run
research center policies could be modified to emphasize the development of
sustainable alternatives. Marketing and cosmetic standards could be amended to
encourage reduced pesticide use.
 Land Use

Conversion of agricultural lands to urban uses as well as the conversion of

forested areas to agricultural uses is a major concern in the Philippines. Rapid
growth and escalating land values threaten farming on prime agricultural lands.
Existing farmland conversion pattern often discourage farmers from adopting
sustainable practices on the long-term perspective on the value of the land. At the
same time, the close proximity of newly developed residential areas or industrial
parks is increasing public demand for environmentally safe farming practices.
Comprehensive new policies to protect prime agricultural lands and regulation of
their development is badly needed. By helping farmers to adopt practices that
reduce chemical use and conserve scarce resources, sustainable agricultural
research and education can play a key role in building support for agricultural land
preservation. Educating land use planners and decision-makers about sustainable
agriculture should be prioritized.

 Labor

In general, the conditions of agricultural labor is greatly far below accepted

standards and legal protections relative to other forms of employment. Policies
and programs are needed to address this problem, working toward socially just
and safe employment and provide adequate wages, working conditions, health
benefits, and chances for economic stability. The needs of the migrant labor for
year-round employment and adequate housing are particularly crucial problems
that must be addressed.

 Rural Community Development

Rural communities are generally characterized by economic and

environmental deterioration. Many are among the poorest locations in the nation.
Economic development policies are needed that encourage more diversified
agricultural production on family farms. In combination with other strategies,
sustainable agricultural practices and policies can help foster community
institutions that meet employment, educational, health, cultural and spiritual needs.

 Consumers and the Food System

Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food system.

Through their purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and
others in the system about what they think is important. Food costs and nutritional
quality have always influenced consumer choices. The challenge now is to find
strategies that broaden consumer perspective, so that environmental quality,
resource use, and social equity issues are also considered in shopping decisions.
At the same time, new policies and institutions must be created to enable
producers using sustainable practices to market their goods to a wider public.
Coalitions organized around improving the food system is one specific method of
 creating a dialogue among consumers, retailers, producers and others. These
coalitions or public forums can be important vehicles for clarifying issues,
suggesting new policies, increasing mutual trust, and encouraging long-term view
of food productions, distribution and consumption.

Production Systems and Crop Management

1. Lowland

Intensive cropping systems are usually concentrated on lands with

adequate water, naturally fertile soils, low to modest slope, and other
environmental characteristics conducive to high agricultural productivity. The best
agricultural lands in most of the humid tropics including the Philippines have been
cleared and converted to high-productivity agriculture. High-productivity
technologies, if improperly applied can lead to resource degradation through, for
instance, nutrient loading from fertilizers, water contamination from pesticides and
herbicides, and waterlogging and salinization of land. Food needs require that
these systems remain productive and possibly expanded in area, but they must be
stabilized through biological pest management, nutrient containment, and
improved water management.

In the Philippines, approximately 50% of lowland rice fields are rainfed and
the other 50% with adequate irrigation facilities. For the later, it is often solely
devoted to rice culture while those that are in rainfed areas, other crops like mungo,
corn, vegetables, tobacco and sweet potato may be planted especially during
periods of extended drought.

Among the practices geared to sustaining the productivity of lowland soils

include the proper choice of plants, practicing crop rotation and organic matter
augmentation to improve water movement through soil aggregation, decrease soil
crusting, decrease bulk density and increase hydraulic conductivity. When using
NH4 form of N, deep fertilizer placement at the reducing zone will minimize losses
through volatilization. When organic matter in the form of residues are added to
supplement nutrient sources, their value is increased if nutrient release through
decomposition and mineralization coincides with crop nutrient demand. Efficient
use of plant nutrients and nutrient recycling can reduce the use of fertilizer.

For rainfed lowlands planted to other crops other than rice, efficient water
management practices should be followed. When water deficit occurs during a
particular period of the growing period of a crop, the yield response to water deficit
can vary greatly depending on how sensitive the crop is at that particular growth
period.

In general, crops are more sensitive to water deficits during emergence,

flowering and early yield formation than they are during early vegetative stages
(vegetative stage after establishment or late growth period (ripening).
 In general, high producing varieties are also the most sensitive in their
response to water and other agronomic inputs. For this reason, low-producing
varieties which show less response to water may be more suitable for rainfed areas
prone to drought. To attain high yields in irrigated rice lands, it is necessary to use
high-yielding varieties which are most responsive to water, so that high water
utilization efficiency per harvested yield is obtained.

Among the recommended supplemental irrigation schedules for the

following crops are as follows:

Bean – For beans, water should be satisfied during establishment period

and early part of the flowering period.

Corn – The root zone should be wetted at or soon after planting. Where
rainfall is low and irrigation water is restricted, irrigation
scheduling should be based on the need to avoid water deficits
during the flowering period, and also during yield formation. If
there is severe water deficit during the flowering period is
unavoidable, water may be saved during the vegetative period as
well as during yield formation.

