MODULE 1

DC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

4
 LECTURE 1

 Electric charge: Electric charge is a basic property of matter carried by some

elementary particles that govern how the particles are affected by an electric or
magnetic field.

Figure 1.1 Illustration of positive and negative charge

 Electric charge, which can be positive or negative, is neither created nor

destroyed.
 Electrons have a negative charge and protons have an equal positive charge,
but neutrons have zero charges.
 The International System of Unit (SI unit) of electric charge is Coulomb
and abbreviated as C.
 An electron itself has a negative charge of 1.602176634 × 10−19 C and a
proton has a positive 1.6 × 10−19 C of charge.
 Electric charge law: Opposite charges attract similar charges repels each
other.

 Types of material

(a) (b)

Figure 1.2 (a) Copper atomic structure (b) Energy band diagram of materials

5
Valance band: valence band corresponds to the energy level of electrons present in
the valence shell (outermost shell) of an atomic structure.
Conduction band: A conduction band is defined as that energy band that consists of
free electrons that are responsible for conduction. The electrons that get moved out
from the valence band by experiencing external force reaches the higher energy band
to support conduction.
Bandgap: The energy difference between the highest occupied energy state of the
valence band and the lowest unoccupied state of the conduction band is called the
bandgap and is indicative of the electrical conductivity of a material.
 A large bandgap means that a lot of energy is required to excite valence
electrons to the conduction band.
 When the valence band and conduction band overlap as they do in metals,
electrons can readily jump between the two bands (see Figure 1) meaning the
material is highly conductive.
Table 1.1 Classification of material and their bandgap
Materials Bandgap (electron volt)
Conductor 0
Semiconductor Conventional: 1-1.5
Wide bandgap semiconductors: 2-4
Insulators Conventional: >4
Perfect insulator: >15
Table 1.2 Bandgap and conductivity of different materials at room temperature

Materials Bandgap (electron volt)

Copper/Conductors 0
Silicon 1.12
SiO2 9
Germanium 0.67
GaAs 1.43
Diamond 5.5
 As the temperature of a conductor is increased the thermal agitation increases
which increase the rate of collisions. This leads to an increase in resistivity.
Therefore, they have a positive temperature coefficient.

6
  Semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient because more free
charge carriers (electrons and/ or holes) are available for conduction.
 Electric potential, potential difference, and voltage
Electric potential: the amount of work needed to move a unit charge from a reference
point to a specific point against an electric field.

Figure 1.3 Illustration of electric potential

Figure 1.4 Illustration of potential difference and voltage

 In Figure 1.3 to move the charge q from plate A to plate B, an equal and
opposite force (F = −qE) must then be applied. Where q is charge and E is
electric field strength. The work W done in moving the positive charge
through a distance d is W = Fd = −qEd.

 The potential energy for a positive charge increases when it moves against
an electric field and decreases when it moves with the electric field; the
opposite is true for a negative charge.

 SI unit of the electric potential is joules per coulomb or volts, abbreviated

as V.

Potential difference and voltage: A voltage which is a measure of electric

potential difference and defined as the work to be done, upon a unit charge to

7
 move between two points, against a static electric field. The SI unit of voltage is
volts abbreviated as V.

In a circuit, voltage drop/potential difference in a component or between two

points is measured by connecting a voltmeter in parallel.

Current: it is a measure of the rate of flow of electric charge and denoted as I.

dq
I C/s or Ampere (A)
dt

Q
The average current is expressed as I  A
t

A wire is said to carry a current of one ampere when charge flows through it at
the rate of one coulomb per second.

In a circuit, the current through a component or wire is measured by connecting

an ammeter in series.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Estimate the increase in the electric charge storage capacity in
coulomb if a mobile phone battery capacity is improved from 3000 mAh to 5000
mAh.

SOLUTION:
1000 mAh: The battery can provide 1 A (1000 mA) current for 1 hr (3600
seconds).
SI unit of current: Ampere (A)
SI unit of time: Second (s)
3000 x3600
Initial capacity  3000   10800 C
1000
5000 x3600
Desired capacity  5000   18000 C
1000
Increment  18000 10800  7200 C

 Resistor: conductivity, resistivity, resistance, and color code

Conductivity: It is a fundamental material's property to conduct electric current. It is

commonly signified by the Greek letter σ (sigma) and the SI unit of electrical
conductivity is siemens per meter (S/m).

Relation in conductivity and resistivity: Conductivity is the inverse (reciprocal) of

resistivity.

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 1
  S/m or ℧/m (moh/meter)


Resistance: It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes

(or restricts) the flow of electricity (i.e., electrons) through it. The SI unit of resistance
is the ohm (Ω).

For conductors, smaller units like milli-ohm = 10−3 ohm or micro-ohm = 10−6 ohm are
used.

For insulators a much bigger unit is used i.e., mega-ohm = 106 ohms or kilo-ohm =
103 ohms (kilo means thousand).

At a constant temperature, the resistance R of a conductor is calculated as:

l
R Ω
A

Figure 1.5 Resistance of a conductor

Table 1.3 Resistivity of materials

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Resistivity or specific resistance: Specific resistance is the nature of a material may
be defined as the resistance between the opposite faces of a meter cube (Figure 1.5) of
that material. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI
unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-meter (Ω⋅m).

EXAMPLE 1.2 Estimate the resistance of a 1 km long transmission line

composed of 19 strands of similar copper conductors, each strand being 0.66 mm
in radius. The resistivity of copper may be taken as 1.72 × 10 −8 Ω-m.

Figure 1. 6 Copper wire strands

SOLUTION:
The cross section area of one strand = πr2 = π × (0.66x10-3)2 = 1.37 × 10-6 m2
The cross section area of 19 strand = 19 × 1.37 × 10-6 m2 = 26.03 × 10-6 m2
Length of the transmission line = 1000 m
Resistivity of copper = 1.72 × 10−8 Ω-m
8
l 1000
R  1.72 x10  0.66 Ω
A 26.03x10 6
Resistor color code:
Color Digit Multiplier Tolerance (%)
Black 0 100
Brown 1 101 1
Red 2 102 2
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105 0.5
Blue 6 106 0.25
Violet 7 107 0.1
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10
(none) 20

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4-band Color Code:

Figure 1. 7 4-band resistor color code

‘a’ represents the 1 st significant digit

‘b’ represents the 2nd significant digit
‘c’ represents the multiplier
‘e’ represents the tolerance
Resistance = ab × c ± e%
Brown Black Red Gold
st nd
1 significant digit
2 significant digit Multiplier Tolerance
1 0 102 5%
10 × 102 ± 5 % (950-1050 Ω)

5-band Color Code:

Figure 1. 8 5-band resistor color code

‘a’ represents the 1 st significant digit

‘b’ represents the 2nd significant digit
‘c’ represents the 3 rd significant digit
‘d’ represents the multiplier
‘e’ represents the tolerance
Resistance = abc × d ± e%
Brown Black Black Brown Red
st nd rd
1 significant digit 2 significant digit 3 significant digit Multiplier Tolerance
1 0 0 101 2%
1
100 × 10 ± 2 % (980-1020 Ω)

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 LECTURE 2

WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY

Today, life without electricity is highly unimaginable. Electric locomotives, heaters,

and fans are some of the appliances and machines which convert electricity into work
and energy.

 Effect of electric current: It is a matter of common experience that a conductor,

when carrying current, becomes hot after some time. An electric current is just a
directed flow or drift of electrons. The moving electrons as they pass through
molecules of atoms of that substance, collide with other electrons. This electronic
collision results in the production of heat.

 Joules Law of Electric Heating: The amount of work required to maintain a current
of I amperes through a resistance of R ohm for t second is

W.D(Work Done) = I2 Rt joules …….(2.1)

= VIt joules ( R = V/I)

= Wt joules (W = VI)

= V2t/R joules (I = V/R)

This work is converted into heat and is dissipated away. The amount of heat
produced is
.
= = ……….(2.2)

Where J = 4186 Joules/Kcal = 4200 Joules/Kcal

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 EXAMPLE 2.1 Two heater A and B are in parallel across supply voltage V. Heater A
produces 500 kcal in 20 min. and B produces 1000 kcal in 10 min. The resistance of A
is 10 ohm. What is the resistance of B? If the same heaters are connected in series
across the voltage V, how much heat will be produced in kcal in 5 min?

SOLUTION: Heat produced = kcal

×( × )
For heater A, 500 = ……..(i)
×
×( × )
For heater B, 1000 = ……..(ii)
×
From equation (i) and (ii) we get R = 2.5Ω

When the two heaters are connected in series, let H be the amount of heat produced in
kcal. Since combined resistance is (10 + 2.5) = 12.5 Ω, hence

×( × )
= …….. (iii)
. ×

Divide equation (iii) by (i) we get H = 100 Kcal

 Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured in amperes (A).
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and time t is

= …….. (2.3)

Where the current is measured in amperes (A), and

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

The charge transferred between time t0 and t is obtained by integrating both sides of
Eq. (2.3). We obtain

=∫ ……… (2.4)

 The voltage between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the energy (or work)
needed to move a unit charge from a to b; mathematically

= ………(2.5)

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage is
measured in volts (V).

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 Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through
an element, measured in volts (V).

 Power and Energy:

Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric circuit, they are
not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we need to know how much
power an electric device can handle. We all know from experience that a 100-watt
bulb gives more light than a 60-watt bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills to
the electric utility companies, we are paying for the electric energy consumed over a
certain period of time. Thus, power and energy calculations are important in circuit
analysis.

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W).

We write this relationship as

= ……..(2.6)

where p is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s).

= = . = ……(2.7)

= ……(2.8)

Passive sign convention is satisfied when the current enters through the positive
terminal of an element and p = +vi. If the current enters through the negative terminal,
p = -vi.

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Figure 1.1 Reference polarities for power using the passive sign convention: (a)
absorbing power, (b) supplying power.

The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in an electric circuit. For this
reason, the algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:

∑p = 0 ……(2.9)

This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the circuit must balance
the total power absorbed. the energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time to
time t is

=∫ =∫ ……(3.0)

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J)

The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh), where

1 Wh = 3,600 J

EXAMPLE 2.2 How much energy does a 100-W electric bulb consume in two hours?

SOLUTION: w = pt = 100 (W) × 2 (h) ×60 (min/h) ×60 (s/min)

= 720,000 J = 720 kJ

This is the same as

w = pt = 100 W × 2 h = 200 Wh

Table 1.1 : Typical average monthly consumption of household

appliances.

kWh kWh
Appliance consumed Appliance consumed
Water heater 500 Washing machine 120
Freezer 100 Stove 100
Lighting 100 Dryer 80
Dishwasher 35 Microwave oven 25
Electric iron 15 Personal 12

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 computer
TV 10 Radio 8
Toaster 4 Clock 2

Electricity Bills: The second application deals with how an electric utility company
charges its customers. The cost of electricity depends upon the amount of energy
consumed in kilowatt-hours (kWh). However, even if a consumer uses no energy at
all, there is a minimum service charge the customer must pay because it costs money
to stay connected to the power line. It is interesting to note the average monthly
consumption of household appliances for a family of five, shown in Table 1.1.

EXAMPLE 2.3 A homeowner consumes 700 kWh in January. Determine the

electricity bill for the month using the following residential rate schedule:

Base monthly charge of $12.00.

First 100 kWh per month at 16 cents/kWh.
Next 200 kWh per month at 10 cents/kWh.
Over 300 kWh per month at 6 cents/kWh.

SOLUTION: We calculate the electricity bill as follows.

Base monthly charge = $12.00

First 100 kWh @ $0.16/k Wh= $16.00
Next 200 kWh @ $0.10/k Wh= $20.00
Remaining 400 kWh @ $0.06/k Wh =$24.00
Total charge = $72.00

$72
= = 10.2 / ℎ
100 + 200 + 400

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S.I. Units

1.Kilowatt-hour (kWh) and kilocalorie (kcal)

J
1Kwh = 1000 × 1 × 3600s = 36 × 10 J
s
1Kcal = 4,186 J

2.Miscellaneous Units

J
(i)1 watt hour (Wh) = 1 × 3600s = 3600 J
s
Kg
(ii)1 horse power (metric ) = 75 m − = 75 × 9.8 = 735.5 J/s or watt
s
(iii)1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W and 1 megawatt (MW) = 106 W

EXAMPLE 2.4 A factory has a 240-V supply from which the following loads are
taken :

Lighting : Three hundred 150-W, four hundred 100 W and five hundred
60-W lamps

Heating : 100 kW

Motors : A total of 44.76 kW (60 b.h.p.) with an average efficiency

of 75 percent

Misc. : Various load taking a current of 40 A.

Assuming that the lighting load is on for 4 hours/day, the heating for 10 hours per day
and the remainder for 2 hours/day, calculate the weekly consumption of the factory in
kWh when working on a 5 day a week?

The power consumed by each load can be

tabulated as given below :

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18
 LECTURE 3

 Power Sources: The source which supplies the active power to the network is known
as the electrical power source. The power source is of two types namely

 Independent source
 Dependent source

 Independent Source: The magnitude (value) of an independent source does not

depend upon the current in the circuit or voltage across any other element in the
circuit. There are two types of independent sources.

 Independent Voltage Source: An independent voltage source is a two-terminal

network element that establishes a specified voltage across its terminals. The value of
this voltage at any instant is independent of the voltage or current. The terminal
voltage may be a constant, or it may be some specified function of time. The symbols
for such voltage sources are shown in Fig. 1.3.1.

Fig.1.3.1 Symbols for independent voltage source

Fig. 1.3.2 Symbols for independent current source

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 Independent Current Source: An independent current source is a two-terminal
network element that produces a specified current. The value and direction of this
current at any instant is independent of the other voltage or current. The output current
may be a constant or it may be a function of time. The symbols for such current
sources are shown in Fig. 1.3.2.

 Dependent Source: The magnitude (value) of a dependent source gets changed due to
some other current or voltage in the circuit. A dependent source is represented by a
diamond-shaped symbol. These sources are also called controlled sources. These
sources are classified into four types, depending on whether the control variable is
voltage or current and the controlled source is a voltage source or current source.

1. Voltage-Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS): A voltage-controlled voltage

source (VCVS) is a four-terminal network component that establishes a voltage
between two points and in the circuit that is proportional to a voltage
between two points and . The symbol for such a source is shown in Fig.
1.3.3.

The (+) and (−) sign inside the diamond of the component symbol identifies the
component as a voltage source.

Fig. 1.3.3 Symbol for VCVS

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 The voltage depends upon the control voltage and the constant µ, a
dimensionless constant called voltage gain.

2. Voltage-Controlled Current Source (VCCS): A voltage-controlled current

source (VCCS) is a four-terminal network component that establishes a current
in a branch of the circuit that is proportional to a voltage between two
points and . The symbol for such a source is shown in Fig. 1.3.4.

The arrow inside the diamond of the component symbol identifies the component
as a current source.

Fig. 1.3.4 Symbol for VCCS

The current depends upon the control voltage and the constant , called
the transconductance with unit amp/volt or siemens (S).

Fig. 1.3.5 Symbol for CCVS

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 3. Current-Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS): A current-controlled voltage
source (CCVS) is a four-terminal network component that establishes a voltage
between two points and in the circuit that is proportional to the current
in a branch of the circuit. The symbol for such a source is shown in Fig.
1.3.5.
The voltage depends upon the control current and the constant r is called
transresistance with unit vol/amp or ohm (Ω).

4. Current-Controlled Current Source (CCCS) : A current-controlled current

source (CCCS) is a four-terminal network component that establishes a current
in a branch of the circuit that is proportional to a current in some branch
of the network. The symbol for such a source is shown in Fig. 1.3.6.

Fig. 1.3.6 Symbol for CCCS

The current depends upon the control current and the constant ,
called the current gain.