Groundnut – Depending on the level of crop evaporation and water

holding capacity of the soil, irrigation interval should vary
from 6 – 14 days for sandy soils and up to 21 days for
loamy soils, with shorter intervals during flowering when
depletion of available soil water should not exceed 40%.

Potato – When rainfall is low and supply of irrigation water is restricted,

irrigation scheduling should try to avoid water deficit during the
stolonization and tuber initiation growth period.

Soybean – Supplementary irrigation is best applied during the flowering

period.

2. Upland

In the Philippines, the uplands are a zone where both agriculture and
forestry are practiced on rolling to steep land, with slopes ranging upward from
18% (Ramos, 1991). Slopelands occupy approximately 55% of the land surface
of the country.

These slopelands are under increasing population pressures as more

people move into these areas. An estimated population of 17.8 million people now
live in the uplands. Some 8.5 million reside on public forest lands, including 5.95
million members of the indigenous cultural communities and 2.55 million migrants
from lowland groups (Cruz et al., 1988).

As the population of the Philippines surged, deforestation became a

problem. Statistics show that in 1969, out of the country’s total land area of 30
million ha, 16 million ha was covered with forests. By 1988, the forested area had
dwindled to only 6.4 million ha or 20% of the country’s total land area (Tacio, 1989).
Each year between 1970 and 1980, about 300,000 ha of forests were converted
to other uses, particularly agriculture.

Many of the upland farmers are among the poorest sectors of the
agricultural sector. For those dependent on one-crop farming system, they
experience abundance after harvest but there are times when they neither have
money nor food. There is also declining farm incomes. In one area, corn
production had dropped from 3.5 mt/ha to about 0.5 mt/ha in just ten years. Yields
of other crops had also diminished to unprofitable levels in the same period.

Upon analysis of the problem, it became apparent that the main problem of
upland farmers was not so much improved technology for growing corn and other
crops, but soil erosion. They needed a way of farming slopelands in such a way
as to conserve the topsoil and, if possible, improve fertility and productivity.

Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT – 1). This is a technology

package of soil conservation and food production that integrates several soil
conservation measures (Tacio, 1988; Evans, 1992).

Basically, the SALT method involve planting field crops and perennial crops
in bands 3 – 5 m wide between double rows of nitrogen-fixing shrubs and trees
planted along the contour. These minimize soil erosion and maintain the fertility
of the soil. Field crops include legumes, cereals and vegetables, while the main
perennial crops are cacao, coffee, banana, citrus and fruit trees (MBRLC, 1988)
as illustrated in Figure 4.10.

SALT helps considerably in the establishment of a stable ecosystem. The

double hedgerows of leguminous shrubs or trees prevent soil erosion. Their
branches are cut every 30 – 45 days and incorporated back into the soil to improve
its fertility (Palmer, 1992).

The crops provide permanent vegetative cover which aids in the

conservation of both water and soil. The legumes and the perennial crops
maintains soil and air temperatures at levels favorable for enhanced growth of the
different agricultural crops.

In the Philippines, the recommended hedgerow species used in SALT are

Flemingia macrophylla, Desmodium rensonii, Gliricidia sepium, Leucaena
diversifolia, and Calliandra calothyrsus (Tacio et al., 1987).
 The ten steps of SALT are the following:

1. Making the A-frame

2. Determining the contour lines
3. Cultivating the contour lines
4. Planting seeds of different nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs
5. Cultivating alternate strips
6. Planting permanent crops
7. Planting short-term crops
8. Trimming of nitrogen-fixing trees
9. Practicing crop rotation
10. Building green terrace

The SALT 2 technology was developed for small-scale low-income farmers

on slopelands in Tropical Asia, combines crop production with the raising of small
livestock, in this case dairy goats. A farm of only one half hectare is divided into
two parts, one for forage crops, and the other for food and cash crops. Livestock
are fed on the forage crops, mainly leguminous shrubs, which are planted in
hedgerows along the contours and around the boundary of the farm. Twelve does
raised under this system for dairy provided an annual net income of more than
$1,000, Figure 4.11.

As in SALT–1, an A-frame is used to define the contours, which are planted

in double hedgerows of leguminous shrubs and trees. The farm is divided into two
parts, one quarter of a hectare for forage crops and the remainder for agricultural
crops. The forage crops are planted in hedgerows between the strips. Of the
forage crops, 50% is planted with Desmodium rensonii, 25% with Flimingia
congesta, and 25% Gliricidia sepium. Flemingia is important in the system
because it can withstand drought better than most other forage species.

The 0.25 ha used for crops is planted in a combination of perennial cash

crops, and annual crops used for human food. Permanent crops are planted in
85% of the total area of this component, using coffee, citrus and black pepper. The
remaining 15% is allotted to annual crops such as corn, mungo, peanut, etc. The
crops which are fertilized with goat manure and/or foliage from the hedgerows,
serve as immediate source of food and income for the farmer.