 Series and Parallel Connections

There are two basic configurations of resistors within circuits: series and parallel.

 Series Connection: In a series configuration, the resistors are connected in a single

path so that the charge must travel through them in sequence. For circuits containing
resistors in a series configuration shown in Fig. 1.3.7(a), the same amount of current
will flow through every component, but the voltage will change. The equivalent

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 resistance of the series connection of N resistors is calculated by applying the
following equation:

= + + ⋯+

Fig. 1.3.7 (a) Series Connection (b) Parallel Connection

 Parallel Connection: A parallel configuration of resistors, allows multiple paths for

the charge to travel throughout the circuit. The resistors in the circuit shown in Fig.
1.3.7(b) are in a parallel configuration, and the voltage will remain the same across
each resistor. The current will change. The equivalent resistance is calculated using
the following formula:

1 1 1 1
= + + ⋯+

 Simplifications of DC Circuits: In reality, most circuits are not in a basic series or

parallel configuration, but rather consist of a complex combination of series and
parallel resistances. Those circuits can be simplified using star-delta connections.

The key to simplifying circuits is to combine complex series-parallel arrangements of

resistors into one main resistor.

The general rules for solving these types of problems are as follows:

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1. Start simplifying the circuit as far away from the terminals of equivalent resistance
as possible.

2. Reduce series and parallel configurations into equivalent resistances ( ).

3. Continue, moving towards the terminals until a single equivalent resistor represents
the entire resistor network.

Example 1: What will be the equivalent resistance between terminals P and Q of the
ladder network shown in Figure 1.3.

Fig. 1.3.8

By considering series and parallel connection of resistors, the equivalent resistance

across terminals P and Q is determined as below.

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 So, the equivalent resistance, R between terminals P and Q is
×
= = Ω
+
 Star Delta Transformation: When a circuit cannot be simplified by normal series-
parallel reduction technique, the star-delta transformation can be used.

Figure 1.3.9 (a) shows three resistors , and connected in delta.

Figure 1.3.9 (b) shows three resistors , and connected in star.

Fig. 1.3.9 (a) Delta network (b) Star network

 Delta to Star Conversion:

In this case, , and are to be written in terms of , and .

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 Referring to the delta network in Fig. 1.3.9 (a), the equivalent resistance across the
terminals 1 and 2 will be
( + )
= ||( + )=
+ +

Referring to the star network in Fig. 1.3.9 (b), the equivalent resistance across the
terminals 1 and 2 will be

= +

Since both networks are electrically equivalent.

( + )
+ =
+ +

Similarly,
( + )
+ =
+ +

and
( + )
+ =
+ +

By solving the above three equations, The resistance in the star network will be

=
+ +

Similarly,

=
+ +

and
=
+ +

 Star to Delta Conversion:

In this case, , and are to be written in terms of , and .

Multiplying the above equations,

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 =
( + + )

=
( + + )

=
( + + )

Adding above three equations,

( + + )
+ + = =
( + + ) + +

Using Equation of delta to star conversion

+ + = = =

Hence,
+ +
=

+ +
=

+ +
=

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Example 1: Find an equivalent resistance between A and B in the network given Fig.
1.3.10

Fig. 1.3.10

Converting the two delta networks formed by resistors of 4.5 Ω, 3 Ω, and 7.5 Ω into
equivalent star networks.

Simplifying the network by using a series-parallel combination.

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 = . Ω

Example 2: Find equivalent resistance Rab using star to delta ?

Solution :

29
 LECTURE 4

 Ohm’s Law: There are certain formulas in Physics that are so powerful and so
pervasive that they reach the state of popular knowledge. Ohm’s Law is one of the
laws in the field of current electricity. The most important, the relationship between
current, voltage, and resistance is called Ohm’s Law, discovered by Georg Simon
Ohm in 1827 paper. Before we start Ohm’s Law we must know about current,
voltage, and resistance.

Ohm’s Law and Equation:

Georg Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing
through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage applied across
it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance.

Ohm Law expressed of a simple equation, describing how voltage current and
resistance interrelate. V=IR

To find the Voltage, ( V )

[ V = I x R ] V (volts) = I (amps) x R (Ω)
To find the Current, ( I )
[I=V÷R] I (amps) = V (volts) ÷ R (Ω)
To find the Resistance, ( R )
[R=V÷I] R (Ω) = V (volts) ÷ I (amps)

Analyzing Simple Circuits with Ohm’s Law

Let’s see how these equations might work to help us analyze simple circuits:

In the above circuit, there is only one source of voltage (the battery, on the left) and
only one source of resistance to current (the lamp, on the right). This makes it very

30
 easy to apply Ohm’s Law. In this example, we will calculate the amount of current (I)
in a circuit, given values of voltage (E) and resistance (R):

What is the amount of current (I) in this circuit?

 Source transformation

Source Transformation simply means replacing one source by an equivalent source.

A practical voltage source can be transformed into an equivalent practical current
source and similarly a practical current source into voltage source.

Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source

When the voltage source is connected with the resistance in series and it has to be
converted into the current source than the resistance is connected in parallel with the
current source as shown in the above figure.

Where Is = Vs /R

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Conversion of Current Source into Voltage Source

In the above circuit diagram, a current source which is connected in parallel with the
resistance is transformed into a voltage source by placing the resistance in series
with the voltage source.

Where, Vs = Is / R

Example 4.1: Use source transformation to find the output voltage ( ).

We first transform the current and voltage sources to obtain the circuit in (a).
Combining the 2 Ω and 4 Ω resistors in series and transforming the 12-V
voltage source gives us (b). We now combine the 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in
parallel to get 2 Ω. We also combine the 2-A and 4-A current sources (in
opposite direction) to get a 2-A source. Thus, by repeatedly applying source
transformations, we obtain the circuit in (c).

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 Current, i = 2 × = 0.4

So, = (0.4 × 8) = 3.2

 Voltage and Current Division Rule: The voltage or current division rule is used to
solve circuits to simplify the solution.

Voltage Division Rule:

The voltage is divided between two series resistors in direct proportion to their
resistance. The voltage division rule can be understood by considering a series circuit
shown below. In a series circuit, voltage is divided, whereas the current remains the
same.

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Current Division Rule:

A parallel circuit acts as a current divider as the current divides in all the branches in
a parallel circuit, and the voltage remains the same across them. The current division
rule determines the current across the circuit impedance. The current division is
explained with the help of the circuit shown below.

consider an electrical circuit which contains a single current source and two
parallel resistors. The current It enters the node. A parallel circuit has the same
voltage across all components, but current always divide into parallel
components. We are interested to find the current flowing through resistor Rx.
The formula for current divider law is now:

34
Example 4.2: Three resistors are connected together to form a current divider
circuit as shown below. If the circuit is fed from a 100 volts 1.5kW power supply,
calculate the individual branch currents using the current division rule and the
equivalent circuit resistance. (Current Division rule)

Solution

We know that

= =

Putting the value of P and R, we will get

I= = 15 A

Equivalent resistance of the circuit is given by:

Req = 10 || 25 || 100 = 6.667 Ω

.
IR1= × = 15 × = 10 A

Similarly, IR2 = 4 A and IR3 = 1 A

35
 LECTURE-5

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): KVL is Kirchhoff’s second law which is applied
across a closed path.

+ V2 -
+ +
V1 V3
- -
- V4 +

Figure 5.1: A simple circuit with four elements showing the potential difference
across them.

 KCL is based on the principle of conservation of charge while KVL is based

on the principle of conservation of energy. So, total work done in taking a unit
positive charge around a closed path (ending up at the originating point) must
be equal to zero.
 Mathematically, KVL states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path (or loop) is zero. In other words, sum of emfs taken around a
closed path is equal to the sum of voltage drops around that closed path.

∑V = 0
 In other words, sum of voltage rises (or falls) across all the
elements around a loop is zero. While applying KVL around a
loop, we should use only one voltage convention at a time; either
voltage rise or fall across all the elements of that loop.
 It may be also stated that sum of voltage rises must be balanced by
sum of voltage falls around a loop.
 The potential difference across an element (including voltage
source) happens to be voltage rise (fall) while entering the current
at negative (positive) terminal and leaving at positive (negative)
terminal.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.1, applying KVL in clock-wise direction yields;

36
 -V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0

Since voltage fall convention is used, and current enters at negative terminal
and leaves at positive (i.e. voltage rise), the sign of V1 is taken to be negative
(across the same element, voltage rise can be treated as negative of voltage fall).

It may be rewritten as,

V1 = V2 + V 3 + V4 (i.e. Total voltage rise = Total voltage fall)

 KVL can be applied by taking either a clockwise or a counter-clockwise

trip around the loop. Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the
loop is going to be zero.
 KCL is valid only if the total electric charge is constant in the circuit while
KVL assumes that there is no changing magnetic field within the closed
circuit. An emf could be induced which causes KVL to break in the
presence of a variable magnetic field.
 KCL and KVL both are indeed valid even if the circuit contains diodes,
transistors, or any other non-linear element. The theorem which is not
valid with the non-linear elements in the circuit is the principle of
superposition.
 Sign conventions used while applying KVL (assuming voltage fall
convention):

 The voltage is taken as negative when tracing through a voltage

source from negative to positive (voltage rise).
 The voltage is taken as positive when tracing through a voltage
source from positive to negative (voltage fall).
 The voltage is taken as positive when tracing through a resistor in
the direction of current flow (voltage fall as current always flows
from higher to lower potential).
 The voltage is taken as negative when tracing through a resistor in
the opposite direction of the current (potential rise).
 In simple words, the sign of the voltage across a circuit element is
the same as the polarity of the current entering terminal.

37
 EXAMPLE 5.1 Determine v0 and i in the circuit shown by Fig. 5.2 using KVL.

2Ω
2V0
8V

4V

6Ω

+V - 0

Figure 5.2: A circuit for which v0 and i are to be determined using KVL.

SOLUTION: Applying KVL around closed path yields;

−8 + 2 + 2 −4+6 =0 (5.1)

Applying Ohm’s law across 6Ω resistor gives;

= −6 (5.2)

After substituting the value of from eq. (5.2) into eq. (5.1), we get

= −3 and = 18V

 Mesh Analysis: Nodal analysis is based on KCL while mesh analysis is based on
KVL. This method is preferred when the circuit has several voltage sources.
 A mesh is a loop in a planer circuit that doesn’t enclose any other loop within
it. So, each branch belongs to at most two number of meshes.

 If a circuit can be drawn on a plane surface in such a way that no branch

passes over or under any other branch, then that circuit is said to be a
planar circuit. Nodal analysis is mostly preferred for non-planar circuits.

 Here, mesh currents (currents that flow only around the perimeter of a mesh)
are the unknown parameters. One of the greatest advantages of using mesh
currents is the fact that KCL is automatically satisfied.
 Summary of Mesh analysis procedure:

 Verify the circuit whether it is a planner or not. If not, need to perform

nodal analysis instead.

38
  Count the total number of meshes (N) and redraw the circuit if needed
 Label each of the mesh (N) currents (generally in clock-wise direction).
 Apply KVL around each mesh and write the equations. If a current
source lies on the periphery of a mesh, no KVL equation is needed.
 If current sources or dependent sources appear in the circuit, need to
express them in terms of appropriate mesh currents.
 If the circuit contains current sources (both independent and dependent)
shared by two meshes, need to form a super mesh enclosing both
meshes by excluding the current sources.
 Solve the set of equations for mesh currents.

Mesh analysis of circuits with resistors and independent voltage sources

 The branch current is the same as the mesh current if that branch belongs to one
mesh i.e. the corresponding mesh only.
 If a branch belongs to two meshes, the branch current is the difference between
these two mesh currents.
 Unlike nodal analysis, a mesh current may not flow through any of its branches
when all branches of a mesh belong to two meshes.
 Here, KCL is also used in mesh analysis to find the branch current flowing
through the common branch.
R33

i3

R13 R23
R11 R22
R12

i1 i2 V2
V1

Figure 5.3: Illustration of mesh analysis with an independent voltage

source.

For Mesh-1, KVL yields;

i1 R11  (i1  i3 ) R13  (i1  i2 ) R12  V1
(5.3)

Eq. (5.3) can be rearranged as:

i1(R11  R12  R13 )  i3R13  i2R12  V1 (5.4)

39
 o The coefficient of i1 (mesh current of Mesh-1) is the sum of the resistance
value of all the resistors in Mesh-1.
o The coefficient of i2 and i3 are negative of the resistance value of common
resistors of Mesh-1 with Mesh-2 and 3, respectively.

For Mesh-2, KVL yields;

i2 (R12  R23  R22 )  i1R12  i3R23  V2 (5.5)

Similarly, for Mesh-3;

i3(R13  R23  R33 )  i1R13  i2R23  0 (5.6)

o All the mesh currents (i.e. i1, i2, and i3) can be determined by solving eq.
(5.4), (5.5) and (5.6).

Mesh analysis of circuits with resistors and current-controlled voltage source

 Dependent sources generally require an additional equation besides the N
mesh equations, unless the controlling variable (here current i.e. ix) is a
mesh current itself.

For Mesh-1, KVL yields;

i1(R11  R12  R13 )  i3R13  i2R12  V1 (5.7)

R33

ix i3

R13 R23
R11 R22
R12

i1 i2 Rv ix
V1

Figure 5.4: Illustration of mesh analysis with the current-controlled voltage

source.

For Mesh-2, KVL yields;

i2 (R12  R23  R22 )  i1R12  i3R23  Rvix (5.8)

40
ix is the branch current flowing across the branch common to Mesh-1 and 3. So,
after applying KCL,

ix  i1  i3 (5.9)

After substituting ix from eq. (5.9) into (5.8), we get

i2 (R12  R23  R22 )  i1 (R12  Rv )  i3 (R23  Rv )  0 (5.10)

For Mesh-3, KVL gives;

i3(R13  R23  R33 )  i1R13  i2R23  0 (5.11)

o All the mesh currents (i.e. i1, i2, and i3) can be determined by solving eq.
(5.7), (5.10) and (5.11).

Mesh analysis of circuits with resistors and voltage-controlled voltage

source
R33

i3
+ Vx -
R13 R23
R11 R22
R12

i1 i2 k Vx
V1

Figure 5.5: Illustration of mesh analysis with the voltage-controlled voltage

source.

o The procedure to determine the mesh currents is the same as discussed for
the circuit with a current-controlled voltage source. The only difference is
the controlling variable which is voltage i.e. (across resistor R13) in this
case.
Vx  (i1  i3 )R13 (5.12)

So, now eq. (5.10) is changed to:

i2 (R12  R23  R22 )  i1(R12  kR13 )  i3 (R23  kR13 )  0 (5.13)

o All the mesh currents (i.e. i1, i2, and i3) can be found out by solving eq.
(5.7), (5.11) and (5.13).

41
 Mesh analysis of circuits with resistors and current-controlled current
source
R33

i3
ix

R13 R23
R11 R22
R12 k ix

i1 i2 V2
V1

Figure 5.6: Illustration of mesh analysis with a current-controlled current source.

o Since the voltage across the branch having current source is not known,
we need to form a super mesh by combining two meshes (Mesh-1 and 2)
for which this current source is common.

For super mesh (Mesh-1+Mesh-2), KVL yields;

i1 (R11  R13 )  i2 (R23  R22 )  i3 (R13  R23 )  V1 V2

(5.14)

For Mesh-3, KVL gives;

i3 (R13  R23  R33 )  i1R13  i2 R23  0 (5.15)

And for the current source (branch current using KCL),

kix  i1  i2 (5.16a)
where, ix  i1  i3
(5.16b)

After substituting the value for ix from eq. (5.16b) to (5.16a),

k(i1  i3 )  i1  i2 (5.16)

o All the mesh currents (i.e. i1, i2, and i3) can be found out by solving eq.
(5.14), (5.15) and (5.16).