The boundaries of the SALT–2 farm are planted with Gliricidia sepium, both
for forage and as boundary fence as well as source of trellis for the black pepper.
Fruit trees such as rambutan can be interspersed with the Gliricidia on two sides,
but the fruit trees should not shade the crops too much.

The goat shed, occupying a space of about 58 m2, is located right in the
center of the farm, to minimize labor in carrying the forage to the animals. The
ideal number of goats for a shed of this size is about 12 does. The buck house is
 built separately, and does are brought to the buck house only when they are in
heat.

The goats should not be kept in the farm until the forage are established.
Recommended breeds of goats are Anglo-Nubians for milk, and crossbreeds of
Nubian and native goats for meat.

Hedgerows are cut regularly and the foliage spread on the alley strips as
green manure, or fed to the goats on a cut-and-carry basis. Cutting the hedgerows
starts when they reach a height of about 1.5 – 2.0 m, and a stump of 1.0 m high is
left to coppice. During the rainy season, a farmer may have more forage than his
animals need, but he still needs to continue cutting so that the hedgerows do not
shade out agricultural crops. If there is too much green growth, the leguminous
shrubs can be used as a green manure for the agricultural crops.

As in SALT–1, crop rotation is practiced in the SALT–2 system. After every

second crop of corn, the strip is planted to legumes such as peanut and mungbean.
The corn and legumes are not utilized as feed but are sold in the market. The cash
may be used to buy concentrates for the goats, while the remaining money as
income for the farmer.

Other livestock may be raised but goat was used because there was a
greater demand for goat meat in the area. Cost and return analysis conducted at
the Mindanao Baptist Rural Life Center (MBRLC), showed that SALT-2 can
generate a monthly net profit of $113 per half hectare, with a return on investment
of 37.17%.

Table 1. Sustainable and conventional agricultural practices

Conventional
Components SA practices/technologies agricultural
practices

Soil fertility Sloping Establishing contour lines planted Synthetic

management agricultural land with nitrogen-fixing plant species fertilizers and
technology to prevent soil erosion and lime
(SALT) conserve soil

Mulching Using organic wastes/matter to

cover the soil

Composting A method where decomposition

process of organic matter is being
managed and enhanced. There
are many ways to compost
organic matter, e.g., compost
peat, compost heap, compost
 pile, etc. Sometimes enhancing
materials and effective
microorganisms are added to
hasten decomposition process

Characterized by the
Green manuring incorporation of green manures,
especially legumes, into the field
during the fallow period. Green
manure helps to provide the
necessary nitrogen needed by the
crops. Farmers apply the leaves
of legumes to the field during final
land preparation

Organic fertilizer refers to the

Organic fertilizer commercially available fertilizers
made from organic materials such
animal manure and agricultural
wastes. It could also mean animal
manure such as chicken dung,
goat, cattle, carabao manures,
etc.

Similar to organic matter

Using animal
manure
Sometimes referred to as “live
Covercropping mulching”. It also refers to
covering the soil with nitrogen-
fixing cover crops such as
mimosa, kudzu, centrosema, etc.

Planting rows of nitrogen-fixing

plant species along rows of
Hedgerows coconut, fruit trees, etc.to
enhance organic matter content
of the soil

Planting of legumes

Integration and
utilization of
nitrogen-fixing
plants
Plant pest Integrated pest Using pesticides as a last resort Pesticides
and disease management
prevention (IPM)
and
management Community Learning the dynamics of
ecology community ecology to be able to
effectively manage different
pests, predators, microorganisms,
etc.

Incorporation of Planting of pest-repellant and

pest-repellant predator-attractant plant species
plants and
natural pest-
enemy
attractants
Preparation of mixtures and
Concoction of solutions as substitutes for
extracts and pesticides
solutions for
“biospray”

Cropping Polyculture Diversity of crops is maintained Monoculture

patterns through space and time
Intercropping

Relay cropping

Multistorey
cropping

Crop rotation

Seeds and Traditional Seed selection High-yielding

planting varieties varieties
materials
Improved lines Hybrid

Natural breeds Natural breeding (as Inbred

differentiated from genetic
engineering) Genetically
modified
organisms

Farm system Design of farm Farm system design is deliberate No plan or

system is defined and intended limited plan
 Farm planning Long-range farm plan to respond
to short-, medium- and long-term
farmers’ needs

Integration of Animals are raised up to the level

animals that is possible

Marketing Fair trade Transparent trade Trade

and trade liberalization
Associative Consumer/producer arrangement
economics

Summary
 Agriculture is sustainable when it is ecologically sound, economically viable,
socially just and equitable, culturally appropriate, and adaptable.
 The three groups according to the different strategies of broad themes or goals of
sustainable agriculture are 1) Farming and Natural Resources; 2) Plant and
Animal Production Practices; and 3) Economic, Social and Political Issues.
 The production system and crop management was categorized under lowland or
upland area.
 Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT – 1) is considered a technology
package of soil conservation and food production that integrates several soil
conservation measures.

Post-Assessment
Read and understand the module. This will help in taking our final exam.

Reference

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