42
 Mesh analysis of circuits with resistors and voltage-controlled current
source
R33

i3
+ Vx -
R13 R23
R11 R22
R12 GxVx

i1 i2 V2
V1

Figure 5.7: Illustration of mesh analysis with a voltage-controlled current source.

o The procedure to determine the mesh currents is the same as discussed for
the circuit with a current-controlled current source. The only difference is
the controlling variable which is voltage (across resistor R13) in this case.

For current source (branch current using KCL),

GxVx  i1  i2

where, Vx  (i1  i3 )R13

After substituting the value of Vx from eq.(5.17b) into (5.17a),

Gx R13 (i1  i3 )  i1  i2
All the mesh currents (i.e. i1, i2, and i3) can be found out by solving eq. (5.14),
(5.15) and (5.17).

EXAMPLE 5.2 Find the voltage across 10Ω resistor i.e. Vx using mesh analysis.

14Ω

i2
4Ω 10Ω
10V
i1 _ V +
x

3V i3

8Ω

Figure 5.8: Circuit with resistors and independent voltage sources.

43
SOLUTION: Applying KVL about each mesh;

10  4(i1  i2 )  3  0 (Mesh-1)

(5.18)

10(i2  i3 ) 14i2  0 (Mesh-2)

(5.19)

3 10(i3  i2 )  8i3  0 (Mesh-3)

(5.20)

After solving eq. (5.18), (5.19) and (5.20),

i1  2.220A, i2  0.470A, and i3  0.428A

Applying Ohm’s law across 10Ω resistor,

Vx  (i2  i3) 10  0.420V

EXAMPLE 5.3 Determine i1 and i2 in the circuit of Fig. 5.9 if the controlling
parameter Ax is equal to (a) 2ix and (b)
2Ω 3Ω

+
5Ω Vx 6V
_
2V
i1 i2

ix
Ax 4Ω
2Vx.

Figure 5.9: Circuit with a dependent voltage source.

SOLUTION:

For Mesh-1, KVL yields;

7i1  5i2  Ax  2  0

For Mesh-2, KVL yields;

5i1 12i2  6  0

(a) Ax  2ix where ix  i2

Ax  2i2

44
After substituting the value of Ax from eq. (5.23) to eq. (5.21),

7i1  7i2  2  0
(5.24)

After solving eq. (5.22) and (5.24), we get

i1  1.35A and i2  1.06 A

(b) Ax  2Vx where Vx  5(i1  i2 )

Ax  10(i1  i2 )

After substituting the value of Ax from eq. (5.25) to eq. (5.21),

3i1  5i2  2  0

After solving eq. (5.22) and (5.26), we get

i1  0.546A and i2  0.727A

EXAMPLE 5.4 Use the super mesh concept to solve for Vx in the circuit

Solution: When a current source is present between two meshes, we remove

branch the branch having the current source and then the remaining loop is
known as super mesh.

45
 LECTURE 6

 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL):

“The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must equal zero.”

Or

“The currents entering a node are exactly equal in value to the currents leaving the
node.”

Or even

“What goes into a node must come out again”.

Figure 1 Illustration of currents entering and leaving the node

 Choose a sign convention such that currents entering the node are positive,
then currents leaving the node are negative.
 KCL applied at the node results in:

( )+ ( )− ( )=0

46
 Or
 Choose a sign convention that currents entering the node are negative,
then currents leaving the node are positive.

 KCL applied at this node results in:

− ( )− ( )+ ( )=0

 Example 1: determine the value of the current, i

 Approach 1: Sum the currents, assuming positive currents are entering the node:
4A−(−1A)−2A−i=0⇒4A+1A−2A=3A

 Approach 2: Sum the currents, assuming positive currents are leaving the
node:

−4A+(−1A)+2A+i=0⇒i=4A+1A−2A=3A

 Example 2: Let's switch our assumed direction for the current i in example 1:

47
 4A−(−1A)−2A+i=0⇒i=−4A−1A+2A=−3A

 The negative sign on i means that the current is in the opposite direction to that
shown in the diagram.

 Example 6.1: What are the currents I1 and I2 in the circuit below?

 Solution:

 Now, applying KCL at node A,

1A+I1=0 So I1=−1A.
 Now, apply KCL at node B,
−I1−I2−2A=0.
−(−1A)−I2−2A=0,

48
 I2=−1A.
 For example, if we apply KCL at the bottommost node in the circuit:
1A−I2−2A=0.
I2=−1A

 Example 6.2: What are the currents I1 and I2 in the circuit below?

 Solution: I1=−1A and I2=−5A.

 Nodal analysis: The nodal analysis is a systematic way of applying KCL at each
essential node of a circuit and represents the branch current in terms of the node
voltages.

49
  Some Features of Nodal Analysis are:

 Having ‘n’ nodes there will be ‘n-1’ simultaneous equations to solve.

 Solving ‘n-1’ equations all the nodes voltages can be obtained.

 The number of non-reference nodes is equal to the number of Nodal equations

that can be obtained.

 Types of Nodes in Nodal Analysis

 Non-Reference Node – It is a node that has a definite Node Voltage.

 Reference Node – It is a node which acts a reference point to all the other node.

 Basic Steps Used in Nodal Analysis

 Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1, V2… Vn-1 to the
remaining nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.

 Apply KCL to each of the non-reference nodes.

 Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

50
 Figure 2 Node Analysis Procedure

 Example 1: Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit
using Nodal analysis.

 Step 1 − There are three principle nodes in the above circuit. Those are labeled as 1,
2, and 3 in the following figure.

In the above figure, consider node 3 as a reference node (ground).

 Step 2 − The node voltages, V1 and V 2, are labeled in the following figure.

In the above figure, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to ground and V2 is
the voltage from node 2 with respect to ground.
 Step 3 − In this case, we will get two nodal equations, since there are two principal
nodes, 1 and 2, other than Ground. When we write the nodal equations at a node,
assume all the currents are leaving from the node for which the direction of current is
not mentioned and that node’s voltage as greater than other node voltages in the
circuit.

The nodal equation at node 1 is

51
 (1)
The nodal equation at node 2 is

 Step 4 − Finding node voltages, V1 , and V2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

Substitute Equation 1 in Equation 2.

Substitute V1 = 20 V in Equation1.

52
 So, we got the node voltages V1 and V2 as 20 V and 40 V respectively.
 Step 5 − The voltage across 20 Ω resistor is nothing but the node voltage V2 and it
is equal to 40 V. Now, we can find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by
using Ohm’s law.

Substitute the values of V2 and R in the above equation.

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the given circuit is 2 A.

Example 6.3 Use the nodal analysis to find the ix , iy , iz , in, im , V a , Vb , Vc

, V d.

Solution:

53
 First we apply the nodal analysis technique in order to find the node voltages,
then we use the node voltages to calculate: ix , iy , iz , in, im , Va , Vb , V c , Vd.

 Step #1
Identify all of the essential nodes and choose one of them as a reference
node.

 Step #2
Assign voltages variable to all nodes except the reference node.

 Step #3
Apply KCL at each node except the reference node. In this step for each
node, we assume the branch current is leaving from the node, and then we
describe the branch current in terms of node voltages.

Apply KCL at Node # 1

Node#1 has three branches, so we apply the KCL to obtain an equation
with three terms as follows:

Apply KCL at Node # 2

Node#2 has three branches, so we apply KCL to obtain an equation with
three terms as follows:

54
 Apply KCL at Node # 3
Node#3 has three branches, so we apply KCL to obtain an equation with
three terms as follows:

 Step #4
Solving the questions 1, 2 and 3 for the unknown node voltages( V1, V2, and V3):
V1=45.45 V, V2 =72.73 V, V3=27.27 V

After we find the node voltages, we can use the node voltages to calculate any
other unknowns:

Now, let us use the node voltages to find the unknown currents ix , iy , iz , in,
im:

55
 Now, let us use the node voltages to calculate the unknown voltages: V a , V b
, Vc , Vd.

Supernode analysis:

Fig. 1. Supernode analysis

However, sometimes, there may be a voltage source in between two nodes. These two nodes
form a supernode as shown in Fig. 1. Thus, a supernode may be defined as close surface
enclosing the voltage source and its two nodes. Problem 1 and problem 2 will describe a
problem using supernode.

56
Problem 1

Find out node voltages from the following circuit.

Ans.

The supernode in this problem contains node 1, 2 along with voltage source of 2 V and 10 Ω
resistor. A generalized circuit considering the supernode is shown in the following circuit in
(a).

(a)

Apply KCL considering the supernode:

1 = i1 + i2 + 7

Or, 2 = (v1 – 0) / 2 + (v2 – 0) / 4 + 7

Or, v2 = - 20 – 2v1

(1)

To get the relationship between v1, v2, and 2 V, KVL is applied from v1 to v2 through 2 V
with a ground. The corresponding the related circuit is as follows in (b).

57
 (b)

Apply KVL:

v1 + 2 – v2 = 0

Or, v2 = v1 + 2

Putting this above relationship in equation (1),

So, 3 v1 = - 20

Or, v1 = - 22

Or, v1 = - 7.33 V

Or, v2 = - 5.33 V

58
 LECTURE 7

SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

 Superposition Theorem:

 If a circuit has two or more independent sources, one way to determine the value
of a specific variable (voltage or current) is to use nodal or mesh analysis.

 Another way is to determine the contribution of each independent source to the

variable and then add them up. This approach is known as superposition.

 The idea of superposition rests on the linearity property

 Statement:

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

 The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than
one independent source by calculating the contribution of each independent
source separately.
 However, to apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

1. Consider one independent source at a time while all other independent

sources are turned off.
 This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short
circuit) and every current source by 0 A (or an open circuit).
 This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable circuit.
2. Dependent sources are left intact because they are controlled by circuit
variables.

 Steps to Apply the Superposition Principle:

59
 1. Turn off all independent sources except one source
2. Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active source
3. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
4. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due
to the independent sources

Cautions:
 Keep in mind that superposition is based on linearity.
 For this reason, it does not apply to the effect on power due to each source
o Because the power absorbed by a resistor depends on the square of the
voltage or current.
 If the power value is needed, the current through (or voltage across) the element
must be calculated first using superposition.

Example # 1: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the circuit of Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1 Example # 1

Solution: Since there are two sources, let = + , where and are the
contributions due to the 6-V voltage source and the 3-A current source, respectively.

To obtain , we set the current source to zero, as shown in Fig. 7.2.

60
 Fig. 7.2 Open circuit the current source

Applying KVL to the loop in Fig. 7.2 gives

12 −6=0 ⇒ = 0.5

Thus, =4 =2
We may also use voltage division to get by writing
4
= (6) = 2
4+8
To get , we set the voltage source to zero, as in Fig. 7.3.

Fig. 7.3 Short circuit the voltage source

Using current division, we get as:

8
= (3) = 2
4+8
Hence,
=4 =8
And we find = + = 2 + 8 = 10

61
Example #2: Find in the circuit of Fig. 7.4 using superposition

Fig. 7.4 Example# 2

Solution: The circuit in Fig. 7.4 involves a dependent source, which must be left
intact.
Let = + (i)

where and are due to the 4-A current source and 20-V voltage source
respectively.

To obtain , we turn off the 20-V source so that we have the circuit in Fig. 7.5

Fig. 7.5 Mesh analysis after short-circuiting the voltage source

62
We apply to mesh analysis to obtain .
For loop 1, =4

For loop 2, −3 + 6 − −5 =0 (ii)

For loop 3, −5 − + 10 + 5 =0 (iii)

At node 0 in Fig. 1.5, = − =4−

Substituting the value of and in the above equations (ii) and (iii),
we get: 3 −2 =8 (iv)
+5 = 20 (v)
Solving euqations (iv) and (v), we get
52
=
17

To obtain we turn off the 4-A current source so that the circuit becomes that shown
in Fig. 7.6.

Fig. 7.6 Circuit analysis after open circuiting the current source

For loop 4, KVL gives 6 − −5 =0 (vi)

and for loop 5,
− + 10 − 20 + 5 =0 (vii)

But = − , Substituting this in Eqs. (v) and (vi) gives

63
 6 −4 = 0 (viii)

+5 = −20 (ix)

Solving Eqs. (vii) and (viii), we get

60
= −
17
Substituting the value of and in equation (i), we get
8
= − = 0.4706
17

LECTURE 8

 Thevenin’s Theorem: A linear and bidirectional two-terminal network having more

number of elements can be replaced by an equivalent network consisting of a
voltage source (Vth = Voc) connected in series with an equivalent resistance (Rth).
Vth = Open circuit voltage (Voc) at terminals

Rth = Equivalent Thevenin resistance at the terminals

 Thevenin’s Theorem is useful for the calculation of load current (Load may be
linear or non-linear)

64
Methods to Thevenize a Circuit:

 Remove the load resistance RL.

 Find the open-circuit voltage Voc which appears across the two terminals
from where resistance has been removed. It is also called Thevenin voltage
Vth.

 Compute the resistance of the network as looked into from these two
terminals after “removing all the independent voltage sources” and
“current sources have been replaced by open-circuit” i.e. infinite resistance.
It is also called Thevenin resistance Rth .

 Replace the entire network by a single Thevenin source, whose voltage is
Vth or Voc, and whose internal resistance is Rth.

 Connect RL back to its terminals from where it was previously removed.

EXAMPLE 1 Find the magnitude of the current flowing through the load
resistance (RL) when it is equal to 12 Ω.

SOLUTION:
Step:1 Calculation for Vth

65
 i1  i2  2
Vx  16 Vx  0
  2
8 6
3(Vx  16)  4(Vx  0)
 2
24
 3Vx  48  4Vx  48
 7Vx  96
 Vx  13.714 V
 Vth  Vx  13.714 V
Step 2 Calculation for Rth

Rth= (8Ω || 6Ω) + 2Ω = (48/14) Ω +2 Ω = 3.428 Ω+2 Ω = 5.428 Ω

Step:3 Equivalent circuit and Calculation of current

I=V th/(Rth +RL) = 13.714 V/(4.428+12) Ω = 0.8347 A = 834.7 mA.

 General Instructions for Finding Thevenin Equivalent Circuit consisting of

Independent Sources:
A. When Circuit Contains Both Dependent and Independent Sources
i. The open-circuit voltage Voc is determined as usual with the
sources activated or ‘alive’.
ii. A short-circuit is applied across the terminals a and b and the value
of short-circuit current ith is found as usual.
iii. Thevenin resistance Rth = voc/ish.
B. When Circuit Contains Dependent Sources Only
i. In this case, voc = 0
ii. We connect 1 A source to the terminals a and b and calculate the
value of vab.
iii. Rth = Vab/ 1 Ω

66
EXAMPLE 2 Find Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in the Figure
below which contains a current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).

SOLUTION: For finding Voc available across open-circuit terminals a and b, we

will apply KVL to the closed-loop.
∴ 12 − 4 i × 2 i − 4 i = 0 ∴ i = 2 A
Hence, Voc = 4 × 2 = 8 V.
For finding Rth, we will put a short-circuit across terminals a and b and calculate
Ish, as shown in Fig. (b).
12 − 4 i1 + 2 i − 4(i1 − i2) = 0, Substituting i = (i1 − i2)
=>12 − 4 i1 + 2 (i1 − i2) − 4 (i1 − i2) = 0
=> 3 i1 − i2 = 6 …………………………………………………..(i)
In Loop-2
− 2 i2 − 4 (i2 − i1) = 0
=> i1= 3/2 i2 ∴ i2= 12/7
∴ Rth = Voc/Ish = 8/(12/7) = 14/3 Ω.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Figure (c).

EXAMPLE 3 Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit for the network shown in Fig.
(a) below which contains only a dependent source.

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 SOLUTION: In this case, you have to connect a 1 A current source to terminals
“a” and “b” as shown in Fig. (b). Then by finding the value of vab, we will be able
to calculate Rth = vab/1.
Applying KCL to point A

2i  vab vab
 1  0
6 12
4i - 2 vab - vab = 0 or 4 i − 3 vab = − 12
Since, i = vab/12
=> 4 (vab/12) − 3 vab = − 12 or vab = 4.5 V

∴ Rth = vab/1 = 4.5/1 = 4.5 Ω.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (c).

 Maximum power transfer theorem:

Maximum power transfer theorem: A resistive load will abstract maximum

power from a network when the load resistance is equal to the resistance of the
network as viewed from the output terminals, with all energy sources removed
leaving behind their internal resistances.

In the above figure, load resistance of RL is connected across the terminals A and B
of a network which consists of a generator of e.m.f. E and internal resistance Rg and
a series resistance R which represents the lumped resistance of the connecting
wires.

Let Ri = Rg + R = internal resistance of the network as viewed from A and B.

According to this theorem, RL will abstract maximum power from the network
when RL = Ri.
Proof:
E
Circuit Current I 
RL  Ri

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 E2
Power Consumed by the load is: PL  I 2 RL   RL
( RL  Ri )2
dPL
For PL to be maximum: 0
dRL
Hence,
dPL  1  2 
 E2  2
 RL  3 
dRL  ( RL  Ri )  ( RL  Ri ) 
 1 2RL 
=E 2  2
 3
 ( RL  Ri ) ( RL  Ri ) 
 1 2 RL 
E2  2
 3
0
 ( RL  Ri ) ( RL  Ri ) 
 2 RL  RL  Ri  RL  Ri
It is worth noting that under these conditions, the voltage across the load is to
hold the open-circuit voltage at the terminals A and B.

Max Power = = = =

Case:1
Let us consider an a.c. source of internal impedance (R1 + j X1) supplying power to
a load impedance (RL + jXL). It can be proved that maximum power transfer will
take place when the modules of the load impedance are equal to the modulus of the
source impedance i.e. | ZL | = | Z1 |
Case:2
Where there is a completely free choice about the load, the maximum power
transfer is obtained when the load impedance is the complex conjugate of the source
impedance.
For example, if the source impedance is (R1 + jX1), then maximum transfer power
occurs, when the load impedance is (R1 −jX1). It can be shown that under this
condition, the load power is = E2/4R1.

Example:4 In the network shown in Fig. (a), find the value of RL such that
maximum possible power will be transferred to RL. Find also the value of the
maximum power and the power supplied by the source under these conditions.

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 Solution:

 Remove RL and find the equivalent Thevenin’s source for the circuit to
the left of terminals A and B.
 As seen in Fig. (b) Vth equals the drop across the vertical resistor of 3Ω
because no current flows through 2 Ω and 1 Ω resistors. Since 15 V drops
across two series resistors of 3 Ω each, Vth = 15/2 = 7/5 V.
 Thevenin’s resistance can be found by replacing 15 V source with a
short-circuit. As seen from Fig.(b), Rth = 2 + (3 || 3) + 1 = 4.5 Ω.
 The maximum power transfer to the load will take place when RL = Rth =
4.5 Ω.
 Maximum power drawn by RL = Vth2/4 ×RL
= 7.52/4 × 4.5 = 3.125 W.
Since the same power in developed in Rth.
Therefore, power supplied by the source = 2 × 3.125 = 6.250 W.

LECTURE 9

 Super mesh: When a current source is common to two mesh, we use the concept of
super mesh. A super mesh is created from two mesh that has a current source in the
common branch.

Q:1 Determine the current in 5Ω resistor in the network shown below.

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Solution:

Mesh 1:

50 = 10 [I1-I2] + 5 [I1-I3]

15 I1 – 10 I2 - 5 I3 = 50 (i)

If a branch in the network has a current source common to two mesh, then it is slightly
difficult to apply mesh analysis. Such a network is solved using a supernode
technique.

Applying a super mesh technique to mesh 2 and mesh 3.

10 [I2 - I1] + 2 I2 + I3 + 5 [I3 – I1] = 0

-15 I1 + 12 I2 + 6 I3 = 0 (ii)

Also: I2 - I3 = 2

Thus eq (i) becomes:

15 I1 – 10 I2 - 5 (I2 - 2) = 50

15 I1 - 15 I2 = 40 (iii)

Aslo eq (ii) becomes:

-15 I1 + 12 I2 + 6 (I2 - 2) = 0

-15 I1 + 18 I2 =12 (iv)

Solving eq. (iii) and (iv): I1 = 19.99 A; I2= 17.33A; I3 = 15.33 A.

Current in 5Ω resisitor = I1- I3 = 4.66A.

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Q:2 Find the mesh currents i1 and i2.

Solution: Since the current source 6 A is common to mesh 1and mesh 2, it is

suggested to apply the super mesh concept in the outer loop.

Applying supermesh we get:

20 = 6 i1 + 10 i2 + 4 i2

20 = 6 i1 + 14 i2 (i)

Also: 6 + i1 = i2 (ii)

Using eq (i) and (ii): i1 = 3.2 A, i2 = 2.8A

Q3: For the following circuit find the mesh currents.

Solution: Appling supermesh to outerloop:

20 = 4 i1 + 6 i2 + 2 i2 = 4 i1 + 8 i2 (i)

i2 = i1 + Vx/4

Also: Vx = 2 i2

i2 = i1 + (2 i2/4)

i2 = 2 i1 (ii)

Using eq (i) and (ii): i1= 1A; i2= 2A;

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 Exercise Problem

1. Use Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law to calculate the magnitude and polarity of

the voltage across resistor R4 in this resistor network:

73
2. Use Kirchhoff’s Current Law to calculate the magnitudes and directions
of currents through all resistors in this circuit.

3. Use superposition and source transformation to find the value of Vx for

the circuit shown below.

4. Find the voltage across terminal pair xx' for the network shown using
Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit

74
5. Find the maximum power delivered to the load resistor RL.

6. Using nodal analysis, compute voltage across the 6Ω resistor

7. Calculate the power supplied by the voltage source using mesh analysis?

75
 1Ω

1Ω
1Ω
1A
DC 10V

2A
1Ω
1Ω

8. Find the input resistance of the circuit between point A and B?

9. The resistance of the wire used for the telephone is 35Ω per kilometer when the
weight of the wire is 5 kg per kilometer. If the specific resistance of the material is
1.9×10-8 Ω-m, what is the cross-sectional area of the wire? What will be the
resistance of a loop to a subscriber 8 km from the exchange if the wire of the same
material but weighing 20 kg per kilometer is used?

10. Find out node voltages from the following circuit.

76
 Solution

1. The voltage across R4 is 0.5 V.

2. Currents are indicated in RED color.

3. Considering only 24 V source,

77
Similarly, considering only the 2A current source,

78
Considering only the 48 V source

Using source transformation,

79
 Using superposition,

4. For Thevenin equivalent circuit

By Source transformation of 1A source,

80
Voltage across X X’ = VXX’ = 88 – 10 i

= 88 – 10 x 0.6857 = 81.143 V
Vth = Vthevenin = Vxx’ = 81.143 V.

For Rth: setting the independent sources to zero,

20Ω + 40Ω = 60Ω

Thevenin equivalent circuit is,

81
5. After disconnecting RL, let the voltage across 0.5 kΩ be Vx and the open-circuit
voltage across a-b be the Thevenin’s voltage Vth.

Current through 20 Ω is I0. Then, 9 + 20 I0 = 500 I0 => I0 = 9/480 giving Vth = 9

+ 20 I0 + 400 I0 = 16.875 V.

Next, when a-b is short-circuited, let the current flowing from the terminal a to
terminal b be Isc. Let the node voltage between the resistors 20 Ω and 200 Ω be
Vx.

Then, (Vx – 9)/20 + Vx/500 + Vx/200 = 0 => Vx = 7.895 V

Isc = 2I0 + Vx/200 = 2Vx/500 + Vx/200 = 0.071 A

Now, Rth = Equivalent resistance across a-b = Vth/Isc = 237.676 Ω

Maximum power delivered to the load RL= 0.25 Vth2 / Rth =0.3 W [Ans]

6. The circuit has 4 nodes namely 1, 2, 3, and 4 apart from the reference node
connected to the negative terminal of the independent voltage sources.

82
7. Apply loop in three mesh

83
Remove current source and form the super mesh

Apply KVL in super mesh

-10 – I2 – I2 – I1 – I1 = 10

I1 + I2 = 5 ………….. (1)

Form equation from 1A current source

I2 – I1 = 1 …………….. (2)

Form equation from 2A current source

84
 I3 – I2 = 2 …………….. (2)

Solve equation (1) and (2)

I2 = -2 …………….. (3)

Substitute the value of I2 value from (3) in (2)

I3 = 0 …………..(4)

P = I3(V) = (0) (10) = 0 W

8. For finding RAB , we will convert the delta CDE into its equivalent star

=8× = Ω =8× = Ω;

4 12
= 6× = Ω
18 9

The two parallel resistances between S and B can be reduced to a single resistance
of Ω.
As seen from figure RAB = 4+16/9+35/9 = 87/9Ω

9. Here R = 35Ω , l = 1km = 1000m , = 1.95 × 10 Ω

85
 . × ×
Now R = ρ or A = ρ A= = 55.7 × 10 m

If the second case, if the wire is of the material but weighs 20 kg/km, then its cross-
section must be greater than that in the first case

20
Cross − section in the second case = × 55.7 × 10 = 222.8 × 10 m
5

Length of the wire = 2×8 = 16km = 16000m

. × ×
R=ρ = = 140.8Ω
. ×

10. Ans.

As per the circuit given in the problem 1.21, two supernodes exist in the circuit. One includes
node voltage v1 and v2; other one includes node voltage v3 and v4. The corresponding
current components will be considered during calculation of node voltages. The
corresponding circuit diagram has been drawn in figure (a).

Apply KCL and Ohms law at supernode (1-2):

10 + i3 = i1 + i2

Or, 10 + (v3 – v2) / 6 = (v1 – v4) / 3 + (v1 – 0) / 2

Or, 5v1 + v2 – v3 – 2v4 = 60

86
 (1)

Apply KCL and Ohms law at supernode (1-2):

i1 = i3 + i4 + i5

Or, (v1 – v4) / 3 = (v3 – v2) / 6 + (v4 – 0) / 1 + (v3 – 0) / 4

Or, 4 v1 + 2 v2 – 5 v3 – 16 v4 = 0

(2)

Now, to establish the relationship amongst the node voltages, 20 V, 3 vx and vx ; a relative
circuit has been drawn in figure (b).

From loop 1:

v1 – 20 – v2 = 0

Or, v1 – v2 = 20

(3)

From loop 2:

v3 – 3 vx – v4 = 0

But, vx = v1 – v4

So that:

v3 – 3 v1 + 3 v4 – v4 = 0

So, 3 v1 – v3 – 2 v4 = 0

(4)

From loop 3:

87
- vx + 3 vx – 6 i3 + 20 = 0

But we can write that: vx = (v1 – v4) and 6i3 = v3 – v2

So, - 2 v1 – v2 + v3 + 2 v4 = 0

(5)

There are four node voltages, but, we can reduce the formation of equation by putting v2 = v1
– 20 in equation 1 and 2. Thus, these two equations will be reduced to equation 6 and 7
respectively:

6 v1 – v3 – 2 v4 = 80 (6)

6 v1 – 5 v3 – 16 v4 = 40

(7)

Thus, equations (4, 6 and 7) will be used for the calculation of node voltages v1, v3 and v4.
Use cramer rule as used in problem (1. 20).

We will get: v1 = 26. 67 V, v3 = 173. 33 V and v4 = - 46. 67 V

So, v2 = v1 – 20 = 26. 67 – 20 = 6. 67 V

88
 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. A lightning bolt strikes an airplane with 40kA for1.7ms. How many

coulombs of charge are deposited on the plane?

A) 23.53C B) 680C C) 68C D) 42.5C

2. The voltage v(t) device and the current i(t) through it are v(t) = 20 sin (4t) V

i(t) = 10(1 + e-2t) mA

Calculate the total charge in the device at t = 1s, q(0) = 0.

A) 14.323 mC B) 20 mC C) 30 mC D) 40 mC

3. A 1.8-kW electric heater takes 15 min to boil a quantity of water. If this is

done once a day and power costs 10 paise/kWh, what is the cost of its operation
for 30 days?

A) ₹1.35 B) ₹2.68 C) ₹1.69 D) ₹5.39

4. A 150W incandescent outdoor lamp is connected toa 120V source and is left
burning continuously for an average of 12 hours per day. Determine the current
through the lamp when it is lit and the cost of operating the light for one non-
leap year if electricity costs 9.5 paise per kWh.

A) ₹62.42 B) ₹86.46 C) ₹59.43 D) ₹48.79

5. In the network shown in the figure, all resistors are identical with R = 300Ω.
The resistance Rab (in Ω) of the network is?

89
A) 200 B) 100 C) 300 D) 400

6. For the Y-network shown in the figure, the value of R1(in Ω) in the
equivalent Δ-network is?

A) 10 B) 20 C) 30 D) 40

7. A fully charged mobile phone with a 12 volts battery is good for a 10 min
talk time. Assume that, during the talk time, the battery delivers a constant
current of 2 Amp and its voltage drops linearly from 12 volts to 10 volts as
shown in the figure. How much does the battery deliver during this talk time?

90
A) 220J B) 12 kJ C) 13.2 kJ D) 14.4 kJ

8. In the given circuit, find the values of V1 and V2 (in volts) respectively.

A) 5, 25 B) 10, 30 C) 15, 35 D) 0, 20

9. In the circuit shown in the figure, find the value of Vx (in volts)?

A) 10 B) 18 C) 8 D) 12

10. In the circuit shown, find the Norton equivalent resistance (in Ω) across
terminals a and b?

91
A) 2.67 B) 1.33 C) 1.44 D) 2.56

11. In the given circuit, find the maximum power (in Watts) that can be
transferred to the load RL?

A) 1.113 B) 2.541 C) 1.649 D) 2.783

12. In the given circuit, if the voltage source Vs = 100∠53.13° volts then the
Thevenin’s equivalent voltage (in volts) as seen by the load resistance RL?

A) 100∠90° B) 800∠0° C) 800∠90° D) 100∠60°

92
13. In the circuit shown, what value of RL maximizes the power delivered to
RL?

A) 2.4Ω B) 8/3Ω C) 4Ω D) 6Ω

14. For the circuit shown, find the Thevenin’s voltage and Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance at terminals a-b?

A) 5V and 2Ω B) 7.5V and 2.5Ω C) 4V and 2Ω D)

3V and 2.5Ω

15. In the circuit shown, find the power supplied by the voltage source?

93
A) 0W B) 5W C) 10W D) 100W

16. If VA-VB = 6V, then find VC-VD?

A) -5V B) 2V C) 3V D) 6V

17. Find the impedance looking into the nodes 1 and 2 in the given circuit?

A) 50Ω B) 100Ω C) 5kΩ D) 10.1kΩ

18. For the given circuit, Find Ix using the superposition theorem?

94
A) 0.933A B) 0.833A C) 0.167A D) 0.267A

19. For the given circuit, find v1 and v2using superposition theorem?

A) v1= 11.148V, v2 = -1.393V B) v1= 12.862V, v2 = -2.607V

C) v1= -11.148V, v2 = 1.393V D) v1= -12.862V, v2 = 2.607V

20. Find the current IS (in amps) in the voltage source, and the voltage VS (in
volts) across the current source, respectively?

A) 13A and -20V B) 8A and -10V C) -8A and 20V D) -13A and 20V

95